Data cleaning and Data preprocessing

Nguyen Hung Son

This presentation was prepared on the basis of the following public materials:
1. 2.

Jiawei Han and Micheline Kamber, Data mining, concept and techniques http://www.cs.sfu.ca Gregory Piatetsky-Shapiro, kdnuggest, http://www.kdnuggets.com/data_mining_course/

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Outline
Introduction Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation Summary
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Why Data Preprocessing?

Data in the real world is dirty
incomplete: lacking attribute values, lacking certain attributes of interest, or containing only aggregate data noisy: containing errors or outliers inconsistent: containing discrepancies in codes or names

No quality data, no quality mining results!

Quality decisions must be based on quality data Data warehouse needs consistent integration of quality data

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Data Understanding: Relevance

What data is available for the task? Is this data relevant? Is additional relevant data available? How much historical data is available? Who is the data expert ?

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Data Understanding: Quantity

Number of instances (records, objects)
Rule of thumb: 5,000 or more desired if less, results are less reliable; use special methods (boosting, )

Number of attributes (fields)

Rule of thumb: for each attribute, 10 or more instances If more fields, use feature reduction and selection

Number of targets
Rule of thumb: >100 for each class if very unbalanced, use stratified sampling

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Multi-Dimensional Measure of Data Quality

A well-accepted multidimensional view:
Accuracy Completeness Consistency Timeliness Believability Value added Interpretability Accessibility

Broad categories:
intrinsic, contextual, representational, and accessibility.

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Major Tasks in Data Preprocessing

Data cleaning
Fill in missing values, smooth noisy data, identify or remove outliers, and resolve inconsistencies

Data integration
Integration of multiple databases, data cubes, or files

Data transformation
Normalization and aggregation

Data reduction
Obtains reduced representation in volume but produces the same or similar analytical results

Data discretization
Part of data reduction but with particular importance, especially for numerical data
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Forms of data preprocessing

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Outline
Introduction Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation Summary
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Data Cleaning
Data cleaning tasks
Data acquisition and metadata Fill in missing values Unified date format Converting nominal to numeric Identify outliers and smooth out noisy data Correct inconsistent data
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Data Cleaning: Acquisition

Data can be in DBMS
ODBC, JDBC protocols

Data in a flat file

Fixed-column format Delimited format: tab, comma , , other E.g. C4.5 and Weka arff use comma-delimited data Attention: Convert field delimiters inside strings

Verify the number of fields before and after

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Data Cleaning: Example

Original data (fixed column format)
000000000130.06.19971979-10-3080145722 #000310 111000301.01.000100000000004 0000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.0000 00000000000. 000000000000000.000000000000000.0000000... 000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.00 0000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.0000 00000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000 000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.000000000000000.00 0000000000300.00 0000000000300.00

Clean data
0000000001,199706,1979.833,8014,5722 , ,#000310 . ,111,03,000101,0,04,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0300, 0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0300,0300.00

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Data Cleaning: Metadata

Field types:
binary, nominal (categorical), ordinal, numeric, For nominal fields: tables translating codes to full descriptions

Field role: input : inputs for modeling target : output id/auxiliary : keep, but not use for modeling ignore : dont use for modeling weight : instance weight Field descriptions
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Data Cleaning: Reformatting

Convert data to a standard format (e.g. arff or csv) Missing values Unified date format Binning of numeric data Fix errors and outliers Convert nominal fields whose values have order to numeric.
on these fields)

Q: Why? A: to be able to use > and < comparisons

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Missing Data
Data is not always available
E.g., many tuples have no recorded value for several attributes, such as customer income in sales data

Missing data may be due to

equipment malfunction inconsistent with other recorded data and thus deleted data not entered due to misunderstanding certain data may not be considered important at the time of entry not register history or changes of the data

Missing data may need to be inferred.

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How to Handle Missing Data?

Ignore the tuple: usually done when class label is missing (assuming the tasks in classificationnot effective when the percentage of missing values per attribute varies considerably. Fill in the missing value manually: tedious + infeasible? Use a global constant to fill in the missing value: e.g., unknown, a new class?! Imputation: Use the attribute mean to fill in the missing value, or use the attribute mean for all samples belonging to the same class to fill in the missing value: smarter Use the most probable value to fill in the missing value: inference-based such as Bayesian formula or decision tree
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Data Cleaning: Unified Date Format

We want to transform all dates to the same format internally Some systems accept dates in many formats e.g. Sep 24, 2003 , 9/24/03, 24.09.03, etc dates are transformed internally to a standard value Frequently, just the year (YYYY) is sufficient For more details, we may need the month, the day, the hour, etc Representing date as YYYYMM or YYYYMMDD can be OK, but has problems

Q: What are the problems with YYYYMMDD dates?

A: Ignoring for now the Looming Y10K (year 10,000 crisis ) YYYYMMDD does not preserve intervals: 20040201 - 20040131 /= 20040131 20040130 This can introduce bias into models

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Unified Date Format Options

To preserve intervals, we can use
Unix system date: Number of seconds since 1970 Number of days since Jan 1, 1960 (SAS)

Problem:
values are non-obvious dont help intuition and knowledge discovery harder to verify, easier to make an error

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KSP Date Format

days_starting_Jan_1 - 0.5

KSP Date = YYYY +

---------------------------------365 + 1_if_leap_year

Preserves intervals (almost) The year and quarter are obvious

Sep 24, 2003 is 2003 + (267-0.5)/365= 2003.7301 (round to 4 digits)

Consistent with date starting at noon Can be extended to include time

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Y2K issues: 2 digit Year

2-digit year in old data legacy of Y2K E.g. Q: Year 02 is it 1902 or 2002 ?
A: Depends on context (e.g. child birthday or year of house construction) Typical approach: CUTOFF year, e.g. 30 if YY < CUTOFF , then 20YY, else 19YY

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Conversion: Nominal to Numeric

Some tools can deal with nominal values internally Other methods (neural nets, regression, nearest neighbor) require only numeric inputs To use nominal fields in such methods need to convert them to a numeric value
Q: Why not ignore nominal fields altogether? A: They may contain valuable information

Different strategies for binary, ordered, multi-valued nominal fields

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Conversion: Binary to Numeric

Binary fields
E.g. Gender=M, F

Convert to Field_0_1 with 0, 1 values

e.g. Gender = M Gender = F Gender_0_1 = 0 Gender_0_1 = 1

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Conversion: Ordered to Numeric

Ordered attributes (e.g. Grade) can be converted to numbers preserving natural order, e.g.
A AB+ B 4.0 3.7 3.3 3.0

Q: Why is it important to preserve natural order? A: To allow meaningful comparisons, e.g. Grade > 3.5
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Conversion: Nominal, Few Values

Multi-valued, unordered attributes with small (rule of thumb < 20) no. of values
e.g. Color=Red, Orange, Yellow, , Violet for each value v create a binary flag variable C_v , which is 1 if Color=v, 0 otherwise

ID 371 433

Color red yellow

ID

371 433

C_re d

1 0

C_orange C_yello w

0 0

0 1

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Conversion: Nominal, Many Values

Examples:
US State Code (50 values) Profession Code (7,000 values, but only few frequent)

Q: How to deal with such fields ? A: Ignore ID-like fields whose values are unique for each record For other fields, group values naturally:
e.g. 50 US States 3 or 5 regions Profession select most frequent ones, group the rest

Create binary flag-fields for selected values

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Noisy Data
Noise: random error or variance in a measured variable Incorrect attribute values may due to
faulty data collection instruments data entry problems data transmission problems technology limitation inconsistency in naming convention

Other data problems which requires data cleaning

duplicate records incomplete data inconsistent data
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How to Handle Noisy Data?

Binning method:
first sort data and partition into (equi-depth) bins then one can smooth by bin means, smooth by bin median, smooth by bin boundaries, etc.

Clustering
detect and remove outliers

Combined computer and human inspection

detect suspicious values and check by human

Regression
smooth by fitting the data into regression functions
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Simple Discretization Methods: Binning

Equal-width (distance) partitioning:
It divides the range into N intervals of equal size: uniform grid if A and B are the lowest and highest values of the attribute, the width of intervals will be: W = (B-A)/N. The most straightforward But outliers may dominate presentation Skewed data is not handled well.

Equal-depth (frequency) partitioning:

It divides the range into N intervals, each containing approximately same number of samples Good data scaling Managing categorical attributes can be tricky.
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Binning Methods for Data Smoothing

* Sorted data for price (in dollars): 4, 8, 9, 15, 21, 21, 24, 25, 26, 28, 29, 34 * Partition into (equi-depth) bins: - Bin 1: 4, 8, 9, 15 - Bin 2: 21, 21, 24, 25 - Bin 3: 26, 28, 29, 34 * Smoothing by bin means: - Bin 1: 9, 9, 9, 9 - Bin 2: 23, 23, 23, 23 - Bin 3: 29, 29, 29, 29 * Smoothing by bin boundaries: - Bin 1: 4, 4, 4, 15 - Bin 2: 21, 21, 25, 25 - Bin 3: 26, 26, 26, 34
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Cluster Analysis

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Regression
y
Y1

Y1

y=x+1

X1

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Outline
Introduction Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation Summary
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Data Integration
Data integration:
combines data from multiple sources into a coherent store

Schema integration
integrate metadata from different sources Entity identification problem: identify real world entities from multiple data sources, e.g., A.cust-id B.cust-#

Detecting and resolving data value conflicts

for the same real world entity, attribute values from different sources are different possible reasons: different representations, different scales, e.g., metric vs. British units

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Handling Redundant Data in Data Integration

Redundant data occur often when integration of multiple databases
The same attribute may have different names in different databases One attribute may be a derived attribute in another table, e.g., annual revenue

Redundant data may be able to be detected by correlational analysis Careful integration of the data from multiple sources may help reduce/avoid redundancies and inconsistencies and improve mining speed and quality
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Data Transformation
Smoothing: remove noise from data Aggregation: summarization, data cube construction Generalization: concept hierarchy climbing Normalization: scaled to fall within a small, specified range
min-max normalization z-score normalization normalization by decimal scaling

Attribute/feature construction
New attributes constructed from the given ones
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Data Transformation: Normalization

min-max normalization v minA v' = (new _ maxA new _ minA) + new _ minA maxA minA z-score normalization v mean A v'= stand _ dev A normalization by decimal scaling
v v' = j 10
Where j is the smallest integer such that Max(| v ' |)<1

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Unbalanced Target Distribution

Sometimes, classes have very unequal frequency
Attrition prediction: 97% stay, 3% attrite (in a month) medical diagnosis: 90% healthy, 10% disease eCommerce: 99% dont buy, 1% buy Security: >99.99% of Americans are not terrorists

Similar situation with multiple classes Majority class classifier can be 97% correct, but useless
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Handling Unbalanced Data

With two classes: let positive targets be a minority Separate raw held-aside set (e.g. 30% of data) and raw train
put aside raw held-aside and dont use it till the final model

Select remaining positive targets (e.g. 70% of all targets) from raw train Join with equal number of negative targets from raw train, and randomly sort it. Separate randomized balanced set into balanced train and balanced test
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Building Balanced Train Sets

Targets Non-Targets
Y .. .. N N N .. .. .. .. ..

Balanced set

Raw Held

Balanced Train Balanced Test

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Learning with Unbalanced Data

Build models on balanced train/test sets Estimate the final results (lift curve) on the raw held set Can generalize balancing to multiple classes
stratified sampling Ensure that each class is represented with approximately equal proportions in train and test

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Outline
Introduction Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation Summary
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Data Reduction Strategies

Warehouse may store terabytes of data: Complex data analysis/mining may take a very long time to run on the complete data set Data reduction
Obtains a reduced representation of the data set that is much smaller in volume but yet produces the same (or almost the same) analytical results

Data reduction strategies

Data cube aggregation Dimensionality reduction Numerosity reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation
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Data Cube Aggregation

The lowest level of a data cube
the aggregated data for an individual entity of interest e.g., a customer in a phone calling data warehouse.

Multiple levels of aggregation in data cubes

Further reduce the size of data to deal with

Reference appropriate levels

Use the smallest representation which is enough to solve the task

Queries regarding aggregated information should be answered using data cube, when possible
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Dimensionality Reduction
Feature selection (i.e., attribute subset selection):
Select a minimum set of features such that the probability distribution of different classes given the values for those features is as close as possible to the original distribution given the values of all features reduce # of patterns in the patterns, easier to understand

Heuristic methods (due to exponential # of choices):

step-wise forward selection step-wise backward elimination combining forward selection and backward elimination decision-tree induction

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Example of Decision Tree Induction

Initial attribute set: {A1, A2, A3, A4, A5, A6} A4 ? A1? A6?

Class 1
>

Class 2

Class 1

Class 2

Reduced attribute set: {A1, A4, A6}

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Attribute Selection
There are 2d possible sub-features of d features First: Remove attributes with no or little variability
Examine the number of distinct field values
Rule of thumb: remove a field where almost all values are the same (e.g. null), except possibly in minp % or less of all records. minp could be 0.5% or more generally less than 5% of the number of targets of the smallest class

What is good N?
Rule of thumb -- keep top 50 fields

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Data Compression
String compression
There are extensive theories and well-tuned algorithms Typically lossless But only limited manipulation is possible without expansion

Audio/video compression
Typically lossy compression, with progressive refinement Sometimes small fragments of signal can be reconstructed without reconstructing the whole

Time sequence is not audio

Typically short and vary slowly with time

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Data Compression

Original Data lossless

ssy lo

Compressed Data

Original Data Approximated

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Wavelet Transforms
Haar2 Daubechie4

Discrete wavelet transform (DWT): linear signal processing Compressed approximation: store only a small fraction of the strongest of the wavelet coefficients Similar to discrete Fourier transform (DFT), but better lossy compression, localized in space Method:
Length, L, must be an integer power of 2 (padding with 0s, when necessary) Each transform has 2 functions: smoothing, difference Applies to pairs of data, resulting in two set of data of length L/2 Applies two functions recursively, until reaches the desired length
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Principal Component Analysis

Given N data vectors from k-dimensions, find c <= k orthogonal vectors that can be best used to represent data
The original data set is reduced to one consisting of N data vectors on c principal components (reduced dimensions)

Each data vector is a linear combination of the c principal component vectors Works for numeric data only Used when the number of dimensions is large

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Principal Component Analysis

X2 Y1 Y2

X1

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Numerosity Reduction
Parametric methods
Assume the data fits some model, estimate model parameters, store only the parameters, and discard the data (except possible outliers) Log-linear models: obtain value at a point in m-D space as the product on appropriate marginal subspaces

Non-parametric methods
Do not assume models Major families: histograms, clustering, sampling

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Regression and Log-Linear Models

Linear regression: Data are modeled to fit a straight line
Often uses the least-square method to fit the line

Multiple regression: allows a response variable Y to be modeled as a linear function of multidimensional feature vector Log-linear model: approximates discrete multidimensional probability distributions
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Regress Analysis and Log-Linear Models

Linear regression: Y = + X
Two parameters , and specify the line and are to be estimated by using the data at hand. using the least squares criterion to the known values of Y1, Y2, , X1, X2, .

Multiple regression: Y = b0 + b1 X1 + b2 X2.

Many nonlinear functions can be transformed into the above.

Log-linear models:
The multi-way table of joint probabilities is approximated by a product of lower-order tables. Probability: p(a, b, c, d) = ab acad bcd

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Histograms
A popular data reduction technique Divide data into buckets and store average (sum) for each bucket Can be constructed optimally in one dimension using dynamic programming Related to quantization problems.
40 35 30 25 20 15 10 5 0
10000 30000 50000 70000 90000
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Clustering
Partition data set into clusters, and one can store cluster representation only Can be very effective if data is clustered but not if data is smeared Can have hierarchical clustering and be stored in multidimensional index tree structures There are many choices of clustering definitions and clustering algorithms, further detailed in Chapter 8
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Sampling
Allow a mining algorithm to run in complexity that is potentially sub-linear to the size of the data Choose a representative subset of the data
Simple random sampling may have very poor performance in the presence of skew

Develop adaptive sampling methods

Stratified sampling: Approximate the percentage of each class (or subpopulation of interest) in the overall database Used in conjunction with skewed data

Sampling may not reduce database I/Os (page at a time).

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Sampling

WOR ndom SRS le ra t simp e withou ( ampl ment) s place re

SRSW R

Raw Data
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Sampling
Raw Data Cluster/Stratified Sample

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Hierarchical Reduction
Use multi-resolution structure with different degrees of reduction Hierarchical clustering is often performed but tends to define partitions of data sets rather than clusters Parametric methods are usually not amenable to hierarchical representation Hierarchical aggregation
An index tree hierarchically divides a data set into partitions by value range of some attributes Each partition can be considered as a bucket Thus an index tree with aggregates stored at each node is a hierarchical histogram
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Outline
Introduction Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation Summary
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Discretization
Three types of attributes:
Nominal values from an unordered set Ordinal values from an ordered set Continuous real numbers

Discretization:
divide the range of a continuous attribute into intervals Some classification algorithms only accept categorical attributes. Reduce data size by discretization Prepare for further analysis

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Discretization and Concept hierachy

Discretization
reduce the number of values for a given continuous attribute by dividing the range of the attribute into intervals. Interval labels can then be used to replace actual data values.

Concept hierarchies
reduce the data by collecting and replacing low level concepts (such as numeric values for the attribute age) by higher level concepts (such as young, middle-aged, or senior).

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Discretization and concept hierarchy generation for numeric data

Binning (see sections before) Histogram analysis (see sections before) Clustering analysis (see sections before) Entropy-based discretization Segmentation by natural partitioning
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Entropy-Based Discretization
Given a set of samples S, if S is partitioned into two intervals S1 and S2 using boundary T, the entropy after partitioning is | S 1| |S 2| E (S ,T ) = Ent ( S 1) + Ent ( S 2) |S| |S| The boundary that minimizes the entropy function over all possible boundaries is selected as a binary discretization. The process is recursively applied to partitions obtained until some stopping criterion is met, e.g., Experiments show that it may reduce data size and improve classification accuracy
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Ent ( S ) E (T , S ) >

Segmentation by natural partitioning

3-4-5 rule can be used to segment numeric data into relatively uniform, natural intervals. * If an interval covers 3, 6, 7 or 9 distinct values at the most significant digit, partition the range into 3 equi-width intervals * If it covers 2, 4, or 8 distinct values at the most significant digit, partition the range into 4 intervals * If it covers 1, 5, or 10 distinct values at the most significant digit, partition the range into 5 intervals
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Example of 3-4-5 rule

count Step 1: Step 2: Step 3: (-$1,000 - 0) -$351 Min msd=1,000 -$159 Low (i.e, 5%-tile) Low=-$1,000 High=$2,000 (-$1,000 - $2,000) (0 -$ 1,000) ($1,000 - $2,000) profit $1,838 High(i.e, 95%-0 tile) $4,700 Max

Step 4:

(-$4000 -$5,000)

(-$400 - 0) (-$400 -$300) (-$300 -$200) (-$200 -$100) (-$100 0) (0 $200) ($200 $400) ($400 $600)

(0 - $1,000) ($1,000 $1,200) ($1,200 $1,400)

($1,000 - $2, 000)

($2,000 - $5, 000)

($2,000 $3,000) ($3,000 $4,000) ($4,000 $5,000)

($1,400 $1,600) ($800 $1,000) ($1,600 ($1,800 $1,800) $2,000)

($600 $800)

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Concept hierarchy generation for categorical data

Specification of a partial ordering of attributes explicitly at the schema level by users or experts Specification of a portion of a hierarchy by explicit data grouping Specification of a set of attributes, but not of their partial ordering Specification of only a partial set of attributes

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Specification of a set of attributes

Concept hierarchy can be automatically generated based on the number of distinct values per attribute in the given attribute set. The attribute with the most distinct values is placed at the lowest level of the hierarchy.
country province_or_ state city street 15 distinct values 65 distinct values 3567 distinct values 674,339 distinct values
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Outline
Introduction Data cleaning Data integration and transformation Data reduction Discretization and concept hierarchy generation Summary
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Summary
Data preparation is a big issue for both warehousing and mining Data preparation includes
Data cleaning and data integration Data reduction and feature selection Discretization

A lot a methods have been developed but still an active area of research
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Good data preparation is key to producing valid and reliable models

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