Lesson 1.

An Introduction to Digital Systems

FUNDAMENTALS OF COMPUTERS

Emilio J. Padrón
<[email protected]>
Computer Architecture Group (GAC)

Department of Computer Engineering

(Universidade da Coruña)

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Outline

1 Digital Systems

2 Sequential and Combinational Systems

3 Basic Logic Functions

4 Integrated Circuits

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Warm-up: Engagement trigger
“There are only 10 types of people in the world: Those who un-
derstand binary and those who don’t.”

Figure: xkcd (CC BY-NC 2.5) http://xkcd.com/953

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 Context

Semiconductors to Computers
Context

Increasing levels of complexity

I Transistors built from semiconductors
I Logic gates built from transistors
I Logic functions built from gates
I Flip-flops built from logic
I Counters and sequencers from flip-flops
I Microprocessors from sequencers
I Computers from microprocessors

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 Context

Semiconductors to Computers
Context

Increasing levels of abstraction

I Physics
I Transistors
I Gates
I Logic
I Microprogramming
I Assembler
I Programming Languages
I Applications

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 Digital Systems

Outline

1 Digital Systems
Binary Systems and logic functions

2 Sequential and Combinational Systems

3 Basic Logic Functions

4 Integrated Circuits

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 Digital Systems

Analog vs. Digital Systems

Analog System: Data processing or transmission system that handles

information coded as analog values (continuous levels)
Digital System: Data processing or transmission system that handles
information coded as digital values (discrete levels)
I It is expressed as a digital function:

F : X 7−→ Y

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 Digital Systems Binary Systems and logic functions

Binary Systems
Binary System: Input, output and internal signals can only take
two values: 1 or 0 (i.e. TRUE or False / ON or OFF)
I Binary variable = bit
I Binary digital function of n variables:

F : K n 7−→ K (K = {0, 1})

Possible input combinations: 2n

n
Possible different binary functions: 22

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 Digital Systems Binary Systems and logic functions

Binary Systems
Binary System: Input, output and internal signals can only take
two values: 1 or 0 (i.e. TRUE or False / ON or OFF)
I Binary variable = bit
I Binary digital function of n variables:

F : K n 7−→ K (K = {0, 1})

Possible input combinations: 2n

n
Possible different binary functions: 22

Terminology
Binary variable a.k.a. logic variable a.k.a. boolean variable
Binary digital function a.k.a. logic function a.k.a. boolean function

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 Digital Systems Binary Systems and logic functions

Binary Systems
Binary System: Input, output and internal signals can only take
two values: 1 or 0 (i.e. TRUE or False / ON or OFF)
I Binary variable = bit
I Binary digital function of n variables:

F : K n 7−→ K (K = {0, 1})

Possible input combinations: 2n

n
Possible different binary functions: 22

Terminology
Binary variable a.k.a. logic variable a.k.a. boolean variable
Binary digital function a.k.a. logic function a.k.a. boolean function

Codification: Every digital function can be represented by a binary digital

function
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 Digital Systems Binary Systems and logic functions

Representing logic functions

Example of codification: vowels in the alphabet
A2 A1 A0 Vowels
0 0 0 (not used)
0 0 1 a
0 1 0 e
0 1 1 (not used)
1 0 0 u
1 0 1 i
1 1 0 o
1 1 1 (not used)
A logic function can be represented in different ways. For example:
I Truth table
I Boolean expression
I Karnaugh map (a.k.a. K-map)
I Symbols to represent the gates

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 Digital Systems Binary Systems and logic functions

Representing logic functions

Example
A B A⊕B
0 0 0
0 1 1
A ⊕ B = AB + AB
1 0 1
1 1 0

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 Sequential and Combinational Systems

Outline

1 Digital Systems

2 Sequential and Combinational Systems

3 Basic Logic Functions

4 Integrated Circuits

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 Sequential and Combinational Systems

Sequential and Combinational Systems

Combinational System: Output is exclusively a function of input

F : X 7−→ Y

Sequential System: Output is a function of input and previous history

(circuit’s memory or state). Thus, a unique combination of
inputs may result in different outputs depending on system’s
state.
F1 : S × X 7−→ S
F2 : S × X 7−→ Y Mealy
F2 : S 7−→ Y Moore

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 Sequential and Combinational Systems

Sequential and Combinational Systems

Combinational system example:

X F Y

Definition of Mealy and Moore machines:

X X
F1 F1

S S
∆ ∆

F2 Y F2 Y

(a) (b)
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 Sequential and Combinational Systems

Sequential and Combinational Systems

Question: Sequential or combinational system?

elevator/lift retractable pen scale (weighing device) thermometer

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 Basic Logic Functions

Outline

1 Digital Systems

2 Sequential and Combinational Systems

3 Basic Logic Functions

4 Integrated Circuits

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 Basic Logic Functions

Basic Logic Functions

Binary functions with only one input

1
Unary functions: 22 = 4 possibilities:
I Zero function
I Identity function
I NOT function
I One function

f0 f1 f2 f3
X 0 X X 1
0 0 0 1 1
1 0 1 0 1
Table: All possible functions with one variable

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 Basic Logic Functions

Basic Logic Functions

Binary functions with two inputs

2
Functions with two inputs: 22 = 24 = 16 possibilities

0 NOR X1 X0 EXOR NAND AND NEXOR X0 X1 OR 1

X1 X0 f0 f1 f2 f3 f4 f5 f6 f7 f8 f9 f10 f11 f12 f13 f14 f15
0 0 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1 0 1
0 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1 0 0 1 1
1 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1
1 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1

Table: All possible functions with two variables

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 Basic Logic Functions

Basic Logic Functions

Basic logic gates

Figure: Basic logic gates: symbols and truth tables

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 Basic Logic Functions

Basic Logic Functions

Physical interpretation

Figure: Interpretation of basic logic gates as switches

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 Basic Logic Functions

Basic Logic Functions

Physical interpretation

Figure: Interpretation of basic logic gates as switches

Maths
enabled variable = logic value ’1’
disabled variable = logic value ’0’

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 Basic Logic Functions

Basic Logic Functions

Physical interpretation

Figure: Interpretation of basic logic gates as switches

Maths Physically: 2 voltage levels

enabled variable = logic value ’1’ high level: ’H’ (HIGH, Vcc )
disabled variable = logic value ’0’ low level: ’L’ (LOW, GND)

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 Basic Logic Functions

Basic Logic Functions

Physical interpretation

Figure: Interpretation of basic logic gates as switches

Maths Physically: 2 voltage levels

enabled variable = logic value ’1’ high level: ’H’ (HIGH, Vcc )
disabled variable = logic value ’0’ low level: ’L’ (LOW, GND)

Positive logic: active high (more frequent) Negative logic: active low
’H’ level - 1 logic ’H’ level - 0 logic
’L’ level - 0 logic ’L’ level - 1 logic
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 Integrated Circuits

Outline

1 Digital Systems

2 Sequential and Combinational Systems

3 Basic Logic Functions

4 Integrated Circuits
Delays and Hazards

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 Integrated Circuits

Integrated Circuits
From Computer Science Preliminaries (CSP, 1st term)
Plastic
Chip case
Integrated Circuit (CHIP, Circuit High Integrated Process)
• 1959: Developed by Jack Kilby at Texas Instruments
• He was awarded the Nobel prize in 2000 for it Pins

Advantages:
I Reduction in design and implementation time
I High level of integration
I Cost reduction
I Reliability
I Velocity of operation
I Reduction of errors
I Reduction in time for finding disfunctions
Drawbacks:
I Maximum power level
I Limitations in the variety of resistances and capacities
I Difficult implementation of coils (bobinas) and inductances
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 Integrated Circuits

Integrated Circuits

Different technologies:
I Bipolar transistors: TTL, ECL.
I MOSFET transistors: CMOS, NMOS.
I Combining bipolar-MOSFET: BiCMOS.

Integration level:
I SSI (Small–Scale Integration): < 10 gates
I MSI (Medium–Scale Integration): 10 – 100 gates
I LSI (Large–Scale Integration): 100 – 10.000 gates
I VLSI (Very Large–Scale Integration): 10.000 – 100.000 puertas
I ULSI (Ultra Large–Scale Integration): > 100.000 gates

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 Integrated Circuits

Integrated Circuits

7400 7402 7404

7408 7432 7486

Figure: Integrated Circuits Examples

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 Integrated Circuits Delays and Hazards

Integrated Circuits
Ideal vs. real operation: delays

A AND B

A OR B

Figure: Ideal operation of AND and OR gates

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 Integrated Circuits Delays and Hazards

Integrated Circuits
Ideal vs. real operation: delays

Conmutation delay of an inverter (NOT gate)

A A
A
ideal A

real A

Δ Δ Δ Δ

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 Integrated Circuits Delays and Hazards

Integrated Circuits
Hazards
On paper, this is what we could expect:

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 Integrated Circuits Delays and Hazards

Integrated Circuits
Hazards
On paper, this is what we could expect:

But in practice, this is what might happen:

A
REAL
∆ ∆ ∆ ∆
A AND A
IDEAL

A AND A
REAL ∆’ ∆’

GAC (Dpt. Electrónics and Systems)

Figure: Hazard example
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Lesson 1: Introduction to Digital Systems

REVIEW
Checklist for. . .
X Do you understand what digital and binary systems are?
X Do you know the difference between combinational and sequential
systems?
X Are you able to use logic functions to create very basic digital
systems
X Do you understand why delays and hazards may appear with real
chips?

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