ENG1511/501/3/2021

Tutorial Letter 501/3/2021

English Proficiency for University Studies

ENG1511

Semesters 1 and 2

Department of English Studies

This tutorial letter contains important information about your module.

BARCODE

Open Rubric
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CONTENTS

Page
1 Preface………........................................................................................................................3

2 UNIT 1: Critical thinking….......................................................................................7

3 UNIT 2: Language proficiency for University…..............................................22
4 UNIT 3: Reading strategies…..............................................................................94
5 UNIT 4: Writing academic text.......................................................................................105

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PREFACE

Welcome to ENG1511 (English Proficiency for University Studies). As the name suggests,
we hope that this module will help develop your proficiency in English so that you are
ready to study at university. What sort of student do we want to produce by the end of
this module? In other words, what outcomes do we expect? The most important
outcome for this module is that the student should demonstrate that she or he has become
a more effective communicator (especially within the distance-learning context at Unisa)
who actively seeks to improve her or his knowledge of grammar by using the language in
communication situations (for listening, speaking, reading and writing).

LEARNING OUTCOMES

You will be glad to note that we have included the official and administrative information of
the module for your perusal.

1. Module title
Title (module) English Proficiency for Unisa Studies, ENG1511.

2. Module
Level on the NQF 5

3. Credits attached to the module

4. Field and sub-field of the module

Field: English Language

Sub-field: Language and Communication

5. Purpose of the Module

This module aims to develop learners’ ability to read critically with comprehension and
insight; improve their linguistic competence and develop their ability to write critically
and logically. Students will engage with a range of texts including academic, literary
and media texts. By the end of the module students should be able to command
proficiency in listening, reading, critical thinking, writing and speaking skills.

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Students accredited with this module will be able to adapt more effectively to the
challenges of the academic environment when studying in different academic fields,
through the development of their listening, reading, speaking and writing skills.

6 Learning assumed to be in place and recognition of prior learning

The credit calculation is based on the assumption that students are already competent
in terms of the following.

Some of the students who will be admitted into the Higher Certificate would have
obtained as low as 30% in the Language of Learning and Teaching. These students will
then be directed to the relevant programmes and interventions of English language
proficiency and the Language of learning and teaching in the colleges. It is anticipated
that students will do this module.

7 Range statement for the whole module

This module will enable first year students to gain proficiency in English Language.
They should be able to gain control of the formal and functional properties of English
language such that they can express and comprehend meanings accurately, fluently,
and appropriately according to the context. In addition, students should be able to
analyse and interpret different texts. This general English language proficiency is a
prerequisite for students to later focus on other modules that d e a l w i t h E n g l i s h f o r
A c a d e m i c P u r p o s e s a n d /or Academic Literacy. Therefore, the module is aimed at
improving those students whose English language proficiency is very low to a state
where their proficiency is ready for University Studies. It covers a mixture of proficiency
topics and writing at the university; proficiency in Standard English, varieties, style and
register, speaking and listening activities, critical reading, and writing for different
purposes.

8 Outcomes and assessment criteria

Specific outcome 1:
Demonstrate that they have become more critical thinkers who can engage in the
conversation of ideas at the university and actively construct and reflect on knowledge.

Range: Thinking skills will be demonstrated in contexts typical of the demands of

university study.

Assessment criteria
1.1 Relate what they already know to what they learn at university.
1.2 Analyse arguments and theories.
1.3 Apply what they learn at university to life and work contexts.
1.4 Seek clarity and reasons.
1.5 Use credible sources and acknowledge them through appropriate referencing
techniques

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Specific outcome 2:

Communicate effectively using language that is appropriate for university study

Range: Language and communication skills will be demonstrated in contexts
typical of the demands of university study.
Assessment criteria
2.1 Use grammar with sufficient fluency and accuracy to facilitate
communication.
2.2 Deal with new vocabulary in written text
2.3 Effective use of the dictionary
2.4 Building a list of subject-related jargon
Specific outcome 3:
Apply r e a d i n g s t r a t e g i e s i n o r d e r t o r e a d m o r e e f f i c i e n t l y a n d
i n c r e a s e comprehension
Range: A range of texts, including newspaper and magazine articles,
advertisements and other material commonly found in a literate community

Assessment criteria
3.1 Read a variety of texts critically: identify main ideas, make predictions and
inferences, and draw conclusions.
3.2 Analyse, organise and critically evaluate information.
3.3 Respond appropriately to written interaction because they read carefully.
Specific outcome 4:
Implement a well-structured approach to academic writing tasks, as well as
basic writing tasks.

Range: The process of writing in this module involves planning, research,

drafting, revising, editing and proofreading.

Assessment criteria
4.1 Implement strategies to structure their own writing processes: topic analysis,
target identification, brainstorming, organization of ideas in paragraphs,
editing and referencing.
4.2 Write fluently, accurately and appropriately.

9 Embedded knowledge
The English proficiency competences embedded within this module will be
assessed indirectly through the specific outcomes in terms of:
• Degrees or levels of English proficiency
• English and its communicative function;
• improved writing skills and facility in text production;
• English language learning and academic study skill

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ACTIVITIES AND FEEDBACK

After each activity, we give immediate feedback. If you are serious about your studies,
you will first do the activity and then check the feedback. If you do not do the activity
first, you are cheating yourself of a learning opportunity.

For the benefit of students who need more explicit grammar teaching, we have
systematically included relevant grammatical information in the various units. We have
also included vocabulary building since research shows that vocabulary size is an
important factor in reading comprehension and in academic success at university. To this
end, do also make use of the book Introduction to scholarship: Building academic skills
for tertiary study (2nd edition) by Cheryl Siewierski, published by Oxford University Press,
Southern Africa.

Use your journal (see below) or a separate vocabulary book to record new words
consistently.

JOURNAL

We ask you to buy a book to use as a journal for this module where you will write as you
study. You will see that some activities in the module ask you to write in your journal.
Even when you are not directed to write in the journal, you should use it to record ideas.
We want to encourage you to use writing as a learning tool. You are less likely to lose
concentration if you write as well as read. You can use your journal to explore your
thoughts as you work through problems. You might decide to buy a file and an
examination pad instead of a book for your journal. That is up to you, as long as you
have a record of the work that you do. Some of the work that we ask you to do in the
journal will be included in an assignment as well, so you are preparing for your
assignment as you work.

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UNIT 1

CRITICAL THINKING

OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Reflect on your individuality

• Apply critical thinking strategies to your daily life;
• Efficiently, search for clarity and reasons in arguments.

INTRODUCTION

This unit is intended to equip you with the necessary skills to think critically. You are first
introduced to the concept of critical thinking and given an opportunity to understand its
significance in the 21st century. You are then introduced to the various skills and
competences necessary to critical thinking. These include the strategies of analysing and
evaluating information, reflecting on the meaning of knowledge and offering well-
reasoned arguments. Let’s begin by thinking about thinking
1. What is thinking?

In their quest to find answers to questions about thinking, scholars have produced a
variety of definitions. The general point conveyed in these ideas is that thinking is a way in
which we make sense of our lives.

In philosophising about thinking, early scholars came to an important realisation:

“The quality of our lives and of our learning depends on the quality of our thinking”
(Fisher, 2003: 6) and that “…if we can cultivate excellence in thinking then we should
surely do so.” (ibid, 6) Having acknowledged the need to develop thinking skills in
learners, researchers have directed their energies towards the source of thinking- the
human brain.

2. What does it mean to think critically?

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Let’s have a look at how different authors have, over time, perceived “critical thinking”:

• "Active, persistent and careful consideration of a belief, or supposed form of

knowledge in light of the grounds that support it, and the further conclusions
to which it tends." (John Dewey, 1909)
• "Reasonable reflective thinking that is focused on deciding what to believe or do."
(Robert H. Ennis, 1987.)
• "It comes in two forms. If thinking is disciplined to serve the interest of a particular
individual or group, to the exclusion of other relevant persons and groups, . . . it
is sophistic or weak-sense critical thinking. If the thinking is disciplined to take
into account the interests of diverse persons or groups, it is fair-minded or
strong- sense critical thinking." (Richard W. Paul, 1988.)
• Critical thinking is a process that begins with an argument and progresses toward
evaluation. The process is activated by three interrelated activities: a. Asking key
questions designed to identify and assess what is being said, b. Answering those
questions by focusing on their impact on stated inferences, and c. Displaying the
desire to deploy critical questions. (Browne and Keeley, 2000).
Adapted from Irwin (2002)

Briefly, critical thinking involves the active engagement of an individual in the process of:

• analysing and evaluating information,

• reflecting on the meaning of knowledge;
• offering well-reasoned arguments.

3. Why is critical thinking crucial in the 21st century?

Critical thinking is crucial in the 21st century because of the rapid growth of information,
which has had important implications for society.

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ACTIVITY 1

Why do you think critical thinking is so important?

FEEDBACK: ACTIVITY 1

In the face of the information constantly bombarding us, it is crucial for us to think
critically so that we can:

a) be clear about what is going on

b) have reasonable basis for a judgement and make reasonable inferences
c) be sensible in our interaction with other people
d) be operative in our dispositions
e) efficiently manage and deal with the problems we face everyday

Critical thinking provides the tools for the process of self-evaluation. Another point that
is frequently expressed by academics is that thinking clearly and systematically can
improve the way we express our ideas. Furthermore, in learning how to analyse the
logical structure of texts, critical thinking also improves comprehension abilities (Lau,
2011).

4. Skills which underlie critical thinking

Almost everyone who has worked in the critical thinking tradition has produced a list of
thinking skills which they see as basic to critical thinking.

Glaser (1941: 6) in Fisher (2003:7), listed the abilities to recognise problems; to find
workable means for meeting those problems; to gather and marshal pertinent
information; to recognise unstated assumptions and values; to comprehend language
with accuracy, clarity and discrimination; to interpret data; to appraise evidence and
evaluate statements; to recognise the existence of logical relationships between
propositions; to draw warranted conclusions and generalisations; to put to test the
generalisations and conclusions at which one arrives; to reconstruct one’s patterns of
beliefs on the basis of wider experience and to render accurate judgements about
specific things and qualities in everyday life.

Of course there are other thinking skills you might wish to develop but the above are a
good place to start.

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4.1 REFLECTING ON YOURSELF

Writers in the critical thinking tradition place emphasis on the process of reflecting.
Boorstrom (1996: 11) captures the essence of this argument in the following quotation:

“When you reflect, you are thinking actively, persistently, and carefully. Instead of taking
things for granted, you ask questions about them- even if you think you know them well”

Being open is seen as critical to the process of reflection. Keeping an open mind will not
only help you to find alternatives become creative but will also help you to listen to
others and hear their points of view.

ACTIVITY 2

Complete the following task based on reflection. Record your first thoughts on each of
the following subjects in the space provided. Include statements that support your
views. Try to approach each topic in a fresh way. Rather than projecting someone else’s
judgement on each idea, you make your own.

Keeping promises

............................................................................................................................................
Life after death
............................................................................................................................................
Schoolwork vs. socialising
............................................................................................................................................
Personal appearance
............................................................................................................................................
Success in life
............................................................................................................................................
Celebrities
............................................................................................................................................

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4.2 ATTITUDES AND VALUES

We have to evaluate our attitudes and values as another crucial step to becoming a
critical thinker (Ruggerio, 1996). Attitudes and values affect the quality of our thinking.
Many of the attitudes, values, and ideas we regard as an essential part or ourselves were
probably formed before we were mature enough to understand them. Perhaps many
seemed so familiar that we never questioned them. These are not pleasant conclusions
about ourselves, but they are inescapable. Once we've admitted that some of our
attitudes, values, and ideas are borrowed uncritically from others, we can start to see the
sense in them or even challenge them. Undoubtedly, your environment will continue to
shape you as long as you live, so this process of evaluation will never end.

The purpose of the following activity is to help you with that evaluation. The Exercise
works best if you respond directly and honestly. While doing the activity, you may be
tempted to pretend that you're not influenced by others. If you give in to this temptation,
you fool yourself and miss the opportunity to become the person you'd like to be. Don’t
screen out any ideas or change them to fit what you think others might want you to say.

ACTIVITY 3

Complete the task below which requires you to reflect on your attitudes and values

Tick the relevant box

YES SOMETIMES NO
1. Are you open-minded about others’ views?
2. Are you honest to yourself when you are wrong?

3. Do you have the courage and passion to initiative

and confront your problems?
4. Are you aware of your own biases and
preconceptions?
5. Do you welcome criticism from other people?
6. Do you have independent opinions and are
prepared to disagree?
7. Are you willing to change?

Adapted from Ruggerio (1996)

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ACTIVITY 4

An important aspect of critical thinking is the ability to think about and evaluate yourself.
Some people are extremely open about their strengths and weaknesses while others
are either in denial or never give themselves time to reflect on themselves. Can you
identify a few of your own strengths and weaknesses? You can even choose to think
about yourself in the different areas of your life (as a student, a friend, a sister, a
brother, a child, a partner, an employee, a community member).

STRENGTHS

WEAKNESSES

4.3 ASKING QUESTIONS

It is very easy to make shallow, flawed arguments because people perceive they
know something when they actually don’t. Critical thinkers are encouraged to
ask questions and challenge the things they take for granted. Can you tell when
you do not know something? The following activity will help you to find out.

ACTIVITY 5

Without looking anything up, write down your answers to the following questions. Then,
put a check mark next to the answers that you are sure of. Compare the checked
answers with the answer key on the next page. Score yourself only on the answers you
are certain are correct. Is there anything that you thought you knew, but now you have
found you did not know after all?

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1. If three cats can catch three rats in three minutes, how many cats will be needed to
catch one?
2. In the nursery rhyme, where did Little Jack Horner sit?
3. In what year did the first person walk on the moon?
4. Which is larger—a violin or a viola?
5. Who wrote the play Hamlet?
6. With what profession is Florence Nightingale associated?
7. True or false? If you flip an ordinary penny ten times, and it comes up heads each
time, it is almost certain to come up tails on the eleventh flip.
8. What is the boiling temperature of water at sea level?
9. Which of these does not dissolve in water: salt, sand, sugar?
10. True or false? In autumn, leaves turn brown because the tree or plant stops
making chlorophyll.
11. If you wanted to visit the giant stone Sphinx built about 2550 B.C., where would you
go?
12. Which was invented earlier—the bicycle or the gasoline-powered automobile?
Adapted from Boorstrom (1996: 255)

FEEDBACK

1. If three cats can catch three rats in three minutes, how many cats will be needed to
catch one?
three
2. In the nursery rhyme, where did Little Jack Horner sit?
In the corner
3. In what year did the first person walk on the moon?
1969
4. Which is larger—a violin or a viola?
viola
5. Who wrote the play Hamlet?
Shakespeare
6. With what profession is Florence Nightingale associated?
nursing
7. True or false? If you flip an ordinary penny ten times, and it comes up heads each
time,it is almost certain to come up tails on the eleventh flip.
False the odds are 50:50
8. What is the boiling temperature of water at sea level?
100 degrees Celsius

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9. Which of these does not dissolve in water: salt, sand, sugar?
sand
10. True or false? In autumn, leaves turn brown because the tree or plant stops
making chlorophyll.
true
11. If you wanted to visit the giant stone Sphinx built about 2550 B.C., where would you
go?
Egypt
12. Which was invented earlier—the bicycle or the gasoline-powered automobile?
bicycle

ACTIVITY 6: SELF-ASSESSMENT TASK

The table below provides you with a summary of some of the key critical thinking skills
portrayed by various writers within this tradition. Provide an example of what you think is a
suitable reflection of each of the skills.

CHARACTERISTIC OF CRITICAL THINKING EXAMPLE

Critical thinkers are honest with themselves

Critical thinkers overcome confusion
Critical thinkers resist manipulation
Critical thinkers ask questions
Critical thinkers take the time to produce
many ideas
Critical thinkers base their judgements on
evidence
Critical thinkers acknowledge complexity
Critical thinkers are intellectually independent

Critical thinkers see concepts and ideas as

integrated

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FEEDBACK: SELF-ASSESSMENT TASK

CHARACTERISTIC OF
CRITICAL THINKING EXAMPLE

Critical thinkers are If I drink a six-pack of beer every day, it is a signal of a

honest with themselves drinking problem.

Critical thinkers overcome I take the initiative to l o o k up something i n a

confusion reference book or to consult an authority when I
don’t understand something.
Critical thinkers resist I believe in a promise made by an advertiser that a
manipulation particular brand of lipstick or aftershave will make
me irresistible.
Critical thinkers ask I ask questions like:
questions What will the consequences be if I do this?
Who will benefit from my actions?
Who will be disadvantaged by my decision?
Critical thinkers I take the time to uncover as many possibilities if I am
acknowledge given a task, and acknowledging that there are a
multiple interpretations of situations.
Critical thinkers base their I remain fair-minded and weigh the evidence in a
judgements on evidence situation properly before making a judgement.
Critical thinkers are I assess the pros and cons of going on a diet and
intellectually independent arrive at an informed decision taking care not to be
manipulated by emotive language advertisements.

Critical thinkers see I acknowledge that the problem of HIV Aids touches
concepts and ideas as many fields and may produce a variety of challenges
integrated which include medical, psychological, legal moral.

5. SEEKING CLARITY AND REASONS

5.1 WHY IS IT CRUCIAL TO SEEK CLARITY?

The process of critical thinking centralises the evaluation of arguments. In order to

evaluate an argument skilfully we must first understand it; this means not only being
reasonably clear what reasons, conclusions and assumptions are being presented, but
also being reasonably clear what all of these mean (Fisher, 2003)

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Try this exercise. Read your local newspaper and find a recent debate where there are
differing views (health insurance, responsibility of the state, capital punishment, to name a
few). Determine the argument at hand and then answer the following questions:

a) Is the main point clear?

b) Is the argument clear?
c) What claim is being made in the article?

It would be inappropriate to demand clarification in all situations: often the meaning is

made clear through the context. However, there are many situations in which clarification
is needed. Terms may be used, or claims may be made, whose meaning is unclear,
vague, imprecise or ambiguous.

In this unit, we explain how to deal with such situations-how to clarify expressions and
claims about which we are not absolutely clear. Apart from explaining certain procedures
which will help you clarify, we will provide you with a useful route map for clarifying
meanings.

5.2 A ROUTE MAP FOR CLARIFICATION

a) Determine what the problem is. Is it vagueness, ambiguity, a need for examples or
what?

The first step in the case of not knowing what a phrase means is to be clear about what
the nature of the problem is. You might be able to get a sense of the meaning from the
context of the article. However, there might still be some vagueness because this is a
relatively new word.

b) Who is the audience? (What background knowledge and beliefs can they be
assumed to have?)

The point made here is that the level of clarification will depend on the audience the
article was intended for. In the case of an article on “organic foods” for example, if the
audience consists of people who make contracts with farmers for the foods which
supermarkets sell and who want to be sure they can safely label their foods as “organic”,
they may need far more detail than, “crops that are grown without chemical pesticides or
artificial fertilisers”.

c) Given the audience, what will provide sufficient clarification for present purposes?

d) Possible sources of clarification:

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A dictionary definition (normal usage of language)

ACTIVITY 7

Use a dictionary to answer the following. Suppose you read a court report in a reputable
newspaper which says that the “circumstantial evidence” strongly suggests that Jones
stole the valuable paintings in his house. Explain what “circumstantial evidence” is and
say what circumstantial evidence might suggest Jones was guilty of in this case.
Adapted from Fisher (2003)

ACTIVITY 8

Suppose a c l a s s mate who k n o w s little about politics a s k s y o u h o w t o d e f i n e

“democracy”; using any suitable source provide a suitable explanation.

Deciding on a meaning; stipulating a meaning.

In certain forms of writing, writers may give new meanings to words or phrases, to
stipulate, declare or decide a meaning which serves their purpose.

ACTIVITY 9

Suppose you wanted to investigate what proportion of the South African population was
living in poverty; how would you define poverty for your purposes?

Ways of clarifying terms and ideas:

a) Giving a ‘synonymous’ expression- or paraphrase

The word “synonymous” means “has the same meaning”. One way to explain the meaning
of an expression is to give some other expression which “has the same meaning” but
which the audience might be able to understand-usually because the audience is familiar
with the words which provide the explanation.

b) Giving necessary and sufficient conditions

Sometimes it is right to give very exact explanations of the meanings of words because
they are used very precisely, as is often the case in mathematics and science.

c) Giving clear examples

It is helpful to give good examples to clarify an idea.

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d) Drawing contrasts
A useful thing to do when considering the meaning of a claim is to ask what
contrasts are being drawn- what is being ruled out. For example, when we say that Mary
is tall, we are contrasting her with short or average members of her group.

ACTIVITY 10

Providing clarification where n e c e s s a r y , w r i t e a brief response t o the

f o l l o w i n g argument, either supporting it or criticising it:

Men generally have difficulty in being sensitive to others. If it is desirable for our society to
consist of fully developed human beings, then people who are sensitive should make
a special effort to help those who are not. (Ennis, 1996, in Fisher, 2003)

e) Explaining the history of an expression

Sometimes, in order to clarify a word, it may be necessary to have an extensive look at
the history of an idea and we may need to consult classic works on the subject for that
information.

5.3 REASONING

An important skill in critical thinking is that of evaluating reasoning. This section provides
you with the tools to evaluate the reasoning in arguments.

Reasoning in arguments is not always explicit (clear or obvious). It is not uncommon for
writers to leave things unsaid when presenting an argument. These unsaid ideas are
called assumptions. The context of an argument can supply a good deal of background
information. This can help us understand it, including what is assumed or meant. Once
the reasons have been identified, the next step to engage in is the evaluation of
reasoning. The following model, which is adapted from Fisher (2003), can be used to
weigh reasoning skilfully.

A THINKING MAP FOR UNDERSTANDING AND EVALUATING REASONING

ANALYSIS
1. What are the main conclusions?
2. What are the reasons and their structure (including evidence and sources)?
3. What is assumed?
4. Clarify the meaning.

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EVALUATION
1. Are the reasons acceptable?
2. Does the reasoning support the conclusion?
3. Are there other relevant considerations?
4. What is your overall evaluation?
Adapted from Fisher (2003)

ACTIVITY 11

In the following passage, use the thinking map provided above to help you analyse the
arguments. Make sure to note important assumptions. Then write a brief evaluative
response on the article from:
http://www.wspainternational.org/wspaswork/bears/bearbaiting/default.aspx

In rural Pakistan, up to 2,000 spectators will assemble to watch a tethered and

clawless bear set upon by trained baiting dogs.

WSPA is working hard to permanently stop what we believe is one of the world’s
most savage blood sports.

The brutal but lucrative contests are organised by powerful local landlords. They own
and train the dogs, which are also victims of this 'sport', encouraging ferocity in
attack situations.

The bears are owned by Kalanders – traditional bear owners –who are paid by the
landlords to bring the bears to fight.

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Bear baiting is banned by the Pakistan Wildlife Act and contravenes Islamic
teachings, which forbid the baiting of animals.

Taking action

WSPA and member society the Pakistan Biodiversity Research Centre (PBRC) have
helped to dramatically reduce the number of bear- baiting events in recent years, by:

Campaigning to bring awareness of international opposition to the ‘sport’ to the

Pakistani authorities.

Working with the Pakistani government and wildlife officials to halt the fights and look
at alternative livelihoods for bear owners.

Monitoring the numbers of captive bears and pushing for prosecution. Building the
Kund Park sanctuary, providing a home for confiscated bears. Educating potential
spectators through a mobile phone awareness unit and religious teachings. In 2007,
WSPA persuaded over 1,000 mosques in target areas to preach against bear baiting.

Calling for greater action to prevent illegal bear cub poaching, a Pakistan-wide
educational programme has raised awareness of the issue.

http://www.wspa-international.org/wspaswork/bears/bearbaiting/default.aspx

CONCLUSION

This unit introduced you to the necessary skills to think critically. You were introduced to
the various skills and competences necessary for critical thinking. These include the
strategies of analysing and evaluating information, reflecting on the meaning of
knowledge and offering well-reasoned arguments.

REFERENCES
Boostrom, R. (1994). Developing creative and critical thinking. Lincolnwood, Illinois:
National Textbook Company.
Fisher, A. (2003). Critical Thinking: An Introduction. University Press, Cambridge
Fisher, R. (2005). Teaching Thinking. (2nd edition) Continuum Publishing, London.
Irwin, W. (2002). Critical thinking Handout, King’s College.
Lau, J. Y. F. (2011). An introduction to critical thinking and creativity: Think more, think
better. Hoboken, N.J.: Wiley.
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Ruggiero, V. R. (1996). Becoming a critical thinker. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

Seiferth, M. S. (1997) Palo Alto College : Critical Thinking Resource Home Page.
Accessed from http://lonestar.texas.net/~mseifert/crit.html on 20 January 2012.
Claireborne, R. ( 1990). The Life and Times of the English Language: the history of our
marvellous native tongue. London: Bloomsbury.
Fromkin, V., Rodman, R. (1983). An Introduction to Language. New York: Holt Rinehart
and Winston.
Sadler, R. K., Hayllar, T.A.S. (1993). World of English. Book 1. Melbourne: Macmillan
Sadler. R.K., Hayllar, T.A.S., Powell, C.J. (1997). Secondary English Book Three
Year/Grade 10. Swaziland: Macmillan Boleswa publishers.
Practice book. Basic skills in English. Book 6. (1981). Illinois: McDougal, Littell & Company.
Dembrow, M. (2010). WR121 Summer 2010.
Milan, D. (1995). Developing reading skills (4th Edition) McGraw-Hill Companies.
Starkey, C. M. & Penn, N.W. (1996). Building Real Life English Skills (2rd Edition)
National Textbook Company, Illinois.

Puzzle
http://www.puzzlechoice.com/cw/Quick01x.html

Bear baiting
http://www.wspainternational.org/wspaswork/bears/bearbaiting/default.aspx

Elephant and rhino poaching ‘driven by China’s economic boom’

http://www.guardian.co.uk/world/2011/aug/14/china-boom-fuels-africa-poaching/print

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UNIT 2

LANGUAGE PROFICIENCY FOR UNIVERSITY

OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

Communicate effectively using language that is appropriate for university study by

being able to:
• use grammar with sufficiency fluency and accuracy to facilitate communication,
• deal with new vocabulary in written text;
• use a dictionary effectively;
• build a list of subject related jargon.

Vocabulary Building

jargon - words or expressions developed for use within a particular group

verbose –using more words than are needed
fragments – small parts broken off a larger part
fluency – to speak, read or write a language easily and well

INTRODUCTION

In the previous unit, you were introduced to the various critical thinking skills that are
involved in academic study. Learning at university does not involve the mere
acquisition of knowledge, rather it involves being able to become a critical thinker who,
amongst other things, is able to analyse arguments and theories, solve problems and
interact with others in a sensible way through discussions, debates and the written
medium. It is clear, then, that language and thought are closely related. It is, therefore,
also necessary to develop language skills in order to access the ideas and thoughts
presented to you. In addition, the appropriate language skills are also necessary to
present your ideas and arguments in a clear and understandable way.

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Consider the following conversation between a husband and wife:

Jonas: Where do you want me to put this?

Nomsa: Up there.
Jonas: Front or back?
Nomsa: Doesn’t matter, just shove it….. Yup, that’s it….. Sharp. Sorted.

The speakers in this conversation have the benefit of context to convey meaning to
each other. Nomsa knows exactly what Jonas is talking about because she is able to see
it, he may have it in his hand or he could perhaps be pointing to it. In addition, in
everyday speech we do not speak in full and complete sentences. We use sentence
fragments and single words, gesture and context to make our meaning clear.

If we speak more than one language, we may even switch languages all the time and
substitute words we are not sure of in one language for a word in another. However, in
academic and formal writing we have to make our meaning completely clear without the
use of these alternative strategies. We have to develop arguments that enable the
reader to clearly understand what we mean.

Consider the following responses from students on a regarding an assignment topic:

MyUnisa discussion forum

1. HY GYZ PROPOSAL IS DIFICLT 2ME I DO KNW WHT MS IDO.

2. hey guys i nid help on assignment 2 the last question.. anyone who can help me.
um arround here at pta ma contacts r …….. plz i jst nid help seriously
3. hv askd questions on how do we unpack this proposal,so nw i wanna know
where do we get the answers? plz contact me

4. Dear All

First and foremost thanks to the lecturers and markers for the valuable feedback
they are giving us to help us with the exam preparation. It’s kind of you.

Secondly, I somewhat agree with most of the students, the guidelines in the study
guide as far as proposals are concerned, were sketchy and not really helpful. If
anything, they were more confusing. A step-by-step walkthrough of a sample

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proposal would have sufficed. Good examples had been given for other forms of writing
but the proposal bit wasn’t very well covered. Perhaps for the sake of future ENN
students the study guide can do with a bit of review.

Regards

It is clear that responses 1-3 use a different style or register than response 4. We
recognise that the particular style of responses 1-3 (though grammatically incorrect) is
particularly suited to communication via electronic media. We also note that the first 3
responses are directed towards fellow students while the last response is directed to the
markers and lecturers. It is evident from these examples that language is used in different
ways depending on the audience, the context, the medium used and the purpose of the
communication. This is referred to as register.

Register

Register refers to the appropriateness of diction (word choice), structure (sentence

structure) and tone in terms of:

• the relationship between the writer (or speaker), and the person who receives the
message
• the situation in which the message is conveyed
• the medium used
• the purpose behind the message

We therefore have to match the style and tone that we use in communication to the
relationship, the situation, the medium used and the purpose of our communication.

Style

The way in which a text is written is called the style of the text. It usually refers to the kinds
of words that we choose and the way we structure our sentences. Our words and
sentences must be suited to the purpose or intention of the writer. Style may be formal or
informal, detailed or concise, literal or figurative, simple or verbose.

Tone

Tone is the manner in which the writer expresses him or herself and is the way in which a
writer expresses his or her feeling towards what is being written. It normally suggests the
underlying feeling or attitude of the writer. Tone can be casual or serious, friendly,
sarcastic, humorous or condescending.
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The aim of this unit, therefore, is to introduce you to various strategies that you can use to
improve your language skills. It also aims to enable you to use and understand the register
that is suited to communication in an academic context. In Section A we will start with
the very basic units of language, namely words and the components that make up
words and their meaning. We will look at ways in which you can improve and extend your
vocabulary. We will also explore how you can develop strategies to understand new words
that you may come across in a particular passage. Then we will consider the effective use
of a dictionary.

In section B, we will consider language structure and use. We will look at how words
form sentences and at how sentences are structured. Common errors that are made in
students’ writing will also be considered.

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SECTION A

BASIC UNITS OF LANGUAGE

1. WORD FORMATION

Vocabulary Building

Antonyms –words that are opposite in meaning to another lingua franca – a

shared language of communication by people whose main languages are different.

English is said to be the native tongue of approximately 300 000 000 people. It is the
main language of two of the six inhabited continents (North America and Australia) and has
a large number of speakers in Europe and Africa.

English has become the lingua franca for the large majority of academic writing around the
world. There has never been a ‘world language’, nor is there ever likely to be, but English
is nearest thing to it that has ever existed.

With the spread of English around the world, many English words have infiltrated the
vocabularies of other languages. At the same time however, English has also borrowed
words from other languages. If borrowing words from other languages could destroy a
language, English would be dead (Old Norse), deceased (from French), defunct (from
Latin) and kaput (from German). Over half the English vocabulary is foreign. When it
comes to borrowing, English excels (from Latin), surpasses (from French) and eclipses
(from Greek).

ACTIVITY 1

Many English words have their origin in another language. Read the description of
each word origin. Circle the letter of the English word it has become.

1. The name of this popular food comes from the Italian spago – meaning “cord” or
string.

a. spaghetti b. spare ribs c. spumoni

2. This English word is taken from bangla, a Hindi word used for a certain style of house.

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a. tent b. bungalow c. apartment

3. The origin of this flower’s name is Turkish. The English word comes from
tulbend, which means “turban”.

a. lily b. rose c. tulip

4. The word is the name of a protective covering and comes from the Italian words
parare, “to shield,” and sole, “sun.”

a. umbrella b. parasol c. awning

5. El lagarto is Spanish for “the lizard”. It entered our language as the word for a
particular type of reptile.

a. crocodile b. snake c. alligator

The total number of English words is approximately around 400 000 which is the
number of current entries in the largest English dictionaries. While so many words can be
daunting to the second language speaker in terms of which to use, it is also an asset
enabling speakers to communicate the depth of their thoughts and ideas in meaningful,
clear, rich and varied ways. The origin of English words makes for fascinating study and
an inter est in t h e origin of words can provide a r ic h resource to y o u in
understanding the meaning of words. The study of the origin of words is called etymology.

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ACTIVITY 2

In your dictionary look up the meaning of the following and answer the questions that
follow:

1. bio -

2. -graphy -

3. -logy

4. geo-

5. In the last part of the dictionary definitions for each of these, the language of origin
is given. What is the language of origin for each of the above?

6. Write down five words from your dictionary that start with bio-
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

7. Can you think of at least 3 words that end in –logy? (Your dictionary definition may
provide some for you.)
a.
b.
c.

8. Write down two words that begin with geo-

a. _______________________
b. _______________________

Can you see how understanding the origin of words and word parts (prefixes and suffixes)
can assist with understanding the meaning of other words?

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The meaning of bio- is life or living things. Therefore, you would realise that any word
starting with bio- must have something to do with living beings or life.

If you understand that the word part –logy relates to the study of a subject area, you will
quickly realise that the word biology means the study of living things. If you came
across the word biotic in a scientific text you would realise that the meaning of this
word must relate to life and living things even if you have not come across this word before.

Understanding that the meaning of the word part –graphy comes from the Greek word
‘graphos’ meaning ‘writing’ or ‘written’ will help you understand the meaning of words like
biography and geography. Understanding word parts like these and the origin of words
can go a long way in helping you to understand the meanings of new words.

Now from knowing these few Greek word origins you have a clue into the meanings of:

biogenesis, biokinetics, antibiotic, biosynthesis, biomass, biomorph, biopsy, geology,

theology, zoology, photography, autograph, geochronology, geocentric, geophysics,
geopolitics.

Challenge: See if you can understand the other parts of the words we have not discussed
by looking up their meanings in the dictionary.

Shakespeare used about 30 000 different words in his writing. Graduates have a
vocabulary of about 25 000 words. Your current vocabulary probably falls 10 000 words
short of this goal. The aim of this section is to enable you to cope with new words and
new concepts that you may come across in your academic reading. The purpose is also to
develop your vocabulary so that you have more resources at your disposal in order to
express yourself clearly and understandably.

It is also hoped that you will begin to develop a passion for words. If you speak another
language besides English, think about the origin of words in that language. Do they
relate to words in English? Have they been borrowed from English or has English borrowed
words from your language?

We encourage you to be aware of words around you. Think about them. Where do they
come from? Who speaks them? Can we see patterns and can we relate them to words we
already know?

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HOW ARE WORDS FORMED?

Think about these words:

happy, unhappy, happiness, happily, unhappiness

develop, developed, undeveloped, development, developing, underdeveloped.

These words are all related to each other in terms of both sound and meaning. In the first
line the word ‘happy’, meaning a feeling of pleasure or contentment, is common to all of
them. In the second line the word ‘develop’, meaning to make or become larger, is common
to all of them. However, we can see that the meaning of the word is changed slightly by
adding certain word parts or affixes to the most basic word.

Notice how words are not necessarily the most basic units of meaning in a language
and can be built up or formed by combining smaller units of meaning. Some of these
units of meaning that occur before words and that cannot stand on their own (pre- or un- for
example) are called prefixes, while those that occur after a word

(–able or –ness) are called suffixes. Many words are formed by adding prefixes or suffixes
to a word stem.

Prefixes are joined to the beginning of a word. Prefixes often create new words and may
be used to create antonyms. Here is a table showing some prefixes, their meanings and
examples of how they are used:

Meaning Prefixes Examples

Negative: ‘not’; ‘the un-, non-, in-, unfair, non-smoker, insane,
opposite of’; dis- a- disloyal, amoral
‘lacking in’
To reverse an action un-, de-, dis- untie, defrost, disconnect
Something is mis-, mal-, misinform, maltreat, pseudo-intellectual
wrong, bad or false pseudo-
Greatness, superiority arch-, super-, archbishop, superman, outrun
out-
Tiny, little, less than micro-, mini-, microcosm, miniskirt, subhuman
sub-
Air aero- aeroplane, aeronautical, aerodynamic
One mono- monorail, monologue, monotonous
At a distance tele- telephone, television, telescope

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Write down other prefixes that you can think of.

Suffixes are joined to the end of a word. Suffixes are usually used to change a word from
one part of speech to another. For example, you add the suffix – ity to form the noun
‘credibility’ from the adjective ‘credible.’ There are many different suffixes and you may
need to consult a dictionary to make sure you have used the correct one. Here is a table
showing some suffixes, their meanings and examples of how they are used.

Meaning Suffixes Usage

Able to -able, -ible capable, reliable, edible, legible
Forms nouns -age postage, hostage, footage, bandage
One is a …(common -ist pessimist, optimist, realist
noun)
Without -less homeless, penniless, hopeless
Forms nouns -sion television, decision, revision
With/comprising of -ness kindness, happiness, fondness
Forms nouns from -ment government, commitment, payment
verbs
The science of… -ology psychology, biology, criminology
The state of… -hood manhood, parenthood, neighbourhood

Write down other suffixes that you can think of:

ACTIVITY 3

Complete the following table. Use suffixes to form the different parts of speech:

Verb Noun Adjective Adverb

refer referential referentially

purify purity pure

speciality special

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evoke evocation evocatively

govern governmental governmentally

ACTIVITY 4

Read the text below and answer the multiple-choice questions that follow:

Imperialism did not end, did not suddenly become ‘past’, once decolonisation had set
in motion the dismantling of the classical empires. Imperialism or neo-imperialism is
still the most powerful force in economic, political and military relations by which the
less developed countries are dominated by the more developed.
(Edward Said quoted in Intercultural, Development and Health Communication. Only
Study Guide for COM2048. Pretoria: Unisa, p.198)

Question 1

The word ‘decolonisation’ refers to the:

1. act of changing a country from a colony to an independent state.

2. act of changing an independent state into a colony.
3. struggle for independence in Africa.
4. struggle to end racism and exploitation.

Question 2

The word ‘imperialism’ refers to

1. the building of empires by taking over other countries as colonies.
2. the dismantling of empires created by taking over other countries as colonies.
3. an authoritative and racist attitude on the part of developed countries in the West.

Question 3

The word ‘dismantling’ means

1. building
2. undressing
3. falling down
4. taking apart

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Question 4

The prefix ‘neo’ in the word ‘neo-imperialism’ means

1. new, recent
2. young, baby
3. old-styles
4. very ancient

Question 5

Which of the following could be used as a synonym for ‘less developed’?

1. overdeveloped
2. underdeveloped
3. undeveloped
4. redeveloped

ANSWERS
ACTIVITY 1
1a. 2b. 3c. 4b. 5c.

ACTIVITY 2
1. Life, of living things

2. Writing,

3. Subject of study, study of

4. earth

5. Greek

6. a. biochemistry
b. biodegradable
c. biogenesis
d. biomass
e. biography

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7. a. biology
b zoology
c. psychology
.
8. a geography
b
. geology
.
ACTIVITY 3

Verb Noun Adjective Adverb

refer reference referential referentially

purify purity pure purely

specialize speciality special specially (or

(or especially)
specialise)

evoke evocation evocative evocatively

govern government governmental governmentally

ACTIVITY 4
1. 1. 4. 1. 2

2. VOCABULARY BUILDING STRATEGIES

There are many fun ways to learn new words including

• Playing word games

• Writing poetry
• Reading for study and pleasure
• Watching television and listening to the radio
• Having conversation with friends

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The aim is for you to develop your English proficiency. If you find that you do not get
enough exposure to English, try to make a point of tuning in to English programmes on the
radio or the television. Join a public library and take out books to read. These may be either
fiction or non-fiction books. There are no so-called ‘good’ or ‘correct’ books to read. Choose
something that interests you. Magazines and newspapers are also good sources of reading
material and can assist you in keeping up to date with current events and expanding your
personal sphere of reference.

If you find that at home or in the workplace you have limited opportunities to speak
English, try to create opportunities to do so. The more you use language, the more
proficient you become.

2.1 WORD GAMES

Most newspapers and magazines contain a word game. These games are for
entertainment, but they also help you to store new vocabulary and remember words you
have forgotten. Because word games often involve rearranging letters to form a word, they
also improve your spelling.

One of the most popular word games is the crossword puzzle. A crossword puzzle consists
of clues for words running across and words running down the puzzle. The word you fill
in must be the correct length to fit the blocks. The letters you fill in give you further clues
about the words you have not yet guessed. So, if you get stuck on a clue, simply skip that
one and move on to the next.

Crossword puzzles range from extremely simple to very complex. Try to find ones that
challenge you without frustrating you completely.

For practice, use the crossword puzzle from

http://www.puzzlechoice.com/cw/Mini_Arcx.html

The answers are given below.

Down
1. Journal (5)
2. Menagerie (3)
3. World's longest river (4)
4. Secret or hidden (6)
5. Bustling (7)

6. Abated (5)
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9. Placed a bet (7)

11. Thinner (6)
12. Consumed (5)
14. Proficient (5)
15. Female relative (4
17. Part of a circle (3)

Across
1. Twelve (5)
4. Hoard (5)
7. Unaware (9)
8. Gape (4)
10. Wore away (6)
12. Birds of prey (6)
13. Notion (4)
16. Large spider (9)
18. The lowest point of anything (5)
19. Implied (5)

Some crossword clues involve an anagram. An anagram is a group of letters that can
be arranged in different ways to form two or more words or phrases. For example, the
word ‘tear’ is an anagram of the word ‘rate’. Anagrams can be quite humorous:

Dormitory: dirty room

Morse code: here come
dots Slot machines: cash lot in ‘em
Contradiction: accord not in it

Be on the look-out for word games. They can be found in books, magazines and
newspapers. Stationery stores may also sell word puzzle books that are full of word
games that are not only fun and challenging, but also improve your reading and language
ability.

2.2 USING A THESAURUS

A reference work that can really help you with word games and crosswords is a
thesaurus. It is also an excellent r e s o ur c e t h at will enable to you to expand your
vocabulary. Consider investing in one for the purposes of your academic studies. A
thesaurus can help to enhance your writing by finding the most suitable word for a
particular context. It can help you to simplify your language or make it more formal. It

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can assist with avoiding repletion, facilitate more precise expression and generally
increase word power.

The word ‘thesaurus’ is derived from a Greek word ‘thesaurus’ meaning a ‘treasure’. This
reference work can, therefore, be regarded as a treasure house of language. Look up
the word ‘size’ in your thesaurus. How many words did you come up with? Your
language treasure chest is now richer; you now have a range of words to choose from

when you want to talk about size (dimension, mass, bulk, amount, extent, degree,
volume, range, magnitude, to name a few). Each of these words refers to size, but we
choose the best- s u i t e d word for the context we are using it in. Use your dictionary to
find out when we use each of the size-words above. Use your journal to write sentences
that clarify the differences between the size-words above.

When using a thesaurus, make sure that you choose the word that is best suited to
your audience and purpose. You also need to consider the connotation of the word.
For example, you might want to suggest that a person is thin but would like to use another
word. If you had to use the word ‘gaunt’ it would suggest that the person is thin in an
unhealthy sort of a way. If, however, you used the word ‘lean’, this would have a more
positive connotation. You also need to find a word that is not too formal at the risk of
sounding verbose. If for example you wanted to say someone is fat, most people
would understand the words ‘plump’,’ portly’ or ‘stout’ but the word ‘corpulent’ might be
inappropriate. Always make sure that your meaning is clear and that the words used are
accessible to your audience.

Remember that word processing programs on the computer also have an inbuilt
thesaurus. So, while you are typing up an assignment and are in need of an alternative
word you can simply use the thesaurus that is available on your computer. Often it
simply involves a right click on a word and then the option is given to list synonyms for
the word in question. Be very careful when you select synonyms from the drop-down
list. Use the information above to carefully select appropriate synonyms.

ACTIVITY 1

Form words using letters from the 12 that appear below. You may only use each
letter once unless it appears more often in the grid. Abbreviations and prefixes
are not allowed.

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C N E

E O C

S U N

E Q S

SCORING:

1. 2 LETTER WORD 2 . 6 LETTER WORD 3 . 10 LETTERWORD

= 1 POINT = 5 POINTS = 9 POINTS

4. 3 LETTER WORD 5 . 7 LETTER WORD 6 .11 LETTER WORD

= 2POINTS = 6POINTS = 10 POINTS

7. 4 LETTER WORD 8 . 8 LETTER WORD 9. 12 LETTER WORD

= 3POINTS = 7POINTS = 11POINTS

10 . 5 LETTER WORD 11. 9 LETTER WORD

= 4 POINTS = 8 POINTS

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NO. WORDS POINTS NO. WORDS POINTS

1 One 2 26
2 27
3 28
4 29
5 30
6 31
7 32
8 33
9 34
10 35
11 36
12 37
13 38
14 39
15 40
16 41
17 42
18 43
19 44
20 45
21 46
22 47
23 48
24 49
25 50

TOTAL POINTS: A score of over 150 is excellent

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ACTIVITY 2

Making use of a PEN

Each of the items below contains the word PEN. How many can you identify? The
number of dashes gives you a clue to the number of letters.

EXAMPLE: Another name for a prison: penitentiary

1. The process by which fruit matures. _ _ _ _ _

2. Land bordered on three sides by water. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
3. Another word for a cent. _ _ _ _ _
4. A five-sided figure. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
5. A bird native to Antarctica. _ _ _ _ _ _ _
6. Punishment or fine. _ _ _ _ _ _ _
7. A flag or banner. _ _ _ _ _ _ _
8. Retirement income. _ _ _ _ _ _ _
9. Rely upon. _ _ _ _ _ _
10. Expression of regret for one’s misdeeds. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
11. A fixed allowance paid at regular intervals. _ _ _ _ _ _ _
12. A suspended jewel. _ _ _ _ _ _ _
13. Pass into; break through. _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
14. Next to last _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _ _
15. An apartment or office on top of a roof. _ _ _ _ _ _

You are also encouraged to get hold of some exciting board games that are on the
market that involve word games and go a long way in assisting you to expand your
vocabulary. These include games like:

Scrabble®, 30 Seconds®, Taboo®, Boggle®, Pictionary®

ANSWERS ACTIVITY 1
Did you find the 12 letter word?

NO. WORDS POINTS NO. WORDS POINTS

1 NO 1 26 SCENE 4
2 ON 1 27 OUNCE 4
3 SO 1 28 SCONE 4
4 OS 1 29 SCONES 5
5 COS 2 30 SCENES 5

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6 ONE 2 31 OUNCES 5
7 NON 2 32 QUEEN 4
8 SUE 2 33 QUEENS 5
9 USE 2 34 SUES 3
10 SUN 2 35 USES 3
11 SON 2 36 ENSCONCE 7
12 QUO 2 37 ENSCONCES 8
13 CON 2 38 SCONCE 5
14 CONS 3 39 COSEC 4
15 SUNS 3 40 CENSUS 5
16 SONS 3 41 SENSE 4
17 NONE 3 42 NONES 4
18 NOUN 3 43 NOSE 3
19 CONE 3 44 NOSES 4
20 CONES 4 45 ENOUNCE 6
21 ONCE 3 46 NESS 3
22 SEEN 3 47 SEQUENCE 7
23 NOUNS 4 48 SEQUENCES 8
24 NUNS 3 49 CONSEQUENCE 10
25 NUN 2 50 CONSEQUENCES 11

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ACTIVITY 2

ripen, peninsula, penny, pentagram, penguin, penalty, pennant, pension, depend,

repentance, stipend, pendant, penetrate, penultimate, penthouse. You could have found
many of these answers by looking in the dictionary at words beginning with pen.

3. WORDS IN CONTEXT Vocabulary Building

decipher - to succeed in finding the meaning of something that is difficult to read or

understand.

What happens when you read a word and you don’t know its meaning? Should you rush
straight to the dictionary? Opening a dictionary every time, you come across an
unfamiliar word is very time consuming. Putting a book down because you have found
one or two words you don’t understand is also a bad idea. Instead, you should try to
work out the meaning of a word from its context.

The word ‘context’ refers to words that come before and after a word, phrase or
statement, which usually help to show what the meaning is.

When you are trying to work out the meaning of a word in context
look for:

• the chapter or paragraph heading (what is the general topic under

discussion?),
• a synonym (the author may use a word with the same or similar
meaning) or an antonym (a word opposite in meaning),
• a definition provided by the author,
• examples that illustrate the word’s meaning,
• the other words in the same sentence that offer clues to its meaning.

HOMOPHONES AND HOMONYMS

Sometimes the context of a particular word helps us to distinguish between

homonyms and homophones.

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A homonym is a word that has the same spelling as another but with a different
meaning. For example, ‘bank’ (a place where you keep your money), ‘bank’ (the side of a
river). Some homonyms can be pronounced differently. For example, ‘minute’ can mean a
unit of time or it can mean very small (pronounced differently). Cast, spelt and pronounced
the same, for example, can mean a verb which means to throw; a verb which means
to transmit; a noun referring to a group of actors; a noun referring to moulded object such
as cement. Can you find other homonyms?

A homophone is a word that has the same sound as another but that is spelled differently.
For example, ‘led’ and ‘lead’. Here are some common homophones

their and there too, two and to pair and pear

who’s and whose bury and berry threw and through
meat and meet right and write were and wear
witch and which knew and new buy, bye and by
week and weak serial and cereal aloud and allowed

Many students muddle up basic homophones. Markers and examiners often judge you
on the way you use these words. Try, therefore, to learn the differences. Check that you
understand the difference between words like:

Assistance and assistants, residence and residents, patients and patience, licence and
license, practice and practise, stationary and stationery, respond and response.

ACTIVITY 1

Circle the correct word:

1. There are many students who live in the student

residents/residence.

2. A psychotherapist has to have patience/patients when working with patients/patience.

3. There/ their are many students who are very diligent about completing their/ there
assignments on time.

4. Where/were are the pencils that where/were on this table over here?

5. Who’s/ whose been eating my food. It must be my brother who’s/whose greedy

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habits always get the better of him.

6. The two/too/to students said that the assignment was two/too/to difficult two/too/to
complete.

7. It is often possible to get assistance/assistants with assignments in discussion groups on

MyUnisa.

8. I wish that I knew/new all the answers to the exercises in this study guide.

9. It is important to make it a practise/practice to practise/practise your language skills

by reading and speaking in that language as much as you can.

10. The principal/principle of the school is a woman who has very high principles/principals.

‘ice’ is a noun, so if you are confused with words like ‘license’ and ‘licence’,
‘practise’ and ‘practice’ or ‘devise’ and ‘device’, remember…if the word is a noun use
‘ice’. It i s important to practise (verb) everyday OR I must go to my hockey
practice (noun) now.

Poets, writers and comedians enjoy the fact that words have more than one meaning.
They play on the ambiguity of words. For example:

Q: What did the worm say when he walked into the bar?
A: Where is the bar tender?

This joke is funny because the word ‘tender’ means both ‘soft’ (an adjective meaning ‘easy
for a worm to eat) and ‘keeper’ (a noun referring to the barman who keeps the bar in order).
When a joker plays on the double meaning of a word it is called a pun.
Just for fun

1. Two antennas meet on a roof, fall in love and get married. The ceremony wasn't much,
but the reception was excellent.

2. Two hydrogen atoms walk into a bar. One says, "I've lost my electron." The other
says, "Are you sure?" The first replies, "Yes, I'm positive...

3. A jumper cable walks into a bar. The bartender says, "I'll serve you, but just don't
start anything."

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4. A sandwich walks into a bar. The bartender says, "Sorry we don't serve food in
here."

5. A man walks into a bar with a slab of asphalt under his arm and says: "A beer please,.
. . and one for the road."

6. Two cannibals are eating a clown. One says to the other: "Does this taste funny to
you?"

SUBJECT-SPECIFIC VOCABULARY

Vocabulary tends to group itself around specific subject areas. The phrase ‘peer group’
belongs to Psychology; ‘infrastructure’ belongs to Sociology; ‘byte’ belongs to Computer
Science.

It is not possible to learn all the words in your dictionary. You need to develop
vocabulary around the subjects which you intend to study or pursue as a career.

As you begin to read in a particular subject area, make a note of difficult or new words that
are repeated. Depending on your preferred study method, make a word list or mind map
to remind you of these words and their meanings. Get yourself one of those note books that
have alphabetical tabs down the one side and you can record your vocabulary words in this
way. Remember to do this from the very beginning: vocabulary tends to get more
complex as your studies progress.

ACTIVITY 2

Read the text below from a textbook and underline difficult or unfamiliar words. Then
answer the questions that follow.

Unit 1 provides the foundation on which the scientific study of communication is based. We
begin the unit by discussing the complex nature of communication. We first consider three
definitions of communication: linear, interactive and transactional. We then gain further
insight by examining the following dimensions of communication: verbal and nonverbal
communication, oral and written communication, formal and informal communication, and
intentional and unintentional communication. In the next part of the unit, we explain the
important concepts that you need to know in order to understand this subject. These are
concepts such as ‘encoding’, ‘decoding’, ‘context’, ‘message’, ‘feedback’,
‘communicator’, ‘recipient’ and ‘medium’.

We will then discuss various models which illustrate different views of the communication
process. We continue the unit with a brief description of the different contexts in which
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communication is studied today: intrapersonal communication, interpersonal

communication, small-group communication, organisational communication, public
speaking and mass communication. We conclude with a case study which illustrates the
process of communication in an organizational setting.

Question 1

Complete: Definitions of Communication

1. linear

2. ...........................................................................................................................

3 . ...........................................................................................................................

Question 2

Complete: Dimensions of communication

1. Verbal and..........................................................................................................

2. .................................................. and...................................................................

3. .................................................. and................................................................

4. ................................................... and................................................................

Question 3

Complete: Contexts of communication

1. .....................................................................................................................
2. ......
.....................................................................................................................
3. ......
.....................................................................................................................
4. ......
.....................................................................................................................
5. ......
.....................................................................................................................
6. ......
.....................................................................................................................
......

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Question 4
Complete: Concepts of communication

1. .....................................................................................................................
2. ......
.....................................................................................................................
3. ......
.....................................................................................................................
4. ......
.....................................................................................................................
5. ......
.....................................................................................................................
6. ......
.....................................................................................................................
7. ......
.....................................................................................................................
8. ......
.....................................................................................................................
......
CONNOTATION AND DENOTATION

Denotation refers to the dictionary or literal meaning of a word. Connotation refers to the
meaning we add to the word as a result of our experiences and can be regarded as the
emotional overtone of a word. For example, if we look at the words mother and mommy,
both refer to the same person but mommy has more personal, loving and informal
connotations than the word mother. The word ‘aroma’ is a synonym for ‘smell’ and has
positive connotation associated with a warm, good and homely smell. The word ‘reek’, on
the other hand, has more negative connotations suggesting an acrid, horrible or pungent
smell.

As mentioned, earlier you need to be careful that when using a thesaurus, you always
choose a synonym with the correct connotation as well. Companies make use of
connotation when selecting a trade name. For example, Budget® Insurance suggests
that the insurance is affordable and will suit everyone’s budget, Boost® juice bars
suggest that their juices give you a kick or an energy boost, while a restaurant with the
name ‘Oasis’ suggests that their food is refreshing, healthy and revitalising.

ACTIVITY 3
Complete the following table with connotations attached to the particular
word:

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WORD CONNOTATION
Spring Warmth, rebirth, happiness, fertility, colour, promise of
new things, renewal
Rose Love, warmth, passion, beauty
Tortoise
Lion
Winter
Father
Owl

ANSWERS
ACTIVITY 1

1. Residence

2. Patience, patients

3. There, their

4. Where, were

5. Who’s, whose

6. Two, too, to

7. Assistance

8. Knew

9. Practice, practise

10. Principal, principle

ACTIVITY 2

The answers to Question 1 are: linear, interactive, transactional. The answers to Question
2 (in any order) are: verbal and nonverbal, oral and written, formal and informal, intentional
and unintentional. The answers to Question 3 (in any order) are: intrapersonal,
interpersonal, small- group, mass communication, public speaking and organizational. The
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answers to Question 4 (in any order) are: encoding, decoding, context, message,
feedback, communicator, recipient and medium.

ACTIVITY 3

WORD CONNOTATION
Tortoise Patience, age, slow
Lion Power, vigour, royalty, pride, rulership, strength, brave
Winter Cold, emptiness, desolation, end of an era, loss
Father Protective, warm, loving, creator,
Owl Wisdom, knowledge, death

4. DICTIONARY SKILLS

VOCABULARY BUILDING

lexicographer – person who dictionaries

random – without a particular aim or purpose
annotated – additional notes given
idiom – form of expression suited to a particular language or person, meaning is derived
from usage and not the meaning of the actual word
idiomatic – relating to idiom

FINDING YOUR WAY AROUND A DICTIONARY

Dictionaries are arranged in alphabetical order. Words beginning with the letter ‘a’ come
before words beginning with the letter ‘b’ and so on. Words beginning with the same letter
are also arranged alphabetically. For example: assess, assign, assume

All the words listed above begin ass- but they are not listed at random. The letters that
follow ass – tell the lexicographer how to order the words alphabetically.

ACTIVITY 1 – ALPHABETICAL ORDER

Place these words in alphabetical order.

Voyeurism, translucent, f e i g n , n a r c i s s i s m , p r e h e n s i l e cataclysmic,

c a c o p h o n y , n a r c o l e p s y , voyeur, verdigris, a m b i g u o u s , bipartisan, transient,
festoon, minaret, incarcerated, tussock, , catalogue, marsupial, oculist, portent, ubiquitous,
anachronistic, malevolent, vertiginous

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Check your answers. Knowing alphabetical order both backwards and frontwards cannot be
overestimated in academic study. Knowing alphabetical order can assist you with finding
information in reference works like dictionaries and encyclopaedias, with sourcing words
in an index or glossary and with listing references in a bibliography.

Open a page of your dictionary. Look at the top of the page. At the top left of the page, a
word is printed in bold. This is the first word that appears on the page. Now look in the
top right-hand corner. The word that appears in bold is the last word that appears on the
page. These are called guidew o r d s . These guidew o r d s help readers to decide if

the word they want appears on that page.

To find a word in a dictionary, use the following steps:

a. Use your knowledge of the alphabet to flip to the approximately correct place in the
dictionary (for example the letters a-d would be found in the first quarter of the dictionary,
while the letters u-z would be found near the end).

b. Use the guidewords at the top of the page you’ve flipped open to see whether you
need to go forwards or backwards.
c. Once you have found the correct page, locate the word that you want.

ACTIVITY 2 – USING GUIDE WORDS

If the words in bold were guidew o r d s at the top of a dictionary page, which of the
words in brackets would you find on that page?

Question 1

a. crockery crowd (cryptogram, croupier, crown, croquet, crochet)

b. graphically great (grey, graphical, grange, gratify, greatly, gressorial)
(lumbar, lunisolar, ludicrous, lugubrious, lurid)
c. lucky lure

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Question 2

Use the guidew o r d s supplied to help you place each of the following words into its
correct column. The first example has been done for you.

Consult, consist, conclude, conceive, concept, consequent, concentrate

Conation – concision – conduction - conscription consonance –
concise conduct conflict – consolidate consultant

consult

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DICTIONARY ENTRIES

Each entry in the dictionary consists of:

a. the headword in bold

The head word gives the correct spelling. All information underneath the headword is
called the ‘entry’.

b. pronunciation
The pronunciation of the word is usually shown in brackets immediately after the headword.
The word is also divided into syllables. A stress mark (‘) appears directly after the syllable
that receives the strongest emphasis. Many dictionaries use symbols for sounds and
consonants that correspond to the International Phonetic Alphabet

In the beginning of the dictionary a guide is often provided that will give and explanation
of the symbols involved. For example, in the above definition the symbol ʃ is used to
represent the sound made by the combination of the letters ‘sh’.

c. part of speech in italics

The part of speech is also indicated. Abbreviations are used; for example: n. (noun);
adj.(adjective); adv. (adverb); v.t. (verb transitive); v.i. (verb intransitive); def. art. (definite
article; prep. (preposition), aux. v. (auxiliary verb), pron. (pronoun) v. (verb)

Thus, once you have decided that a word is appropriate, you can check that it fits into the
grammar of your sentence. Take the following sentence, for example:

You need to take South Africa’s history background into account. X

You know that adjective describe nouns and that the word history is an adjective. If you
check the word history in the dictionary you will find that it is a noun and not an adjective
and you will need to consider the adjectival for of this word which is formed by adding a
suffix to the word ‘history’ and therefore the correct form is ‘historical’. Therefore, the
above sentence would be correct as follows:
You need to take South Africa’s historical background into account

Dictionary definitions also provide the past tense of verbs if they are irregular. Most
verbs have the suffix - ed to make them past tense. However, there are many verbs like
‘drink’, ‘do’ and ‘weep’ for example that have different or irregular ends. You can check
the endings of these verbs by looking up their individual entries in the dictionary.

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For example, the entry for ‘drink’ reads:

drink v. (drank, drunk)

d. plural form of the word if it is irregular

For example, the entry for, ’child’ indicates that the plural is ‘children’.

e. numbers (1, 2, 3) which introduce different meanings of the same word

The word ‘polish’ in this instance has 12 different meanings.

f. letters (a, b, c) which separate similar meanings of the same word

g. an explanation of the word’s meaning and/or a synonym

Words derived from the main word by addition of prefixes or suffixes are also given.

h. idiomatic uses of the word

Explanation of sayings based on the headword are given.

i. etymology
An explanation of the origin of a word is usually given at the end of the entry Gk or Gr.
(Greek), L (Latin), OE (Old English), ME (Middle English), F or Fr. (French), G (German).

j. labels which tell you more about usage

As we explained earlier, it is important to select a word that is appropriate to use in a
particular context. Labels in a dictionary entry can help you determine the connotation of
the particular word under certain circumstances.

k. common phrases printed in bold.

ACTIVITY 3 – DICTIONARY ENTRIES

Question 1
By referring to your Oxford Advanced Learners Dictionary, answer the following
questions.

1. What are the guidewords on these two pages?

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2. Which of the following is NOT a headword on these pages?

a. faucet
b. fatalistic
c. fauve
d. Faustian

3. Which of the following is NOT a synonym for fatal?

a. lethal
b. mortal
c. serious
d. deadly

4. Which of the sentences uses the word ‘fatal’ incorrectly?

a. She has a fatal illness.

b. There has been a fatal accident on the M1 highway.
c. He has been released from hospital he was fatally injured in a sporting accident.
d. He had forgotten that is plan had one fatal error.

5. Which of the following is an INCORRECT use of the word ‘fathom’?

a. I cannot fathom which of these is the correct answer.

b. The Titanic is buried fathoms under the sea.
c. This question in the exam paper is a fathom to me.
d. I can’t fathom out the words on this torn up piece of paper.

6. Where would you most likely find a ‘faucet’?

a. inside a car
b. in a bathroom
c. in an office
d. in a stationery shop

7. If you wanted to state that someone is so fat that they are unhealthy, which word
would you use?

8. What word would you use to describe a fat, healthy looking baby?

9. Which synonym for the word fat would you select to describe a short but well-built
rugby player?

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10. Does the phrase ‘fat cat’ have a positive or negative connotation?
Why do you say so?

Question 2

Use your dictionary to answer the following questions:

1. What is the plural of the following words? Criterion; datum; neurosis; treasury
2. Is the first syllable of the word “etiolate” pronounced so that it rhymes with “let” and
“met” or with “meet” and “seat”?
3. Is the initial “g” of “gnaw” pronounced?
4. Which of the following words should be spelt with a capital letter?
carbon monoxide; caribbean; celsius; marxism; syntax; turpentine; universe
5. What is the adjective form of the following words?
qualify; sustain; phosphorescence
6. What does CD-ROM stand for?
7. What does GNP stand for?
8. What is the meaning of the prefix “tele-"
9. Choose the correct spelling of the words: zinc/zinck/zink; acomodate/ accommodate/
accomodate/ accomadate; definite/definate
10. Which of the following is correct?
i). ham-fisted ii). ham fisted iii). hamfisted

ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

An abbreviation is a shortened form of a word. It enables writers to be brief and

economical. The following are examples of abbreviations:

Mr Mrs etc. UFO Prof. SA Dec. Ave e.g. i.e. RSVP

The use of full stops often varies from region to region but the following can be
regarded as general rules of thumb:

a. A full stop is not used if the abbreviation ends on the last letter of the word.
Mister – Mr

b. A full stop is usually used if the abbreviation stops in the middle of a word.
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et cetera – etc. (Note the pronunciation and spelling of etc. This is derived from the Latin
et cetera meaning ‘and so forth’. It is not written ect. as many often do and is pronounced
with a ‘t’ and not a ‘c’ or an ‘x’ after the ‘e’.

c. Many abbreviations consist of the initial letter of words like United States of America –
USA
Here no full stops are used.

An acronym is formed by combining the initials of a set of words into a new

word e.g. AIDS (Acquired Immune Deficiency Syndrome)
Many dictionaries have lists of abbreviations in the front or the back or abbreviations
may be found alphabetically in the main section of the dictionary with other entries. In
the front of the dictionary you may also find an explanation of the abbreviations used by
the dictionary in word entries. Dictionaries make use of abbreviations when making
reference to parts of speech and in explanations of usage.

ACTIVITY 4 – ABBREVIATIONS AND ACRONYMS

Use your dictionary to find what the following abbreviations and acronyms mean:

1. RSVP

2. i.e.

3. blvd

4. Rev.

5. e.g.

6. am

7. UNICEF
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8. DVD

9. NATO

10. UNISA

We need to exercise caution when using abbreviations in academic writing and in

formal speech. When we use abbreviations that are not commonly used, they may not be
easily used or understood by our readers or listeners. Often, abbreviations are used in
many technical fields like in medicine and in computers. In academic writing, it is always
important to clarify the abbreviation the first time you use them in a document. You may
say for example, “English is the Language of Learning and Teaching (LOLT) in most
South African schools”. You may thereafter use LOLT in your assignment or essay without
writing it in full.

It is true that many word processing programs on computers have an in-built spell checker.
However, this is not the only solution to good spelling. It is important that we check our
usage of words as we write.

Correct spelling is important because it creates a good impression and prevents

misunderstanding. We cannot overemphasize the importance of correct spelling in an
assignment, particularly if the assignment is for an English course. Check your
dictionary to make sure of your spelling. Most word processors on computers underline
words with a squiggly red line. A squiggly green line normally indicates a grammatical
error. Little or no spelling er r or s in an assignment i n d i c a t e t h a t you have proof
read your assignment a n d generally create a favourable impression in the mind of the
marker and go a long way in making your meaning clear.

Spelling can be improved in the following ways:

a. reading more
b. writing on a word processor that underlines incorrect spelling
c. making a list of words you know you spell incorrectly
d. checking your spelling in a dictionary
e. becoming more familiar with the English sound system and how it relates to spelling.

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Good spellers are good readers and spelling can only be improved by reading
widely.Once again, the value of reading cannot be overemphasized. Reading widely
cannot only improve your vocabulary but can enhance your spelling as well.

Watch out for words:

a. where a consonant doubles up, for example ‘accommodation’
b. where the first letters have an unusual sound, for example ‘auspices’, ‘character’,
‘charade’ and ‘eulogy’

c. where one or more letters are silent, for example ‘parliament’, ‘Wednesday’ and
‘veterinary’
d. from Greek or Latin origins, for example ‘sociology’, ‘psychology’, ‘Geography’ and
‘philosophy’
e. with several vowels in a row, for example ‘guarantee’, ‘bureaucracy’, ‘through’,
‘strenuous’, and ‘theory’
f. ending –able and –ible, for example ‘compatible’ and ‘acceptable’
g. where the ‘c’ in the spelling sounds like an ‘s’, for example ‘procedure’
h. where the ‘y’ sounds like an ‘i’, for example ‘syntax’.

ANSWERS
ACTIVITY 1

ambiguous, anachronistic, bipartisan, cacophony, catalogue, cataclysmic, feign, festoon,

incarcerated, malevolent, marsupial, minaret, narcissism, narcolepsy, oculist,
portent, prehensile, transient, translucent, tussock, ubiquitous, verdigris, vertiginous,
voyeur, voyeurism

ACTIVITY 2

Question 1

a. crockery crowd (cryptogram, croupier, crown, croquet, crochet)

b. graphically great (grey, graphical, grange, gratify, greatly,
c. lucky lure gressorial)
(lumbar, lunisolar, ludicrous, lugubrious, lurid)

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Question 2

conation - concision - conduction – conscription – consonance –

concise conduct
conflict consolidate consultant
conceive conclude consist consult
concept consequent
concentrate

ACTIVITY 3

Question 1

1. Faster – Faustian

2. c- fauve

3. c-serious

4. c – He has been released from hospital after he was fatally injured in a sporting
accident.

5. c – The question in the exam paper is a fathom to me.

6. b – in a bathroom

7. obese

8. chubby

9. stocky

10. negative – the dictionary entry states that it is disapproving. You would not for
example use the word ‘fat cat’ to describe a rich person who gives a lot to charity and
who does a lot for the community.

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Question 2

1 . criteria; data; neuroses; treasuries

2. The first syllable of the word “etiolate” is pronounced so that it rhymes with “let”.

3. No, the initial “g” of “gnaw” is not pronounced.

4. Caribbean, Celsius and Marxism are spelt with a capital letter.

5 . The adjective forms are: qualified, sustainable and phosphorescent.

6. CD-ROM stands for compact disc read-only memory.

7. GNP stands for gross national product.

8. The prefix tele- means “far or over a long distance”.

9 . The correct spellings are zinc, accommodate, definite.

10 . The correct spelling is ham-fisted.

ACTIVITY 4

1. RSVP – Please reply from French Re’spondez S’il Vous Plait (usually written
on invitations)

2. i.e. – used to explain exactly what the previous thing you mention means. From
Latin id est – that is

3. blvd – boulevard. Use on addresses

4. Rev. - Reverend

5. e.g. – for example. From Latin exempli gratia

6. am – between midnight and midday. From Latin ante meridiem

7. UNICEF - United Nations Children’s Fund

8. DVD - Digital Video Disk or Digital Versatile Disk

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9. NATO – North Atlantic Treaty Organisation

10. UNISA – University of South Africa.

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SECTION B

LANGUAGE STRUCTURE AND USE: SENTENCES

At the end of this section, you should be able to:

1. Write and use correct sentences with reference to the following:

a. Subject and Predicate

b. Expressing a complete thought
c. Finite and non-finite verbs, Auxiliary verbs and participles,
d. Object and Indirect Object, transitive and intransitive verbs
e. Adverbial phrases of time, place and manner
f. Punctuation

2. Use the correct Subject – Verb concord (agreement) in sentences.

3. Distinguish between various types of sentences and how they differ from each other.

INTRODUCTION

In Section A, you learnt about the meaning and formation of words. Words, however, don’t
just occur in a random stream. They are put together according to certain rules to form
sentences. Language is governed by a number of rules and regulations.

In this sect ion, w e will look a t general r u l e s a n d p r i n c i p l e s t h a t determine t h e

f o r m a t i o n o f sentences.

WHAT IS A SENTENCE?

A sentence:

• always has a subject and a predicate.

• always contains a finite verb or verbs.

• expresses a complete thought in words.

• always starts with a capital letter and ends in a full stop, question mark or exclamation
mark.

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Subject and Predicate

In the following paragraph, the subject (the naming part) of each sentence is underlined
while the rest of the sentence is the predicate (the doing part).

The first time I looked into a heart cavity, I was shocked by the effects of atherosclerotic
plaque. This waxy goo, often found in overweight people, builds up in the vessels
surrounding the heart. I was learning to operate and was thrilled at the prospect of
harvesting a leg vein to bypass the blockage. Surgeons are trained to think that way and
rightly so. My objective was to heal with steel. My colleagues and I were often confounded
by the reason that led to the patient being on the operating table in the first place. The
biggest reason was often the simplest. It was the food they ate.

To find the subject in a sentence, you need to first find the verb and ask -who? or what? is
doing the action (the verb).

For example: Fats are by no means universally bad. What is the verb? are
Who or what are? Fats

Therefore, Fats is the subject.

Sometimes we can have two subjects (a compound subject) as in the following sentence:
Proteins and carbohydrates form part of a balanced diet.
The subject is ‘Proteins and carbohydrates’
A subject is singular when it refers to one thing and plural when it refers to more than one
thing. However, phrases beginning with words like ‘with’, ‘together with’, ‘including’, ‘as well
as’, and ‘in
addition to’, are not part of the subject.

Several diets, including the cabbage soup diet, are bad for you.
Diet, together with exercise, forms part of a healthy lifestyle.
Finite verbs

A finite verb is a verb that has a subject (she eats); that has number (she eats, but they
eat) and that has tense (she eats, she ate, she will eat.)

Sometimes extra words are needed to make a verb finite and to indicate the tense.
These words are called auxiliary verbs (helping verbs). Here is a table of most common
auxiliary verbs:

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Auxiliary verb Main verb (Participle)

eat
Am eating
Is eating
Are eating
Was eating
Were eating
Does eat
Do eat
Did eat
Is being eaten
Should have been eaten
Have eaten
Has eaten
Had eaten
Can eat
Could eat
Could have eaten
Should have eaten
Might have eaten
Ought to eat
Ought to have eaten
May eat
Might eat
Might have eaten

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The non-finite verb

A non-finite verb is incomplete. It may look like a finite verb but it has no subject, no
number and no tense. For example:
Eating a lot.

This is an incomplete sentence because it does not have a finite verb. There are two types of
finite verbs namely: the participle and the infinitive.
• Participles

The participle helps to show action and to form tense.

a. As consumers we are accepting blanket statements about which foods t o e a t .

(‘accepting’ is the present participle)

b. As consumers we have a c c e p t e d b l a n k e t s t a t e m e n t s a b o u t w h i c h f o o d s
t o e a t . (‘accepted’ is the past participle)

Can you see that the past or present participle together with the auxiliary verb forms the
finite verb?

Dangling participles need to be avoided.

Weighing 800 kilograms and rock solid, he saw a rhinoceros in the bushes.

You can see that the word ‘weighing’ can be understood to either modify the noun ‘he’
or ‘rhinoceros’. Be careful when using a participle at the beginning of a sentence that it is
clear which noun is being modified.

• Infinitives

The infinitive is the simplest form of the verb and is usually used as the headword in a
dictionary entry. It is usually introduced by the word ‘to’ as in ‘to expect’, ‘to agree’ and ‘to be’.
These are also used in conjunction with auxiliary verbs in order to make them complete.

Try not to insert an adverb or a phrase between ‘to’ and the verb. This error is called the
split infinitive.

I want to quietly leave. X

I want to leave quietly.

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Expressing a complete thought

Consider the following sentences:

a. Since berries are seen as having a profound impact on age-related diseases.

b. Besides broccoli being high in fibre.

These sentences both have subjects and finite verbs but instinctively we know that they are
not complete sentences. We seem to feel there is still something to follow. They are not
complete sentences. They are sentence fragments.

If you use words (conjunctions and prepositions) from the following two tables, your
sentence needs more than one part to make the idea complete.

Conjunctions

after even if once whenever

although even though only if whereas
as every time since whether or not
as if if the first time whichever
as soon as in case though whoever
because in the event that unless while
before just in case until
by the time now that when

Prepositions

about Beneath in till

above Beside into to
Across Besides like toward
After Between near under
Against Beyond of underneath
along by off until
Among Despite on up
Around Down out upon
At During over with
Before except since within
Behind For through without
below From throughout

Therefore, in your writing you need to check that you have not used sentence fragments.
You need to ensure that your sentence always has a subject and a finite verb. You also
need to check that the sentence expresses a complete thought.

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OBJECT OF A SENTENCE

While it is compulsory for a sentence to have a subject, it is not compulsory for it to have
an object.

An object is a noun or a noun- equivalent that is affected by the action of a verb. It can
be determined by finding the verb and asking who? Or what? after the verb.

Calories consumed must equal calories burned. The verb in this case is ‘burned’
Must equal who? Or what? The answer is ‘calories burned’.

‘Calories burned’ is therefore the direct object of the sentence.

Some verbs take a second, or indirect object. The indirect object ‘receives’ the direct
object. Mothers should serve healthy, nutritious meals to their children.
Here the direct object is ‘healthy, nutritious meals’ while the indirect object would be
‘their children’. The indirect object is therefore normally the person or thing receiving the
action.

ADVERBIAL PHRASES OF TIME, PLACE AND MANNER

Read the following sentences:

a. Most people today eat very unhealthily.

b. My mother sings beautifully.
c. They study every day.
d. He went outside.

Is there an object in sentences above? Remember you need to find the verb fist and then
ask who? or what? after the verb. Can the question yield an answer?

No – remember that an object has to be a noun or a noun phrase. The phrase ‘very
unhealthily’ is not an object as it does not take on the effect of the action. It tells us how
people today eat. It is an adverbial phrase. It describes the verb. Adverbs or adverbial
phrases normally tell us where, when, how and on what condition the action took place.
These are normally classified into adverbial phrases of place, time and manner. If you have
identified the subject and verb of a sentence and there is no object, what is left is usually an
adverbial phrase.

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Linking verbs

A verb may not only describe an action but may also describe a certain state of being or
state of affairs. See if you can decide what the verbs in the following sentences are:

• The science of nutrigenomics is a comparatively new field. Red meat was healthy;
pasta was bad.
• The top student became a dietician.

In these sentences, the verbs are ‘is, was and became’ in sentence 1-3 respectively. They
are called linking verbs. They do not indicate an action they indicate a state. When a noun
follows a linking verb, it is normally the same thing as the subject of the sentence. For
example, the dietician is the top student.

PUNCTUATION OF SENTENCES

Punctuation is important because it makes meaning clear. It shows where sentences begin
and end and change meaning in our writing with regard to tone, atmosphere and sense.

Consider the following examples where punctuation changes meaning completely:

1. i) A woman without her man is nothing.

Ii) A woman, without her man, is nothing.
2. i) Would you like a woman chef?
ii) Would you like a woman, chef?
3. i) We offer three year degrees.
ii) We offer three year-degrees?
iii) We offer three-year degrees.
4. i) She hit him with her lovers’ book.
ii) She hit him with her lover’s book.
iii) She hit him with, “Her lover’s book”. (The name of the book)
5. i) I love the colour purple.
ii) I love, “The colour purple”.
6. i) The temptations live in Soweto.
ii) The Temptations live in Soweto.
iii) The Temptations. Live in Soweto!

Do you see how important punctuation is? It can even lead to a complete breakdown in
communication! Most importantly, however, p u n c t u a t i o n p l a y s a c r u c i a l r o l e i n
c l a r i f y i n g meaning i n your writing. In order to make our sentences c l e a r and
understandable, it is important that we punctuate them correctly.
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Following are examples of the usage of some punctuation

marks:

a. A full stop ends a sentence that is not a question or exclamation.

Sodium mingles with other elements in processed foods and stimulates appetite.

b. The question mark is used to indicate a question or to express disbelief.

Which foods are good for you and which are bad? Is chocolate really good for me?
Questions that are written in reported speech never have a question mark. He asked when
you are going to hand in your assignment.

c. The exclamation mark shows an interjection, surprise, or any other emotion: Fantastic!
I have lost ten kilograms!

Be careful not to use the exclamation mark too often in writing. The exclamation mark is
used to provide emphasis and highlight a certain emotion or feeling. If used too often in
the same paragraph or for multiple sentences the effect will be lost. Also never use more than
one exclamation mark at the end of a sentence in formal writing!

Always use a full stop between statements that are clearly not connected.

WRITE:

Don’t go crazy with the saltshaker. Sodium mingles with other elements in processed
foods and stimulates our appetite.

NOT:

Don’t go crazy with the saltshaker, sodium mingles with other elements in processed
foods and stimulates our appetite.

Never use a comma to separate two sentences. This is known as the comma splice. You
must either begin a new sentence after the full stop, or use a conjunction or semi-colon to
join them.

a. I used to struggle with vocabulary, but reading helped me improve.

b. I never eat vegetables; the taste is unbearable.
c. Growing up poor was tough. I vowed I would work hard so I could have a better life

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SUBJECT- VERB AGREEMENT (CONCORD)

Concord means agreement. In sentence formation, this refers to the agreement between
the subject and the verb in number and person as well as agreement between nouns and
pronouns.

Can you think of examples to show what this means?

You might have come up with sentences like:

a. I go to the library on weekends.

b. You go to the library on weekends.

c. She goes to the library on weekends.

The subject of a sentence can be written in first, second or third person and may be
either singular or plural.

First person – This refers to the person who is speaking or writing when they are referring
to themselves. The singular first person pronouns are: ‘I’, ‘me’, ‘myself’, and ‘mine’. The
plural first person pronouns are: ‘we’, ‘us’, ‘ourselves’ and ‘ours’.

Second person – This refers to the person or thing to whom one is talking. The second
person singular when acting as the subject of a sentence is ‘you’. This does not change in
the plural as in the case of some other languages.

Third person – This refers to a third party, not the speaker or the person or thing being
spoken to. The ‘person’ in this context can refer to things or to people. The third person
singular pronouns are ‘he’, ‘she’ and ‘it’ when they are the subject of a sentence and ‘him’,
her’ and ‘it’ when they are the object of a sentence. If a person’s name is used, then this is
also referred to as the third person. The plural third person pronouns are: ‘they, when they
are the subject of a sentence and ‘them’ when they are the object

As we can see from the above example, it is only when the subject is in the third
person singular that the verb ends in an –s. This is always in the present tense, this
includes the present simple, perfect and continuous forms.

Note the following:

I am waiting. I have waited. You are waiting. You have waited. She is waiting. She has waited.
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They are waiting. They have eaten.

As noted above the verb ‘be’ has a variety of forms. It is also the only verb in English that
has to change its form in the present and past tense in order to agree with the subject in
person and number.

Present tense

I be – I am. You be – You are. He be – He is. She be – she is. It be – It is. We be – we

are. They be – they are.

Past tense

I be – I was. You be – you are. He be – he was. She be – she was. It be – it was. We be –

we were. They be – they were.

When choosing the correct form of the word, we need to be absolutely sure whether the
subject is singular or plural.

The following rules will help you use correct subject-verb concord:

i. If there are two subjects joined by the word ‘and’, the subject is considered to be
plural. Therefore, it requires a plural verb. For example:

• John is eating the doughnut

• John and Susan are eating doughnuts.

ii. However, if two nouns often go together as a single unit like ‘gin and tonic’, ‘ham and
cheese’ or ‘whisky and soda’ then they are regarded as singular.

iii. Sometimes collective nouns are used as subjects. These include words like ‘swarm’,
‘bunch’, ‘class’, ‘audience’ and ‘fleet’, ‘group’, ‘crowd’. When these words are used, the
subject is viewed as singular. For example:
• A dozen doughnuts costs twenty-five rand.
• Ten doughnuts cost twenty rand.

iv. Words like ‘team’ or ‘staff’ can be used either as singular or plural depending on their use
in the sentence. For example:

• The staff is in the meeting. (Here staff is viewed as a unit and therefore is singular).

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• The staff are in disagreement about the new arrangement for flexitime. (Here the
staff members are viewed as individuals and therefore the subject is seen as plural).

The sentence, however, would read much better as follows:

The staff members are in disagreement about the new arrangement for flexitime.

v. When parts of a subject start with ‘either’ or ‘neither’ and are joined by ‘ or’ or ‘ nor’, the
verb should agree with the subject nearer to the verb.

Either the toast or the muffins are burning. Neither sweets nor cold drink is good for you.

vi. When we use words like ‘either’, ‘neither’, ‘anyone’, ‘everyone’, ’nobody’,’ ‘no-
one’, ’somebody’, ’someone’, ’each’,’ every’, the subject is singular.

Each and every person in South Africa needs to be counted in the census.

Everybody is happy about the new arrangement.

Nobody has brought his or her book.

vii. If a subject is regarded as a portion of a larger whole then it is regarded as a singular.

Fifteen minutes is a long time if you are waiting for your results.

Fifteen minutes is seen as part of a 60-minute hour and therefore is regarded as singular.

viii. Sometimes singular nouns end in an –s and these are still regarded as singular when
they are subjects of sentences.

Measles has broken out in the school.

Mumps affects the face and neck.

ix. The word ‘none’, ‘all’, ‘some’ can be either singular or plural depending on its use in
the sentence.

None of the furniture was comfortable.

None of the children knew their addresses.

Pronouns
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Pronouns must also agree with the words that go before them and to which they refer.

One has to know what is in your bank account. X

One has to know what is in one’s bank account.

Joyce saw her uncle. Daniel packed his lunch.

(Note that in English different pronouns are used depending on whether the subject is
male or female.)

The company closed its branches in the December holidays.

The companies closed their branches in the December holidays.

Pronouns such as ‘everyone’, ‘anyone’, ‘ somebody’, ‘nobody’, ‘someone’, ‘nobody’, ‘ no-

one’, ‘neither’ and ‘either’ are singular and need to be followed by a singular pronoun.

Everybody needs to check their weight regularly. X

Everybody needs to check his or her weight regularly.

Pronouns that are used as subjects are: I, you, he, she, it, we, they.
Pronouns that are used as objects are: me, you, him, her, it, us,
them. The following common errors are sometimes made:
My mother and me are always fighting. x (subject)

My mother and I are always fighting. (‘me’ cannot be used as it is an object

pronoun)

My father gave the book to my sister and I. x (indirect object)

My father gave the book to me and my sister. (‘I’ cannot be used as it is a subject
pronoun).

TYPES OF SENTENCES

There are four types of sentences that can be distinguished namely:

a. Statements (declarative)

b. Commands (Imperative)
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c. Exclamations (Exclamatory)

d. Questions (Interrogative)

Most of the sentences in the above examples are statement sentences. Statement
sentences are made up of a subject, verb and object or adverbial phrase.

Questions, instructions, requests and commands are different. (A request which often starts
with the word ‘please’ is classified as an imperative. Note that these sentences do not get a
question mark at the end.)

Consider the following:

1. Do not eat that, it is not good for your cholesterol! (Command)

2. Take two tablets twice a day. (Instruction)
3. Please eat all your vegetables (Request)
4. Are you going to watch your diet? (Question)

In commands, requests and instructions no subject is evident. There appears to be only a

verb. Their structure is the same except that for instructions there is no exclamation mark.
We say in these sentences that the subject is implicit, which means that the subject is
understood to the person that is being spoken to. This is always you. Because we are
speaking to you, we don’t need to say ‘you’, it is understood.

ACTIVITIES

Note: You will not be tested on the grammatical rules we have outlined above. They are
here to guide you when it comes to correct usage in your speaking and formal writing.

ACTIVITY 1

Subject: Identify and write down the subject in each of the following
sentences:

1. The redemption of some fats – in moderation – is also leading to the redemption of the
beleaguered egg.

2. Most physicians are comfortable with recommending one egg with the yolk per day as an
inexpensive source of high quality protein.

3. The reputation of red wine has similarly improved to the delight of oenophiles.
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4. Chocolate is another source of antioxidants in the form of flavonoids.

5. Nuts can lower cholesterol and curb hunger.

6. Dieticians, together with doctors, are recommending that people increase healthy fats in
their diet.

7. Complex carbohydrates, including the humble potato, are needed for sustained energy.

ACTIVITY 2

Concord: Underline the correct verb in the following sentences.

1. The size of the envelopes (meets, meet) postal regulations.

2. The cost of these tickets (was, were) outrageous.

3. The musicians in that orchestra (is, are) excellent.

4. This orchestra (is, are) excellent.

5. These articles, as well as the editorial (is, are) slanted.

6. Neither the lead singer nor the chorus (sounds, sound) good.

7. (Is, Are) the gloves and the hat yours?

8. Nobody has changed (his or her, their) opinion about the proposal.

9. All of the team were playing (his, their) best.

10. One of the cats had (its, their) back up.

11. Most of the garden (was, were) filled with rubbish.

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12. Another of the buds (has, have) bloomed.

13. Katlego (don’t, doesn’t) always think ahead.

14. There (is, are) only a few shops left in this area because of the high crime rate.

15. Here (is, are) the dog’s kennel papers.

16. (Does, do) Mr Bengu or the Smiths own the building?

17. None of the stars (was, were) visible.

18. All of the carpenters (was, were) on strike.

19. Where (is, are) the solutions to these puzzles?

20. There (is, are) some fresh fruit in the fridge.

ACTIVITY 3

Subject and object pronouns. (Hint: try each of the pronouns alone a n d then you will
realise which one is correct.)

1. The hardest working students are Costa and (he, him).

2. The prizes were chosen by Tabitha and (she, her).

3. (We, us) in the front car were unhurt.

4. Nqobile found (I, me) in the staffroom.

5. Were you and (he, him) aware of the mistake?

6. The ones left were Cynthia and (we, us)

7. Between you and (I or me), this will never get done.

8. Give Erin and (I, me) more time.

9. John and (I, me) were chosen to represent the staff on this issue.

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10. Josephine poured Julia and (I, me) some more coffee.

ANSWERS
ACTIVITY 1

1. The redemption of some fats

2. Most physicians

3. The reputation of red wine

4. Chocolate

5. Nuts

6. Dieticians

7. Complex carbohydrates

ACTIVITY 2

1. The size of the envelopes (meets, meet) postal regulations. (subject – size (singular)

2. The cost of these tickets (was, were) outrageous. (subject – cost (singular)

3. The musicians in that orchestra (is, are) excellent. (subject – musicians (plural)

4. This orchestra (is, are) excellent. (subject – orchestra – collective noun – singular)

5. These articles, as well as the editorial (is, are) slanted. (subject – articles – plural)

6. Neither the lead singer nor the chorus (sounds, sound) good. (chorus – subject closest to
verb - singular)

7. (Is, Are) the gloves and the hat yours? (subject - the gloves and the hat – plural)

8. Nobody has changed (his or her, their) opinion about the proposal. (subject – nobody –
singular)

9. All of the team were playing (his, their) best. (subject – all – individuals of team being
referred to – plural)

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10. One of the cats had (its, their) back up. (subject singular)

11. Most of the garden (was, were) filled with rubbish. (subject –singular)

12. Another of the buds (has, have) bloomed. (subject – another – singular)

13. Katlego (don’t, doesn’t) always think ahead. (subject – singular)

14. There (is, are) only a few shops left in this area because of the high crime rate. (subject –
plural)

15. Here (is, are) the dog’s kennel papers. (Subject – plural)

16. (Does, do) Mr Bengu or the Smiths own the building? (Two subjects – the one closest to
the verb is singular)

17. None of the stars (was, were) visible. (subject – none- singular)

18. All of the carpenters (was, were) on strike. (subject – all of the carpenters - in this case
plural)

19. Where (is, are) the solutions to these puzzles? (subject – plural)

20. There (is, are) some fresh fruit in the fridge. (subject – some fresh fruit -in this case
singular)

ACTIVITY 3

1. The hardest working students are Costa and (he, him)

2. The prizes were chosen by Tabitha and (she, her)

3. (We, us) in the front car were unhurt.

4. Nqobile found (I, me) in the staffroom.

5. Were you and (he, him) aware of the mistake?

6. The ones left were Cynthia and (we, us)

7. Between you and (I, me), this will never get done. (between is a preposition, pronouns
that follow a preposition are in the object form)

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8. Give Erin and (I, me) more time. (Object form. Hint: you would normally say ‘Give me
more time.’ Therefore, the form does not change with the addition of another object
i.e. ‘Erin.’)

9. John and (I, me) were chosen to represent the staff on this issue. (subject form)

10. Josephine poured Julia and (I, me) some more coffee. (object form)

2. SENTENCE STRUCTURE – PARTS OF SPEECH

In the previous section we looked at identifying characteristics of a simple sentence. In

this section, we will look more closely at sentence structure and how the parts of speech work
to build different types of sentence constituent structures. We will look at how parts of
speech form phrases and clauses and how these are connected to form complex and
compound sentences. In this section, we will briefly take a look at sentence structure and at
the various parts that make up sentences in English.

Vocabulary Building
distinguish - to understand the difference between two things modify -
describes a word or restricts its meaning in some way parts of speech -
nouns, verbs, articles, conjunctions, adverbs etc.

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2.1 The simple sentence

In Unit 2 we looked at the structure of a simple sentence which can be represented

diagrammatically as follows:

Simple sentence

Subject Predicate

(article) (adverb of degree)

(adjective) NOUN. Verb Object Adverbial
This is also called
Noun phrase (see subject)
OR

Pronoun

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From the above diagram, you can see that a noun phrase is made up of an article, an
adverb of degree, an adjective and a noun. Not all of those are compulsory; you could
for example only have a noun, a pronoun or just an article and a noun. What is important
is the word order. You would not have a noun, an article and then an adjective for
example.

Phrases
A phrase is a group of words, forming a unit that has no finite verb. It is often introduced
by a preposition and does the work of a noun, adjective or adverb. Phrases are classified
by their function, or what they do in a sentence. Phrases cannot stand on their own as
whole sentences.

Noun phrases
As indicated above, a noun phrase may form the subject, object or complement a
sentence in the same way a noun does.

Carmen van Heerden won the beauty pageant. (Proper noun)

She won the beauty pageant. (Pronoun)

The very beautiful girl won the beauty pageant. (Noun phrase).

Nouns
Remember nouns are normally things you can see, touch or feel. They name people,
places, groups, things and qualities.

Nouns can be divided into the following categories:

a. Proper nouns – name of a person, place or thing (Thato Molefe, Cape Town)

b. Common nouns - name of any one of a class or group. (teapot, tree, zebra)

c. Collective nouns – name for a group or collection of things. (swarm of bees, audience,
crowd of people.)

d. Abstract nouns – name a quality, emotion, condition or state. These are not
physical objects that you can touch, they are perceived by the mind. (love, nationalism,
education, revolution.)

e. Gerunds – also known as verbal nouns. The present participle can also act as a
verbal noun.

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Singing is her favourite pastime.

Here ‘singing’ is the subject of the sentence. It therefore, performs the function of a
noun.

Pronouns

A pronoun stands in the place of a noun. It, therefore, has a very similar function to
that of a noun. The following types of pronouns can be distinguished:

a. Personal pronouns –replace nouns that refer to people, things or qualities. (I, you,
he, she, it – singular; we, us, you, they, them – plural) Note that the second person ‘you’
in the plural remains the same and does not become ‘yous’ or ‘y’all’.
b. Possessive pronouns –show ownership or possession (his, hers, yours, mine, ours).
c. Relative pronouns – act as a link between two separate sentences. These include
words like ‘who’, ‘whose’, ‘whom’, ‘which’ and ‘that.’ Note that ‘who’ is used when referring
to people and not to animals or things.

This is Mrs Jones who is my dietician.

This is the dog that ran across the street.
This is the man that helped me find the registration hall. x

‘Whom’ is used when referring to the object of the sentence, as the direct object or the as
the direct object of a preposition (see prepositions below).

This is Mrs Jones to whom I gave the letter.

• Whom did you ask? (direct object)

• Whom was he looking for? (object of the preposition for)

Who is used when referring to the subject of the sentence or as the subject of the
sentence.

• Who is that man standing over there?

• This is the person who helped me when my car was stolen.

d. Reflexive pronouns - refer back to a noun or pronoun that was mentioned

previously. (herself, themselves, itself). These pronouns normally end in -self or – selves.

e. Interrogative pronouns- are question words (what?, where?, when?, whose?,

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how?, with?, whom?)

f. Demonstrative pronouns- demonstrate or point to nouns or pronouns (these,

this, those, them).

g. Indefinite pronouns -refer to nouns that have not been definitely identified
(someone, something, anyone, no-one)

Note the following usage. A pronoun will not occur after a noun phrase. It stands in place
of a noun.

The people they are not happy about service delivery. X

The people are not happy about service delivery.

Boitemelo she is concerned about the amount of weight she has put on in December. X
Boitemelo is concerned about the amount of weight she has put on in December.

You will notice that in the sentence diagram on page 87 reflecting the structure of a
sentence both the subject and the object are made up of noun phrases. Once you have

identified the subject and the object what is left must be the adverb or the adverbial
phrase. As discussed earlier, sometimes there is no object. There may only be an
adverb or adverbial phrase after the verb. We will now look at adverbs and adverbial
phrases in more detail.

Articles

• We call ‘the’ the definite article because it refers to a specific or definite noun.
The sentence: ‘We have decided to follow the diet,’ refers to a particular diet.
Whereas,

‘We have decided to follow a diet,’ refers to any diet that could be followed.

• We call ‘a’ the indefinite article because it is used to refer to any example of
many, not a definite or particular one.
• We use ‘an’ before a word that begins with a vowel. ‘The’ is normally pronounced
with a long ‘ee’ sound when it comes before a vowel.

Adjectives

An adjective usually qualifies or describes a noun or pronoun. It can come before a

noun or after a linking verb.
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It is important to eat nutritious food. Blueberries are very nutritious

i. Adjectives often end in the following suffixes:
-less (penniless) -ish (selfish)
-ful (grateful) -ive (tentative)

ii. Adjectives can be used to compare things. They have 3 degrees of comparison.
These are called the positive (or basic form), the comparative (when two nouns are being
compared) and the superlative (when three or more nouns are being compared). For
example.

Positive Comparative Superlative

Good Better Best
Pretty Prettier prettiest
Bad Worse worst
Hard Harder hardest
Difficult more difficult most difficult

Adjectival phrases

Adjectival phrases do that same work as adjectives.

The girl with the long brown hair won the beauty pageant.

Here the phrase tells us more about the girl. It describes or qualifies the noun (the girl).

Adverbs and adverbial phrases

Adverbs describe how something happened. They show how, where, when, how often
or to what an extent an action takes place. These are words that modify or describe
verbs, adjectives and other adverbs.

a. Modifying a verb

The starving boys greedily gulped down their sandwiches after the soccer match. Note:
Adverbs that modify verbs often end in –ly. Note the following usage:
He runs very quickly.
He runs very quick. X

b. Modifying adjectives

I am extremely hungry. I am very tired.

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The italicized words are also called adverbs of degree and can be found in noun
phrases as noted in the sentence diagram above.

c. Modifying another adverb

Don’t speak so fast. He runs very quickly.

d. Modifying a whole sentence (these include words like perhaps, actually,

unfortunately, honestly.)

Perhaps we will practise our song in the studio next week.

Adverbial phrases do the same work as an adverb. We can get adverbial phrases of
manner (describing how something is done), place (where something takes place), time
(when the action takes place), frequency (how often the action takes place) and degree (to
what extent the action takes place).

a. Manner

• She walked into the room with her head help up high.

b. Place

• She likes to study under the tree.

c. Time

• He goes to extra lessons on a Wednesday afternoon at 2 ‘o clock.

d. Frequency

• He goes to visit his father every alternate weekend.

2.2 THE COMPLEX SENTENCE

Up to now, we have been looking at the structure of simple sentences outlined in the
diagram shown at the outset of this chapter. However, as I am sure you will agree, in the
texts that we read and in speech we come across much more complex sentences. The
following cartoon illustrates this for us:

The sentence, “You mean you didn’t know that I knew she didn’t know you knew that?”
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consists of five sentences combined together. Can you identify those sentences?

Clauses

A simple sentence is a sentence that consists of one main complete thought. A simple
sentence can also be called a clause. A clause is a group of words containing a finite
verb and its subject. A simple sentence is a clause that can stand on its own. A clause
that can stand on its own is called a main clause or an independent clause.

The pretty little girl danced very beautifully. (Simple sentence)

The pretty little girl danced very beautifully and the little boy sang like an angel. (Complex
sentence).

2.3 THE COMPOUND SENTENCE

A compound sentence contains two simple sentences or main clauses joined together
by means of a conjunction (joining or linking words). Both clauses (simple sentences)
are equally important – one is not subordinate to the other. They have more than one
subject and more than one predicate. These sentences are normally joined by a co-
ordinating conjunction i.e. and, so, but, for, nor, or a n d y e t . A comma is usually used
before a co-ordinating conjunction. Instead of a comma and a conjunction, a semi-
colon may be used.

I had good intentions to follow my diet, but temptation got the better of me.
Protein is good; carbohydrates are bad.

In the above compound sentences, the subjects have been written in italics. You can
see that each sentence has two subjects and two predicates. Both parts can just as easily
stand on their own as simple sentences. Therefore, we say that they are two main
clauses joined together by a conjunction, forming a compound sentence.

Subordinate clauses

A clause that cannot stand by itself as sentence o n its own is called a sub-ordinate
o r dependent clause. It therefore can also be a sentence fragment.

Example:
• that hit the dog
• that proves the theory

The words that introduce sub-ordinate clauses are called subordinating conjunctions.
These are all conjunctions besides the coordinating conjunctions and, or, but, for, nor,
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so and yet. These conjunctions may come at the beginning of a sentence. Here is a list
of words that are often used as subordinate conjunctions:

After although as though provided

Till where because since
Unless wherever as before
so that until if while as if than
as long as in order that
When though whenever while

Relative pronouns can also be used to join two clauses in the same way as
subordinating conjunctions. Relative pronouns are words like: who, whose, which, whom
and that.

The woman identified the man. The man attacked her.

If we want to join these two sentences into one sentence, we can use the word who.

The woman identified the man who attacked her.

We can also embed a clause within a main clause as in the following example.

The man attacked her. The man was sentenced to fifteen years in jail. We can use the
relative pronoun who to replace the second subject.
The man who attacked her was sentenced to fifteen years in jail.

This is called an embedded subordinate clause because it is embedded within the main
clause.

2.4 THE COMPOUND-COMPLEX SENTENCE

A compound- complex sentence contains more than one main clause, and at least one
sub- ordinate clause.

We hope that you enjoy your studies at UNISA, and that you are motivated to complete
your degree.

If you attend tutorials at regional centres they will help you, but you need to do all the
homework you are given.

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You can say that a compound-complex sentence joins two sentences, one of which has a
subordinate clause. The two clauses are joined by either a coordinating conjunction or a
semicolon.

Can you tell the difference between a phrase and a clause in a

sentence? Remember phrases do not have a finite verb and cannot stand on
their own as a sentence. A clause, on the other hand, is a group of words
containing a finite verb. If you count how many finite verbs there are in a
sentence, this will tell you how many w o r d s there are.

Remember, earlier we discussed noun phrases, adjectival phrases and adverbial phrases
which do the work of nouns, adjectives and adverbs in a sentence. In the same way,
we also have noun clauses, adjectival clauses and adverbial clauses that do the work of
the parts of speech (which they are named after) in a sentence.

Subordinate clauses can further be classified as:

a. Noun clauses

These perform the same function as nouns. They can be replaced by the words it, that or
something. They may be the subject or object of a sentence and answer to who or what?

Subject: What happened at the nightclub on Saturday night is a tragedy.

How the burglar managed to get into the house remains a mystery.

Object: She explained how she managed to find her way home.
He said that he would not be able to finish his assignment on time.
Complement: The problem was that the electricity cables had been stolen. Do you notice
that noun clauses can often be introduced by ‘what’ or ‘that’?

b. Adjectival clause

This clause does the same work as an adjective. They normally tell what kind or which
one. They normally come directly after the word they modify. They are also often
introduced by relative pronouns (whom, whose which, that).

Mr Sithole is the one who encouraged me to study further.

The clause ‘who en cour aged m e ’ is a subordinate a d j e c t i v a l c l a u s e t h a t is

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qualifying o r describing the noun, ‘Mr Sithole’.

Some adjectival clauses are essential to the meaning and understanding of a sentence.
These are called defining clauses.
Example:
• Beaches that have a blue flag are beaches that meet certain international
standards.

A non-defining adjectival clause adds information that is essential but not relevant to the
meaning of a sentence. It is always separated by commas from the main clause. It is
similar toadditional information that can be found in parenthesis ().
Example:
Jonathan, who is also a good friend of mine, witnessed the accident from his front garden.

Adverbial clauses
Adverbial clauses perform the same function as an adverb. They can be classified as
follows:

Types of adverbial clauses Common connectors Example

Time (when?) when, whenever, after, I saw the film when I was in
before, while, since, until, Cape Town.
as
Place (where) where, wherever I prefer to sit where I can
hear the tutor.

Manner (how?) like, as, as if He ate as if he had

never eaten before.
Reason (why?) since, because, as I enjoyed the lecture
because the lecturer was so
well prepared.
Purpose (so that) so that, in order that Have a regular schedule
so that you do not fall
behind
Concession although, though, Although I was well
(however, although, however, even though prepared, I still feel that I did
however) not pass that exam.
Result (so….that) so….that I was so scared that I
slept with my light on all
night.

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Condition (if, unless) if, unless, providing, If you complete all the
provided that exercises in this guide,
you should do well in the
exam.

How do I go about identifying clauses?

The process is a very logical one. First, identify all the finite verbs. Then identify any
connecting words like conjunctions or relative pronouns. Then find the main clause or
clauses (remember these can stand on their own as a sentence). Identify the sub-
ordinate clauses by means of their function. Check whether they function as noun clauses,
adjectival clauses or adverbial clauses.

Consider the following example:

• As political unrest in Egypt intensified and pro-and anti- Mubarak protesters
clashed at the end of January, oil traders around the world began to get nervous.

Can you identify how many clauses there are? What is the main clause? Can you identify
the subject of the sentence?

Is the following sentence a compound, complex or compound-complex sentence?

• As political unrest in Egypt intensified and/ pro-and anti- Mubarak protesters
clashed at the end of January, oil traders around the world began to get nervous.

The table shows an analysis of the sentences above.

3 finite verbs indicating 3 clauses intensified, clashed, began to get

Main clause oil traders around the world began to
get nervous

Subject oil traders

First subordinate adverbial clause of

time (this is a subordinate clause
because it cannot stand on its own as as political unrest in Egypt intensified
a sentence. We feel that something
more is needed to complete the
sentence.
Second subordinate adverbial clause of (as) pro-and anti-Mubarak protestors
time. clashed at the end of January

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The sentence i s therefore a complex s e n t e n c e a s it contains o n e main c l a u s e

a n d two subordinate clauses.

Sentences can also be classified according to where the main idea occurs in a sentence.

a. Loose sentence - Here the main clause comes first. Its purpose is to give the main
idea immediately, and then to follow with more details.

The global oil price has been climbing steadily since August last year, when
European demand soared during an unusually cold winter.

b. Periodic sentence - Here the main clause comes at the end. This type of
sentence keeps the reader waiting for important information, and so builds up suspense.

Years and years ago, when I was a boy, when there were wolves in Wales, and
birds the colour of red-flannel petticoats whisked past the harp-shaped hills, when
we sang and wallowed all night and day in caves that smelt like Sunday afternoons
in damp front farmhouse parlours, and we chased, with the jawbones of deacons,
the English and the bears, before the motor car, before the wheel, before the
duchess-faced horse, when we rode the daft and happy hills bareback, it snowed
and it snowed. (Thomas, 2014:22)
Source: Thomas, D. (2014). A Child's Christmas in Wales. London: Orion.

c. Balanced sentence - Here the two main ideas are balanced to provide objectivity or
to show that the ideas have equal importance.

Consumers cannot lead a recovery with empty pockets, and investors cannot feed a
recovery with unmanageable and unpredictable costs.

d. Mixed sentence - Here the main thought is somewhere in the middle. It provides
variety in writing.

Inspired by the example of many students who work and study, I decided to register at
UNISA this year so that I can improve my qualification.

ACTIVITIES ACTIVITY 1
Select the appropriate word from those given in brackets

1. (Who, whom) was Helen Suzman?

2. (Who, whom) is this memo for?
3. (Who’s, whose) appointment is next?
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4. When you have finished your report, you need to hand it in to (me, myself).
5. I spread the butter on my bread very (thick, thickly)

ACTIVITY 2

Correct the following sentences. In each case, explain your correction:

1. Mrs Khumalo she is going to sing in the choir at her church this week.
2. He is the expert I wrote to.
3. Well done you did excellent.
4. This is the student that attends tutorials on a regular basis.
5. Most of the students they are going to fail if they do not complete all assignments.

ACTIVITY 3

You have learned about 7 groups of words namely: articles, nouns, verbs, conjunctions,
prepositions, adverbs, and adjectives. These are called parts of speech. There is one
other part of speech we haven’t mentioned called the interjection. An interjection is a
word or group of words used to express strong feeling. An interjection is followed by
an exclamation mark.

Gosh! Is it you?
Oh! Now I understand.
Identify the parts of speech in italics in the following sentences:

1. Everyone enjoyed the lecture because it was so well prepared.

2. Is this the Johannesburg taxi?
3. The rain has almost stopped.
4. We usually have two assignments for each module.
5. I found the last assignment extremely easy.
6. Neither Checkers nor Pick ‘n Pay stock a copy of the Advanced Learners Dictionary.
7. Did you put the cat out?
8. Before the graduation ceremony, Karabo was very nervous.
9. Please buy me those slippers, they are so cute.
10. Those are mine, don’t take them away.

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ANSWERS
Activity 1
1. Who
2. Whom
3. Whose
4. me
5. thickly

Activity 2

1. Mrs Khumalo is going to sing in the choir at her church this week.
2. He is the expert to whom I wrote.
3. Well done you did excellently.
4. This is the student who attends tutorials on a regular basis.
5. Most of the students are going to fail if they do not complete all assignments.

Activity 3
1. Everyone enjoyed the lecture because it was so well prepared. (pronoun)
2. Is this the Johannesburg taxi? (Proper adjective – modifies ‘taxi’)
3. The rain has almost stopped. (Adverb of degree)
4. We usually have two assignments for each module. (Adjective – modifies the noun
‘assignments)
5. I found the last assignment extremely easy. (Adverb of degree)
6. Neither Checkers nor Pick ‘n Pay stock a copy of the Advanced Learners
Dictionary. (Conjunction)
7. Did you put the cat out? (Adverb of place, note this is not a preposition because
these are usually followed by a noun)
8. Before the graduation ceremony, Karabo was very nervous. (Preposition)
9. Please buy me those slippers, they are so cute. (Adjective – modifying slippers)
10. Those are mine, don’t take them away. (Pronoun)

Did you notice that words are classified according to the function they perform in a
sentence? Therefore, the same word can be classified as a different part of speech
according to the function it performs.

Note that you will not be directly assessed on phrases, clauses and parts of
speech. This section of your study guide is to provide with an idea of good
sentence structure so that you can build sentences appr opr iat ely . It is also
included to assist you when editing your own writing so that you can avoid
errors commonly made.
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UNIT 3

READING STRATEGIES

OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Apply a variety of strategies in the different reading phases

• Engage in critical reading

INTRODUCTION

In this unit, you will learn about three reading strategies, viz. pre-reading, during
reading and post-reading. You will then be given opportunities to understand and apply
suggested strategies in critical reading.

THE READING PROCESS

There are two skills that are critical to your academic reading:

a. Developing proficiency in reading

This skill will help you to become a competent reader which will contribute significantly to
improving your academic reading skills.

b. Comprehending what you read

This skill is the key to reaching the content-specific goals of your long-term plan thereby
greatly enhancing your life prospects (Milan, 1995).

What are the characteristics of a competent reader?

The crucial c h a r a c t e r i s t i c i s t h e a b i l i t y t o r e a d c a r e f u l l y , t h o u g h t f u l l y , a n d
c o n f i d e n t l y . A competent reader knows what to look for and is actively involved in
the text- by predicting, questioning, clarifying, summarizing, connecting, and essentially
engaging in a dialogue with the author and themselves in their minds. That is, reading is
an active process that requires critical thought before, during, and after engaging the text
(Milan, 1995).

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To help you become a competent reader, this unit explains and demonstrates some useful
techniques and skills. We supply you with a reading “toolbox”.

Every item in the toolbox has been tested and it works; but only you can provide the
most important element needed for success: your own efforts to learn, practise and
apply what the unit has to offer.

As a university student, you bring to the act of reading your general as well as specific
knowledge, educational and life experiences; your cultural background, beliefs and
values; your interests and your feelings. Value these elements as they will be
instrumental in helping you to construct the meaning of what you read.

ENGAGING ACTIVELY IN THE READING PROCESS

There are three critical stages that readers need to be actively engaged in to ensure
reading competence:

1. pre-reading

2. during reading

3. post-reading

ACTIVITY 1

Read the ideas presented below on each of the stages and complete the activities
assigned to each stage of reading.

1. PRE-READING

Pre-reading strategies are essential to actively involving students in the themes,

concepts, and vocabulary of the text before they even pick up the article, textbook
passage, or piece of literature. In other words, they stimulate students’ prior knowledge
about a topic. The printed page of the writer serves to stimulate ideas already in readers'
heads.

When the knowledge that you already have in your head about a topic or a related
topic is pushed to the forefront of your mind, it is easier to make connections between
what you are learning from the text and what you already know, make predictions
about what will happen next, and organize what you read into the mental file folders that
already exist in your brain.
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et’s explore some of the strategies that are seen as useful in activating prior knowledge.

STRATEGIES TO ACTIVATE PRIOR KNOWLEDGE

Examine the following title of a newspaper article. Attempt each of the activities
provided on each pre-reading strategy.

Elephant and rhino poaching 'is driven by China's economic boom. Source:
https://www.theguardian.com/world/2011/aug/14/china-boom-fuels-africa-poachin

The complete article should only be read when ALL the pre-reading strategies have
been attempted.

Brainstorming
Carefully read the title above. On a page, create a spider map by describing and jotting
down all the information that comes to mind as you read the title. You could start with a
central idea: a thing, a process, a concept, or theme in the centre of the map. Main ideas
branch out from the central idea with supporting details coming from the main ideas.
When you read the complete article (at a later stage), try to recall the pieces of
information that you brainstormed when you read the title. You will find that during the
process of recalling considerable knowledge will be activated.

Semantic Mapping
Refer to the title of the article and organise any ideas that come to mind under headings.
Try to map out your headings in such a way that qualities and relationships are evident.
As you read the complete article later on, you may include new information on your maps.

Pre-questions
Refer to the title of the article. Think of a few (say two or three) stimulating questions that
come to mind on first reading the title. Try to find answers to these questions as you read
the complete article. This technique will help you to focus your attention and provide for
purposeful reading.

Visual Aids
Pictures and other visual material can activate a students' prior knowledge. In recent
research about the comprehension process, schema theory has been given much
significance. All knowledge is packaged into units called schemata. These units of
knowledge also contain information on how the knowledge that is stored may be used.
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Write down all the ideas that come to mind.

Now read the complete article from the link provided and write down any new ideas that
you have encountered about rhino poaching.

Elephant and rhino poaching 'is driven by China's economic boom'

The ivory trade has doubled in Guangzhou and Fuzhou, a study has found, adding to
fears for Africa's elephant and rhino populations

Greg Neale and James Burton, The Observer, Sunday 14 August 2011.

LET’S REFLECT

Has your schema on rhino poaching changed in any way?

2. DURING-READING STRATEGIES

The during-reading phase is a highly active period in which the reader is continually
engaged in making connections between ideas, monitoring understanding,
summarizing and asking questions. The long term goal of any student should be to
reach a point of being able to apply the comprehension strategies that good readers
employ almost subconsciously (Pre-reading strategies, Weber State University).

To help you practice these strategies effectively, a set of specific during-reading strategies
is discussed below. The activities provided with each strategy are intended to provide a
necessary structure to help you focus your attention and think about interpretations and
interrelations.

Skimming and Scanning

Skimming is a technique of looking through material quickly to gather a general sense
of the ideas, information, or the topic itself.

Scanning involves reading through material quickly to find specific information.

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ACTIVITY 2

Identify the following reading techniques:

1. You quickly go through a twenty-page report in a few minutes, and determine the
overall subject, tone, and a few key points.
2. You pick up the newspaper in the doctor's office, thumb through the first few pages,
and gather the gist of the events happening in the world.
3. You flip through an accounting report to find a particular set of data.
4. You open the classified section of a newspaper, find the automobile section, and
then mark a few cars within your price range.

FEEDBACK

1. You quickly go through a twenty-page report in a few minutes, and determine the
overall subject, tone, and a few key points. This is skimming.

2. You pick up the newspaper in the doctor's office, thumb through the first few pages, and
gather the gist of the events happening in the world. This is skimming.

3. You flip through an accounting report to find a particular set of data. This is scanning.

4. You open the classified section of a newspaper, find the automobile section, and
then mark a few cars within your price range. This is scanning.

Question-Answer:

The technique of question-answer involves formulating a variety of questions on a first

reading of an article. You are advised to read the article again. On subsequent
readings, try to find answers to these questions.

Outlining

This technique requires you to read a piece of text and formulate a broad outline of the
main ideas. The strategy of outlining will help you to see main ideas, supportive ideas, and
interrelationships among them.

The following are suggested strategies for outlining:

a. Paraphrasing: This strategy involves writing out the main points in your own words.
b. Summarizing: This strategy involves writing out a summary of the main points.
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c. Mind Mapping: This strategy involves developing your own pictures for a piece of text
by completing a mind map. A mind map should start with a central word or idea;
around which you add a framework of ideas. These ideas in turn are further built on.

3. POST-READING STRATEGIES

It is important to continue to engage with text after having completed reading it. You have
to get into the habit of systematically clarifying, connecting, summarizing, and evaluating
ideas after reading. The rationale is that the post-reading phase is useful for further
developing and clarifying interpretations of the text. Another important reason is that
students may have an opportunity to reflect on what they have individually created in their
minds from the text.

The following strategies are suggested for the post- reading phase.

Follow-up discussions

The follow-up strategy advises the act of sharing and discussing completed work with
peers. This strategy is believed to help tie up loose ends, answer any remaining
questions, and to understand the interrelationships of topics covered (Pre-reading
strategies, Weber State University).

Reading Critically

Evaluating What You Read

Being a good reader means developing a critical sense, a means of judging the worth of
what you read. This requires keeping an open mind, not accepting unquestioningly what
you read just because it is in print—and not rejecting ideas simply because they are
different from your beliefs. In order to become a good reader there are several skills you
need to understand and apply to your daily life. Let us first unpack the idea of what it
means to read critically.

Critical reading defined

Every day we are bombarded by a mass of words in the form of newspapers, magazines,
textbooks, advertising, junk mail, political slogans, and speeches. To safeguard our
ability to think clearly for ourselves, the skill in reading critically becomes ever more
necessary. The term critical reading does not mean "critical' in the sense of tearing
down or fault-finding; rather it means using careful evaluation, sound judgement, and
reasoning.
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COMPETENCES OF A CRITICAL READER

The reader's responsibility

If the writer's task is to gather convincing and fair evidence in support of an argument
and to play by the rules of logic, what is the reader’s responsibility ? Why do we all
sometimes misinterpret what we read?

One reason is simple laziness; we may not take the trouble to comprehend accurately.
Quite often, we may not feel like looking up the definitions of key words. A second
obstacle to good reading is prejudice or bias, letting our narrow personal values and
experience get in the way of our reading.

Critical readers try, as far as possible, to maintain objectivity and not allow their
expectations, biases, or personal prejudices to interfere with their understanding.

Developing a world view

Your university education will expose you to an enormous range of opinion and thought,
and sometimes sorting it all out is difficult. As you grow intellectually and reflect on what
you have read, during your formative years: your parents, teachers, siblings, friends,
acquaintances, learned and experienced first-hand, you develop a "world view"'; a way
of regarding events and issues that reflect your personal point of view (Milan, 1995).

Remember that your worldview is also formed by the value system you were raised with,
your family's economic status, their level of education, race or ethnic group and religion.
Bear in mind that your worldview is constantly undergoing change, part of the "leading out"
process you experience as a student.

To characterize your worldview, begin by questioning why you think the way you do.
Although you can reflect on your own upbringing and those people who have influenced
you most, avoid adopting someone else's views uncritically.

Let us now look at the concept of worldview as it connects to reading.

ACTIVITY 3

The following article is about the cultural misperceptions of bears and bear baiting.
Before you read it, ask yourself these questions to determine your attitude toward the
subject. Jot your ideas down on paper so that you are forced to state your thinking in
words.
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1. What do you know/think about bear baiting?

2. Do you consider bear baiting to be a sport?
3. Where does your opinion come from? What is it based on? For example, have you
seen bear baiting in the movies?
4. Have you ever attended a bear-bait? If so, what were your reactions? Would you
attend another?
5. If you answered no to the question above, would you ever attend a bear-bait? Why
or why not?
6. Do you believe bear-baiting is a cruel sport?
7. Do you believe that bear-baiting should be banned?

Now read the article from this link: http://www.wspa-

international.org/wspaswork/bears/bearbaiting/default.aspx and jot down your feelings on
the topic of bear-baiting.

Taking action

WSPA and member society the Pakistan Biodiversity Research Centre (PBRC)
have helped to dramatically reduce the number of bear- baiting events in recent years,
by:

• Campaigning to bring awareness of international opposition to the ‘sport’ to the

Pakistani authorities.
• Working with the Pakistani government and wildlife officials to halt the fights and
look at alternative livelihoods for bear owners.
• Monitoring the numbers of captive bears and pushing for prosecution.
• Building the Kund Park sanctuary, providing a home for confiscated bears.
• Educating potential spectators through a mobile phone awareness unit and
religious teachings. In 2007, WSPA persuaded over 1,000 mosques in target
areas to preach against bear baiting.
• Calling for greater action to prevent illegal bear cub poaching. A Pakistan-wide
educational programme has raised awareness of the issue.
http://www.wspa-international.org/wspaswork/bears/bearbaiting/default.aspx

REFLECTION

Has your thinking about bear-baiting changed because of any or both of the articles?

Do you think the portrayal of bear-baiting in the first article is less barbaric than the
second? If so, explain why. Can you identify the cultural differences in the way bear-
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baiting is perceive

UNCOVERING ARGUMENTS

In Unit 1, you were introduced to the idea of an argument. If you recall, we identified the
different parts of the argument as the premises and the conclusion. To recap, an
argument is a group of statements called the premises which are intended to support the
conclusion.

Sometimes, the writer assumes that the reader shares the same understanding of the
premises and does not include them in the writing. In other cases, the writer deliberately
hides the assumptions underpinning an argument with the intention of manipulating the
reader to accept a certain view. These types of arguments particularly occur in advertising
where the sponsor presents the reader with an advertising slogan convincing enough to
make him/her buy the product. The writer appeals to a certain emotion or weakness
that the reader feels he/she needs to fulfil.

As critical readers, our evaluation of an argument depends on whether we can accept the
assumptions underpinning it. Regardless of whether unstated assumptions are
manipulative or not, it is crucial for us to identify them so that we may make informed
judgements about the value of the arguments.

EVALUATING EVIDENCE

For an argument to be logical and convincing, claims that are made need to be
supported by evidence. In different circumstances, different types of evidence will be
appropriate. Evidence comes in many forms, but in general, we can speak of four large
categories:

(1) Facts

(2) Statistics

(3) Examples/Anecdotes

(4) Expert Opinions

It is obvious that we cannot simply take evidence at face value. As the reader,
recipient, or target of the persuasive argument one must be prepared to evaluate the
evidence, assess whether or not it is to be believed, judge whether or not it really makes
the case (Milan, 1998).
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In evaluating an argument, it may be useful to consider the following:

1) How appropriate is the type of evidence used to support the argument?

2) Is the evidence is fair, accurate, sufficient, and relevant to the argument?
3) Does the evidence lead to a valid conclusion? Or does the conclusion derive
logically from the support?

ACTIVITY 4

Read one of the articles in your local newspaper and evaluate it by asking the
following questions:

CHECKLIST

Is the evidence adequate in terms of the points argued? Is the evidence representative of
the general population?

Is it accurate?

How accurate are the facts that are presented? Is the argument presented relevant?

Does the evidence fit the situation that is being argued? Has the argument been taken out
of context?

Is the source of the evidence credible?

Is the source of the statistics or facts named?

What kinds of credentials d oe s the expert (writer) have (degrees, pr of essiona l

a f f i l i a t i o n s , employment, experience)?
Adapted from Dembrow (2010).

THE IMPORTANCE OF BALANCE

Writers of news and feature articles in newspapers and magazines have the journalistic
responsibility to present controversial issues fairly. This is called balance. Such writing
does not contain a single argument reflecting the writer's point of view; rather it presents
all sides of an issue, leaving you free to make up your own mind.

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Let us examine a recent newspaper article for balance. The subject is the controversy
over the end of the world 2012. After you read the article, take a sheet of paper and draw a
vertical line down the middle. Label one column "arguments for” the end of the world; label
the other “arguments against."

CONCLUSION

This unit focused on the need for critical reading. You were provided with a variety of
suggested strategies i n the pre-reading, reading and post-reading stages so as to
equip you, the learner, with the necessary skills to engage in critical reading.

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UNIT 4

WRITING ACADEMIC TEXTS

OUTCOMES FOR THIS UNIT

By the end of this unit, you should be able to:

• Write structured and meaningful paragraphs

• Link paragraphs into larger cohesive texts
• Use appropriate style and register suitable for academic writing
• Use different types of academic discourse appropriately

Vocabulary building

discourse – use of language in speech or writing to produce meaning

transitional – changing from one state to another, or from one aspect of a

topic to another

informal – relaxed and friendly, casual

colloquial – words or language used in conversation b u t not in formal

speech or writing. Casual or familiar style of speech or writing

salutation – words that are used t o greet s o m eo n e o r to say hello,

greetings – especially at the beginning of letters or e-mails.

interim - in between t w o events, in between t h e introduction a n d the

conclusion

expository – intended to explain or describe

cliché – A phrase or idiom that has lost its impact by being overused. It
creates the impression that the writer is unimaginative.

redundant – useless

suffice - enough

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Paragraph writing

In Unit 2 we discussed how sentences are linked together to form paragraphs.

Paragraphs in turn are linked together to form larger texts. These texts may be letters,
essays, reports, short stories, narratives and may even be notes for speeches.
Paragraphs need to be linked to each other so that the text makes a cohesive whole. This
is called cohesion.

A cohesive and coherent text is a piece of writing that has one central ideal or theme
running through it. Each section flows logically from the one that came before it. We need
to be careful that our writing does not resemble a shopping list. A shopping list includes
a list of random items that are needed but often which have absolutely no connection to
any of the other items on the list. If we read a shopping list, we have no idea what made
the compiler of the list include particular items. In an academic text, like an assignment
essay for example, we need to remember that we cannot just provide a list of facts and
hope that they speak for themselves. We have to interpret them and explain why they
have been mentioned and how they relate to the main topic.

Cohesion, therefore, involves keeping your writing together so that it forms a united
whole. There are certain techniques that you can use to achieve cohesion. It is
important that we make use of certain bridging techniques. The word ‘bridging’ helps us
understand this better because just as a bridge can link one place to another, bridging
words or sentences can link one section of our writing with another.

Cohesion can be achieved through:

• repetition of important words

• substitution of synonyms or phrases with similar meaning
• substitution of pronouns (for example ‘this’, ‘that’, ‘those’, ‘these’)
• transitional expressions (for example, ‘first of all’, ‘in conclusion’)

The following table reflects various transitional expressions that can be used in your
writing enabling you to link one paragraph to the next.

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If you want to Use words and phrases like

add also, and, and then, as well, besides, beyond that, first (second,
third, last), for one thing, furthermore, in addition, moreover,
next, what is more

compare also, as well, both (neither), in the same way, likewise, similarly
contrast although, be that as it may, but, even though, however, in
contrast, nevertheless, on the contrary, on the other hand, yet,
whereas
concede a point certainly, true, granted that, of course, no doubt, to be sure
emphasize above all, especially, in fact, in particular, indeed, most
important, surely
illustrate as a case in point, as an illustration, for example, for instance, in
particular, such as, one such, yet another
qualify perhaps, it might be that, maybe
give a reason as, because, for, since
show a result and so, because of this, as a consequence, as a result,
consequently, for this reason, hence, so, therefore, thus

summarize all in all, finally, in brief, in other words, lastly, on the whole, to
sum up
place in time after a while, afterward, at last, at present, briefly, currently,
during, eventually, finally, first (second, etc), gradually,
immediately, in the future, later, meanwhile, next, now, recently,
soon, suddenly, then.

ACTIVITY 1

Read an article from one of the articles in your local newspaper. Can you identify
transitional words and cohesive devices use therein?

Organising writing

You will often be required to respond to an assignment topic by writing an essay.

Therefore, since this is the type of writing you are going to encounter frequently in
your studies, we will focus on the element relevant to essay writing in assignments.
However, many of the tips or guidelines explained can be applied to any type of
writing.

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We have established the importance of using linking or bridging techniques within

paragraphs and in order to connect paragraphs. To make our writing clear and
coherent, we also need to convey our thoughts in a particular order or structure. At this
point, we will discuss the basic structure of any type of lengthy discourse particularly
with respect to those for academic purposes. An academic text normally has three main
divisions:

• Introduction
• Body
• Conclusion

The diagram below shows these three main divisions.

Conclusion

Body

Introduction

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Introduction The first part of your essay is the introduction or

– laying the orientation to the topic. It lays the foundation for the
foundation rest of your essay. It sets the scene and should also
invite the reader to want to continue reading what
you have to say. In this section, you outline the topic
and introduce your reader to the main issues around
this topic. You outline the situation and all the
problematic aspects of the topic. You can also give
an idea of your line of reasoning or perspective on the
topic. For example:

In this essay I will discuss the factors that led to

the downfall of the Roman empire.

You may then explain how you will discuss the topic.
You may for example say:

I shall first examine ….., then …., Finally ….

I will first examine the external factors and then I

will examine the internal factors.

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You may even outline each section stating what aspect of the topic each section will
discuss. This paragraph is usually confident and bold, giving the reader a good
idea of what your approach and attitude is going to be. It is required that you give
your introduction a heading.

The body – building Your body can be subdivided in the following manner:
your argument
Section 1 – External factors
− The rise of Islam and the revival of the Persian empire
− Germanic penetration and conquest

Section 2 - Internal factors

− The acceptance of Christianity
− The disintegration of Mediterranean unity
− Economic decline

In your body, make extensive use of the transitional or

linking words to make your argument clear and coherent.
Your body can consist of a number of paragraphs. Each
will deal with a different aspect of the topic.

It is possible to have interim conclusions in your essay.

After examining a certain topic, you may evaluate or
interpret the facts you have presented. You may draw
some conclusion or deduction from the facts that you
have presented. This also helps the reader to see the
connection between the facts presented and the overall
theme of the essay.

In the body, you may refer to sources and acknowledge

them in support of your argument, perspective or
discussion.

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Conclusion – putting The conclusion is basically the rounding off of or closing
the roof on. of the argument. In the conclusion, the writer needs to
summarise and bring together all the main points of the
argument. What conclusion is arrived at? How is it
justified? No new arguments or new evidence is presented
at this stage.

A conclusion should also have a heading indicating to

the reader that the writer is closing off the argument.

You could use words like “In conclusion, Therefore, it is

evident that, As a result, Therefore and Thus.”
The last sentence should be strong and leave a final
thought in the mind of the reader. You could also end off
with a quote from source that may present the same
viewpoint as the one you are presenting.

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Some texts follow the Situation – Problem – Solution – Evaluation (SPSE) structure. In
other words, they answer the following questions:

a. What is the situation?

b. What is the problem to be solved?
c. What is the solution?
d. How is the solution to be evaluated?

These academic texts follow this pattern because it is logical and practical and
represents one way in which we do a lot of our thinking. It may be helpful if you also
bear these questions in mind when structuring your writing as this may help you to
follow a logical progression. Your introduction would describe the situation and introduce
the problem. The body would provide details of the problem and the conclusion would
therefore evaluate the problem.

ACTIVITY 2
Read your local newspapers. Focus on the articles as well as the advertisements. Can
you identify SPSE structure in the articles and advertisements? Discuss these with
someone in your group (or family and friends) and see if they agree with you.

Feedback
Clearly, the SPSE structure can be found in a multitude of texts and it is a good idea to
keep this structure in mind when you are required to write an expository text of any kind.

Academic writing style

At the beginning of Unit 2, we discussed what is meant by the register, style and tone of
writing. It was mentioned that register and style have to do with the purpose of the text and
the intended audience of the text. Therefore, before we start writing it is a good idea to
know who our audience is (Who are we writing to/for?). Knowing your audience will help
you determine whether to use formal or informal English (academic writing is always
formal). In informal writing we may use
(i) first names or nicknames, such as: Jozi and Joburg for Johannesburg.
(ii) abbreviations ( lol – laugh out loud) and contracted forms (don’t for do not or who’s
for who is)
(iii) colloquial expressions or slang (We were ‘dissing’ each other)
(iv) switching between languages (We had such a ‘ncah’ time at Maropeng)
(v) grammatically incomplete sentences (‘Going home’ for ‘I am going home’)

However, in formal writing there is a more distant relationship between the writer and

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the audience. In formal writing, the audience may be a stranger to us or i t m a y b e our

superior. Therefore, formal writing:

a. uses formal methods of address and salutation

b. avoids contracted forms

c. tends to use more formal or difficult words (“strive” or “endeavour” instead of “try)

d. avoids switching between languages

e. strives to be grammatically correct

We should also know what our purpose is (Why are we writing?). Knowing the purpose of
your writing will help you determine the type of text you will write. There are four main types
of texts in academic writing: Argumentative, Descriptive, Discursive and Narrative.

i. Narrative texts

Narrative texts tell a story. These texts sometimes give background information
(especially historical information). These texts also focus on the sequence of events and
help you imagine an idea. Think of topics like, ‘A journey by train’, ‘A day in the life of a
Unisa student’, ‘The tortoise and the hare’, ‘Lessons my mother taught me’.

ii. Descriptive texts

In academic texts, you will commonly find two kinds of description: a description of the
findings of someone’s research and the characteristics of a person (or place, thing or
phenomenon). In academic writing, a description is very factual, it will give statistics;
details about how something looks, behaves and develops, as well as where and when it
does so. Think of topics where you describe your pet; your classroom; your perfect
partner.

iii. Discursive texts

The further you study, the more often you will encounter discussions. Discussions are
common in academic texts because academics and thinkers analyse concepts from all
angles. Many different aspects of a problem need to be taken into consideration when
one discusses an issue. Think of topics like ‘The causes of poverty’, ‘The effects of
teenage pregnancy in schools’, ‘The solution to crime against minors’.

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iv. Argumentative texts

Like a discussion, an argument acknowledges that there are different points of view on a
topic. However, unlike a discursive text, an argumentative text adopts a strong view FOR
one point of view and AGAINST another. Common features of an argumentative text are
criticism of the opposing point of view; demonstration of why the opposing view is wrong
and reasons why the writer's opinion is correct. (Think of topics where opinions strongly
differ like the death penalty, corporal punishment, a s s i s t e d suicid e and
euthanasia, religion and the state).

ACTIVITY 3

Think back to some of the essays you used to write at school. What types of texts were
those essays?

Now read your local magazine and see if you can identify the different types of texts.
Share your ideas with your study group (or family and friends).

Clarity and conciseness in writing

Writing also needs to be clear. Vague unexplained terms need to be avoided. Terms
like clearly, it can be seen, thus and therefore must really refer to examples that make
your argument clear. What follows these words must really follow on from what you
have just said. Examples can be used to explain concepts. A good example may
explain much more than a whole page of explanatory text.

Also, try to ensure that your writing is concise.

In order to ensure that your writing is concise take note of the following:

a. Try not to repeat the same words at the beginning of each sentence.

Bees are very dangerous creatures. Bees can be lethal to people who are allergic to
them. Bee-keeping should be banned in residential areas.

Rather think of pronouns or other phrases to replace words that may need to be
repeated. Not only will this keep your writing concise, it will also enable thoughts to flow
coherently as outlined above.

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b. Avoid using slang and colloquial expressions. Be careful that spelling conventions
used in electronic or digital media (SMS language for example) do not creep into
your formal writing. ‘U’ may not replace you, and 4 may not replace ’for’. Watch out
for the use of: ‘gonna’ and ‘wanna’ instead of ‘going to’ and ‘want to’.

c. Be careful of using overused expressions and clichés like ‘At the end of the
day….’, ‘at grassroots level’, ‘getting back to basics, ‘at this point in time’, ‘last but
not least’, ‘each and every’.

d. Avoid unnecessary words and using too many words that say the same thing, like
‘In my personal opinion… (Your opinion is personal; therefore, the word ‘personal’
is redundant.)

e. When selecting a word, ensure that you understand its use and meaning. Check
that you are using it in the correct context and as the correct part of speech.
Sometimes it may be best to use a simpler word that you are sure of instead of a
more complicated or ‘bigger’ word that may be used incorrectly.

f. Try to write in the active voice where possible (see Unit 2). Consider the following
two sentences:

ACTIVE: We sorted the discarded office equipment and our secretary made an inventory.

PASSIVE: The discarded office equipment was sorted and an inventory was made by
our secretary.

Can you see that in passive sentences the person doing the action is hidden from
view or placed at the end of a sentence?

ACTIVITY 4

Re-write the following paragraph, changing verbs from the passive to the active
voice.

The job was advertised in August. My application was sent in and in September I was
invited for an interview by Gold Holdings. I was asked to describe where I wanted to
be in five years’ time by the Chairman of Gold Holdings. Then I was asked by him to
describe how the Matric farewell had been organized by me and my committee. I said
that the venue was hired first, after which decisions were taken about décor. After a
Wild West theme had been decided on, campfires and braai equipment were laid on by
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the students responsible for catering. Guests were asked to dress in jeans, checked
shirts, boots and Stetson hats. A “bucking bronco” m a c h i n e w a s h i r e d b y m e a n d
t h e m a c h i n e w a s r i d d e n b y n e a r l y everyone. After the interview I was taken out for
lunch by the CEO which was considered a hopeful sign.

Feedback

How many passive verbs were you able to identify? You m a y h a v e u s e d

d i f f e r e n t strategies to change t h e p a s s i v e to the ac t ive , s o don’t worry if
your a n s w e r i s not identical to the model below:

Gold Holdings advertised the job in August. I applied and in September, the company
invited me for an interview. The Chairman of Gold Holdings asked me to describe where I
wanted to be in five years’ time. Then he asked me to describe how my committee and I
had organized the Matric farewell. I said that we hired the venue first, after which we took
decisions about décor. After we had decided on a Wild West theme, those students who
were responsible for catering laid on campfires and braai equipment. Our invitations
asked guests to dress in jeans, checked shirts, boots and Stetson hats. I hired a “bucking
bronco” machine: nearly everyone had a ride! After the interview, the CEO took me out
for lunch, which I considered a hopeful sign.

2. THE WRITING PROCESS

Writing is sometimes a difficult task for students (and other people as well). Sometimes
one does not even know where to start; what to do next; or even struggle with knowing if
what they have written is ‘right’. Most people feel so frustrated with writing they end up
hating anything that has to do with writing. That should not be, writing is a beautiful and
rewarding activity that ensures that our thoughts are captured, stored and shared on our
own terms. Use the steps to the writing process below to help you plan and write texts
that not only make you proud but also help your readers understand what you want them
to know.

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Drafting

Write
down
ideas
Pre-writing

THINK, THINK Editing

Make it better
REWRITE!
REWRITE!

THE WRITING PROCESS

Publishing
SHARE IT Proofreading
WITH MAKE IT
OTHERS CORRECT

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1. Prewriting

Thinking about and planning a piece of writing is referred to as prewriting. The time you
spend before you begin writing sentences or paragraphs is not time wasted! In this
phase of the writing process you need to consider the following questions:

• The Topic: What will I write about?

• The aim: What is the purpose of my writing?
• The Reader: Who is my audience?
• The Presentation or structure: How will I organise my thoughts?

As students, you will no doubt need to write something about a given topic. When an
assignment topic is given, you are also often given some reading to do in preparation for
the assignment. Ensure that you have d o n e t h e n e c e s s a r y r e a d i n g b e f o r e
a t t e m p t i n g t h e assignment. Remember to read with the assignment topic in mind
and this will enable you to focus on the main points in relation to your topic. Your own
summaries will help here too. Once you have done the necessary reading you have to:

a. think about the topic

b. allow your mind to move through opinions, ideas, memories and personal
experiences related to the topic
c. extract facts and ideas from your reading, putting them into your own words
d. create mental pictures of your topic

The steps above are also referred to as brainstorming. Once you have done some
Brainstorming, you can try one or more of the following prewriting techniques.

a. Write freely for at least a page without stopping or checking that you are writing
correctly.
b. List your ideas on the topic, using key words and phrases
c. Draw a mind map or spider diagram of your ideas
d. Ask yourself questions about the topic.

The aim here is for you to start focusing your thoughts on the topic and to generate
ideas.

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Activity 5

Read the essay topic and follow the instructions.

What is your recipe for success?

1. Sit quietly and think about the topic. Let any ideas, pictures, memories, television
programmes or newspaper stories come into your mind. Then decide which aspect of
the topic you would choose to write on in an exam situation.

2. Write the topic you have chosen at the top of a piece of paper. Without worrying
about spelling, punctuation or any other aspect of grammar, write a whole page on the
topic. Do not stop writing. You may repeat yourself or even write down that you have no
ideas, but do not stop until you come to the end of the page.

3. Write the essay topic you have chosen at the top of a clean sheet of paper. Neatly, list
all the ideas you have on the topic, numbering them if you wish.

4. In the middle of a sheet of paper, write the essay topic you have chosen. Mind
map your thoughts on the topic. Draw lines outward from the central topic, showing how
your ideas are connected to each other. Carry on until you have drawn in all your ideas.

Feedback

In this activity, you began the writing process. The process begins in your head. When
you write, you draw on your own experience, knowledge, feelings and opinions.
Because you may not always consciously think of these things, brainstorming as you did
in the activity helps you to bring them to the fore or to remember them.

It helps to write down your thoughts in a rough way because you are uninhibited. You
are not thinking of anyone reading your essay or of it being marked or criticised. This is
good because it allows your thoughts to flow freely and good ideas will be generated.

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You then needed to make a list of your ideas. Your initial writing could have helped you
identify some main ideas. Your list could have looked something like this:

Then you could have made a spider diagram or mind map which could have looked
something like this:

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Organising your ideas

The next step is to start organising your ideas in a logical or coherent way. You may
use a graphic organiser which will help you to do this.

This is the section where you start working on the framework of you essay and how it is
going to be structured. Your writing needs an introduction, a body and a conclusion and it
needs to be organised into paragraphs. Therefore, you need to draw up a plan on how
your paragraphs follow on to one another. You can write a topic sentence for each
paragraph and then give some idea of your supporting detail.

Activity 6

Use the following graphic organiser to begin structuring your essay:

Graphic organiser for a discursive essay:

TITLE:

INTRODUCTION

Introduction:

Topic sentence:

Supporting sentence 1:

Supporting sentence 2:

Supporting sentence 3:

BODY
Paragraph one:
Topic sentence:

Supporting sentence 1:

Supporting sentence 2:

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Supporting sentence 3:

Feedback

Introduction Topic sentence

Here you tell your reader your main ideas, opinion or My recipe for success includes a
argument. You state what your point of view is or combination of a variety of winning
the main aim of your essay. You don’t need to ingredients.
provide examples or details as these will come in
the body. You can use words or phrases from the
essay or you can re-state the essay topic

Body – paragraph one Topic sentence

Start by discussing one main idea. The idea must I would like to investigate what
follow on logically from the introduction, perhaps society defines success to be.
relate to something mentioned at the end of it. A
good idea is to give background information, history
or an overview in this paragraph.

Paragraph two Topic Sentence

Discuss another main idea. This must follow I believe that the definition of
logically on from the first paragraph or must be success is multifaceted
connected in some way
Paragraph three Topic Sentence
Discuss another main idea. This must follow A person’s background may play
logically on from the second paragraph or must be an important role.
connected
Paragraphinfour
some way Topic Sentence
Discuss another main idea. This must follow Personality factors may also
logically on from the third paragraph or must be determine how successful a
connected in some way person may be.
Paragraph five Topic Sentence
Discuss another main idea. This must follow Circumstances and opportunity
logically on from the third paragraph or must be contribute to success to some
connected in some way extent.

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Conclusion Topic Sentence
Sum up your ideas or round off your argument. It Success is therefore dependent on
must be strongly linked to everything you have said a number o f f a ct o r s , s o m e
so far. This may involve a list of some kind and w h i c h may b e b e y o n d our
should be strongly linked to your introduction and c o n t r o l and dependent on
the topic or the question. Try to leave the reader circumstances or opportunity.
with something to think about.

Your essay may deal with completely different aspects of success. The point is that your
paragraph plan should flow naturally from your idea generating process. The paragraph
plan is not prescriptive, you can always change the order later and add or delete
paragraphs.

Once you have drawn up a paragraph plan and a topic sentence you are ready to start
your first draft.

2. Drafting

In most instances, the first draft is not perfect and you may have more than one draft
before you are ready to ‘publish’ or submit your work for assessment. At this stage it is
important to

a. develop your paragraphs

b. supply supporting
c. give examples and illustrations

Activity 7

Write your first draft of the essay you started to plan in Activities 5 and 6.

Feedback

Congratulations! You have now managed to put your thoughts down on paper with
paragraph breaks. However, the process does not stop here. Many students make the
mistake of submitting this draft but this draft may still need refinement and is likely to
have spelling, grammar and punctuation mistakes. However, by this time you may have
a good idea of the framework of your essay and the content you are going to include.

Your assignment topic may also have a length restriction or a word limit. At this stage,
your essay may be too long or too short and will need to be refined and edited.

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Here is a possible first draft of the topic:

First draft:

My recipe for success

INTRODUCTION

My recipe for success includes combination of a variety of winning ingredients. I

believe that being successful involves a number factors but that not all of them are
compulsory for achieving success. Sometimes these factors have to combined in just the
right way in order for success to be achieved. I think that success c a n depend on your
background a n d the education you have. I also think it depends to a large extent on you
as a person and your personality. However, I also think that there is a little bit of luck
involved and that sometimes you need to be in the right place at the right time.
Although, perhaps this might just involve having the ability to recognise an opportunity
when it comes along. Many people have different ideas as to what constitutes success.

I would like to investigate what society defines success to be. Many people define
success by how much money a person has. Others define success by a person’s
position and how far they may have climbed up the organisation ladder. Many people say
that success could refer to education and how much education you have. While you
might equate success with fame and popularity.

You might agree that success can be measured in terms of the above. However, a person
may have achieved wealth and status be defrauding a company. A crime boss or drug
dealer may have lots of money, drive a nice car and have status in the community but
can this be regarded as success?

I believe that the definition of success is multifaceted. Success can mean different
things to different people. A schoolteacher can be successful in the classroom and be
valued and remembered by her students but she may not earn a lot of money or
accumulate wealth and status. In fact, she may never become a head of department or
headmaster as she may enjoy the satisfaction of being in the classroom and interacting
with students. Therefore, success may mean different things to different people. However,
society seems to agree that people like Bill Gates, Mark Zuckerberg and Steve Jobs are
highly successful. They came up with interesting ideas, marketed them effectively and
made lots of money. What contributed to their success?

A person’s background may play an important role. Many people agree that
background and education contribute to success. Many people are born into wealthy or
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privileged backgrounds and this predisposes them to achieving in life. These people are
exposed to the best schools, the best education, the best teachers and may be exposed
to investment capital to set them off on the path to success.

This too is not prescriptive because there are those from underprivileged backgrounds
who are tremendously successful. Nelson Mandela is one such example. There are also
those that come from backgrounds of wealth and privilege who are not successful.

Personality factors may also determine how successful a person may be. A person
may have certain characteristics that predispose them to being success. They may be
intrinsically motivated. They may an internal drive that pushes them to be successful.
They may have a lot of self-confidence and have sound knowledge of what they want out
of life. Therefore, they may have clearly defined long term and short term goals that
drives them. Their attitude probably also plays a role. A positive outlook on life and
working hard may be relevant factors.

Circumstances and opportunity contribute to success to some e x t e n t . While all of

the above do contribute to success, you may still find that background and personality
still do not define success. There seems to be some intangible factor that determines
whether a person is successful or not. This may include ‘being in the right place at the
right time’. Success may involve just a little bit of luck. It may though include the ability
to recognise a good opportunity when it comes along. Other factors like personal
appearance and good looks may also play a role in how people react to you and whether
you are regarded as successful.

Success is therefore dependent on a number of factors, some which may be

beyond our control and dependent on circumstances or opportunity. Clearly there
is no way you can provide a guaranteed recipe for success as there are so many factors
involved. Sometimes success may be as a result of coincidence and luck. However,
there is good reason to believe that having a good education, a positive outlook, clearly
defined goals and a healthy view of work will go a long way in determining how
successful a person is.

There are many errors in this draft which will be rectified in the next step of the writing
process.

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3. Editing

The next step involves editing the first draft. This process involves looking at the structure
of your essay and checking whether it flows in a logical order. You need to check whether
your essay is of the required length. Ask yourself the following questions:

• Do I still need to add information?

• Have I not answered a certain aspect of the question?
• Is the essay too short?
• Do I have to take some points out?
• Is the essay too long?
• Are there any irrelevant points?
• Have I answered the question?
• Does your essay directly relate to the question?
• Are you satisfied that the question is answered in its entirety?
• Does my essay flow in a coherent and logical way?
• Check for linking words and expressions outlined in Unit 3.
• Is my writing understandable?
• Perhaps ask a friend to read your writing and see if they understand it. Read it to
yourself and ensure that it is clear and logical.
• Do I get to the point or is my writing vague in places?
• Check that you get to the point and do not deviate from the topic.
• Have I written in the active voice?
• Check Unit 3 again. What is the active voice?
• Check that the majority of your sentences are in the active voice.
• Do I have any grammatical errors?
• Check that you have used full sentences.
• Is there a subject and a finite verb?
• Are the participles aided by auxiliary verbs?
• Have you used repetitive words?
• Have you kept to the same tense?
• Concord – Are the nouns and verbs in agreement?
• Spelling – have you made any spelling errors?
• If you have written your assignment on a word processor spelling and grammatical
errors will be highlighted by a red or green squiggly line.
• Remember to watch out for homophones and homonyms.
• The computer will not pick up correctly spelt words that are in the incorrect context. For
example, ‘them’ instead of ‘theme’ or ‘and’ instead of ‘an’.
• Is the style appropriate?
• Check that your style does not contain colloquial expressions or slang.
• Check for use of clichés and overused expressions.
• Could you have used stronger verbs? Check a dictionary and a thesaurus.
• Have you used too many adjectives?

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• Have I followed all the instructions?

• Tick all the boxes – Have you done everything that is required of you?
• Have you left anything out?
• Was there a second question?

The editing process may involve adding items and removing errors as the following
example shows:

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It involves checking. This draft now needs to be re-written. After it has been re-written, it
needs to be checked again!

Activity 8

Underline and correct all the article, tense, spelling and punctuation errors you can find in
the following paragraph. If you have comments or queries about the content of the paragraph,
make notes in the margin:

The purpose of examinations

The purpose of an examination was to test students through the wrong and write
answers. In examitions teachers can be achieved to see how many students had
studied and how many have not. Examinations is the best way to asses students.

Feedback

The purpose of examinations

The purpose of an examination is to test students through wrong and right answers. In the
examinations, teachers are able to see how many students have studied and how many had
not. Examinations are the best way to assess students.

Query: Are all exams simply a way of testing students through “wrong” and “right” answers?

As you can see, editing involves checking your writing carefully to make sure you have
expressed yourself clearly. You also need to think over what you have written to see
whether your content is logical and convincing.

You may have many drafts before you are absolutely happy with your work. Writers often
write numerous drafts before they are completely satisfied. Once you have answered all
the above questions you are ready to progress to the next step.

Proofreading

This is your final step before sharing your work with others. This is when you read your
work one final time to check that everything is correct. Here you check your punctuation.
Make sure that you have used commas correctly. Ensure that you have capitalised proper
nouns and the beginning of sentences. Make sure that you do not have any typing errors.
There may have been words left out.

Check that you have put in the appropriate headings and subheadings. Make sure that your
headings and subheadings match the ones given in your table of contents. Check that
your sources are acknowledged in the appropriate way. Have you followed the conventions for

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referencing? When it comes to referencing, you need to pay careful attention to spacing
and punctuation. Check your bibliography. Make sure you have one. Have you included all
the sources referred to in your essay? Make sure that the names of the authors are in
alphabetical order.

Proofreading is an important step. Even short messages like e-mails and text messages
should be proofread before you send them. This will ensure that you do not make
unintentional mistakes and that your writing is not misunderstood.

At this point, you may ask someone to read your work or check your work. They may offer
suggestions or may pick up minor errors.

Publishing

Before s u b m i t t i n g y o u r w o r k , y o u m u s t p a y a t t e n t i o n t o t h e a p p e a r a n c e o f
y o u r w o r k . Appearance and presentation give an indication of a professional worker and
indicate an organised mind. If you do not have a computer and are submitting your
assignment by hand, make sure that your handwriting is neat and legible. Make sure that
there is no evidence of editing in your final draft. There should be no crossing out or re-
writing in the version you submit for assessment. Remember your lecturers and markers
expect you to have followed the writing process and not to merely submit your first draft.
Any evidence of crossing out and editing in the assignment you submit may indicate that
you have not completed the writing process. This does not give a very favourable
impression!

If you are submitting your work using a computer, you could possibly add a header and footer
to each page. Number your pages so that you can easily see if one has inadvertently
been omitted. Check that you have used a large enough font. Double line spacing and a
large margin on either side of your writing for lecturers to add comments will make
assessment easier.

Congratulations! You are now ready to share your work. Check that your pages are all in
order. Ideally if you are not submitting your work electronically you should proof read your
work after you have printed it out. Make sure there are no ink smudges and that ALL the
pages have been printed.

You can give yourself a pat on the back for a job well done!

Activity 9

Choose one of the following topics and write an essay using the writing process outlined
above. Your essay should be no longer than 500 words.

1. Mercy killing/euthanasia is a justified alternative for the terminally ill.

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2. Different ways helping Illegal immigrants in my country.

3. The unemployed youth should receive monthly grants from the government.
4. The day I will never forget.
5. Why affirmative action is necessary.
6. The advantages of a team approach to solving problems.
7. The best road in my country.
8. Why nature conservation is important.
9. Higher education should be fully funded by the state.
10. How my uncle won the national ‘Unluckiest man alive’ competition.
11. The negative influences of television on students.
12. Exploring the benefits of social networking.

REFERENCING

One of the skills you need to master early in your academic career is that of
acknowledging other people’s ideas appropriately. When we write academic texts, we add
academic credibility when we show what other writers have said on the topic. We have to
be very careful, though, that we indicate words and ideas that do not belong to us and even
show the reader where we got those words and ideas from.

What is referencing?

Referencing i s a standardized m e t h o d o f acknowledging p r i n t e d o r electronic

s o u r c e s o f information and ideas that you have used in your essay or assignment, in a
way that uniquely identifies their source.

Review of sources

It is necessary to conduct an analysis of a variety of sources when writing academically. This

is more formally referred to as a review of the literature.

This review of sources helps you to:

• demonstrate that you have a broad appreciation of the subject-

matter
• document the existing knowledge and understanding of a
phenomenon
• find examples which you could use to illustrate a particular point or
theme
• introduce a discussion (for example, an interesting quotation which
summarises a point of view)
• substantiate the arguments or claims you make in your writing
• avoid plagiarism: by verifying your quotations you provide credibility
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for your work

• provide your readers with a channel to read further on the
arguments you have cited in your research

How do we reference?

During your experiences of using source material, you will notice that there are various
different acceptable styles of referencing. The style you choose is dependent on the
institution that you are writing for.

Although the styles differ, the various forms commonly identify the author's/authors’
name/names first, followed by the publication date and page within the text of the essay.
In terms of in-text citing, the acceptable format is generally the author(s)’ surname, year:
pages). As a university student, you should ensure that you are abiding by the correct
referencing regulations as laid clown by the institution to which you are submitting your work.

What is plagiarism?

Plagiarism is the act of copying someone else's words or ideas without acknowledging
them. It is regarded as a crime in academic circles- almost like stealing! (Cleary, 2008)

How to avoid plagiarism

The key to avoiding plagiarism is to acknowledge the author.

How to paraphrase correctly

Attempt to communicate the essence of the original idea by using a different vocabulary
and a different sentence structure. Technical expressions do not necessarily have to be
changed.

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Activity 10

State whether each of the following cases constitutes plagiarism:

Yes No
When quoting directly from another writer’s work, you
provide an in-text citation, but exclude a page reference
When using another writers ideas to support an argument,
you rewrite the point in your own words and then do
provide an in-text citation

When criticizing or reacting to someone else’s work,

you provide an in-text citation
When paraphrasing from a source using other words
you provide an in-text citation
You rewrite another writer’s idea, changing or omitting
only a few words without acknowledging the source in-
text

Feedback

Let’s have a look at how you have done.

Yes No
When quoting directly from another writer’s work, you √
provide an in-text citation, but exclude a page reference
When using another writer’s ideas to support an √
argument, you rewrite the point in your own words and
then do provide an in-text citation

When criticizing or reacting to someone else’s work, √

you provide an in-text citation
When paraphrasing from a source using other words √
you provide an in-text citation
You rewrite another writer’s idea, changing or omitting √
only a few words without acknowledging the source in-
text

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CONCLUSION

In this unit, we went through strategies that you can use to develop your writing
competence. Remember that the best way to become a better writer is to write and write
some more.

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