CSEC PHYSICS

Definitions, Formulae & Equations

SECTION D: ELECTRICITY AND MAGNETISM

1. Matter is made up of small units called atoms.

2. An atom consists of a positively-charged nucleus surrounded by negatively charged electrons

orbiting around the nucleus. The overall charge of an atom is zero.

3. The positively-charged nucleus consists of positively-charged protons held together by neutral

particles called neutrons.

4. When excess electrons are added to an atom, the atom becomes negatively charged.

5. When electrons are removed from an atom, the atom becomes positively charged.

Electric charge

1. Electric charges are either positive or negative.

2. Like charges repel each other; unlike charges attract each other.

3. Rubbing (charging by friction) causes electrons to be transferred from one object to another.
Charge transfer between two objects only involves electron transfer. There is NO
MOVEMENT of positive charges (which are the nuclei of the atoms). Otherwise, the solid will
deform.

4. Insulators can be charged by rubbing, unlike conductors (metals), because electrons are not free
to move about in an insulator and thus charges are localised to the surfaces where rubbing
occurs.
 The excess charge, Q, carried away by one body must
be equal to the number of electrons removed from the Total charge Q[C]
other body. The charges are in multiples of an electron
charge, e (–1.6 × 10–19 C) according to the equation: Whole number multiple of charges
N [ no unit ]
Q = Ne
Electron charge e[C]
Electric charge Q is related to current I and time t by the Current I[A]
equation:
Time t[s]
Q = It

Electric field: An electric field is a region in space in which a unit positive charge experiences a
force.

The direction of the field is determined by the direction of the force acting on the unit positive
charge.

Isolated positive charge Two equal magnitude, positive charges close to each other
 Two charges with equal magnitude but opposite signs

Electromotive Force (e.m.f.): The electromotive force of a d.c. source is the work done by the source
to move a unit charge round a closed circuit

Potential difference: The potential difference across a circuit component is the work done to drive a
unit charge through the circuit component. It can also be defined as the energy
converted from electrical form to any other form.

Current electricity: Currency electricity is the rate of charge.

Resistance: Electrical resistance the ratio of potential difference (V) across the conductor to the
current (I) flowing through it.

Electrical power: Power is the rate of using energy or converting energy. It can also be defined as
the rate of work.

Ohm’s law: Ohm’s law states that the current flowing in a conductor is directly proportional to the
potential difference applied across it when all other physical conditions such as
temperature are constant.
 Work W [J]
The work done is related by the formula:
Charge Q[J]
W = QV
e.m.f. V [ V]

The resistance across a conductor is related by the formula: Resistance R [ ]

V Potential difference V[V]

R =
I
Current I [ A]
The resistance of a piece of cylindrical wire is related by the
Resistivity  [ V ]
formula:
Length of wire L [ m]
L
R = ρ
A Cross-sectional area A [ m2 ]
The resistance of a piece of cylindrical wire is related by the
formula:

E W
P = =
t t

The I-V graph of an ohmic conductor

The I-V characteristic graph for the semiconductor diode:
Alternating current (a.c.) and direct current (d.c.):

Some of the electrical symbols used in circuit diagrams:

 Series circuit Parallel circuit

Properties of magnets:

1. A magnet has two poles where the magnetic forces are the strongest: North pole and South pole

2. Magnets DO NOT exist as monopoles (unlike electric charges).

2. Arrows can be used to indicate magnetic dipoles in a magnet. The arrowhead indicates
North pole.

Laws of magnetism

The law of magnetism states that:

1. like poles repel and

2. unlike poles attract.

Magnetic materials: Permanent magnets are magnets that do not lose their magnetism easily. They
are made from materials like steel. Steel is an alloy of carbon and iron. Examples of
magnetic materials: iron, steel, nickel and cobalt.

Permanent magnets: Permanent magnets are magnets that do not lose their magnetism easily. They
are made from materials like steel. Steel is an alloy of carbon and iron.

The law of magnetism states that:

1. like poles repel and

2. unlike poles attract.

Electromagnet Permanent magnet

Made of a coil of wire (often with a soft iron core). Made of hard magnetic material like steel.
Magnetism is temporary. Requires a current through Magnetism is permanent. Does not require any
the coil to sustain the magnetic field strength. electric current to retain magnetic field strength.

Applications: telephone receivers, electric relays, Applications: magnetic doorstops, compasses,

electric bells, circuit breakers and loudspeakers. motors, dynamos and loudspeakers

* A loudspeaker uses both an electromagnet and a permanent magnet.

Magnetic Field: A magnetic field is a region in space where magnetic materials experience a force.

Magnetic field lines are drawn to help us visualize the direction of the magnetic forces.

A compass can be used to plot the magnetic field lines around a magnet by marking each end of
the compass needle with a dot as it is moved from the North pole to the South pole and linking up
the dots together to form a solid line. The arrow on the line indicates the direction the compass
needle points.
Magnetic field lines between like poles and unlike poles
Momentum: The linear momentum of a body is the product of its mass and its velocity.

momentum = mass × velocity p = m×v

change of momentum = mass × change of velocity Δ p = m v  m u momentum p [ kg m s 1 ]

conservation of momentum m A u A + mB u B = ( m A + mB ) v

The law of conservation of momentum:

The law of conservation of linear momentum states that, in the absence of external forces, the total
momentum of a system of bodies is constant; the total momentum before is equal to the total
momentum after.

Newton’s laws

Law #1: A body continues in its slate of rest or uniform motion in a straight line unless acted on
by a resultant force.
Law #2: The rate of change of momentum of a body is proportional to the applied force and
takes place in the direction of the force.

Law #3: If body A exerts a force on body B, then body B exerts an equal but oppositely directed
force on body A. In other words, 'every action has an equal, but oppositely directed
reaction.

change of momentum ∆p
Resultant force = F =
time ∆t force F[N]
mv−mu
= t
momentum p [ kg m s 1 ]

= ma impulse Ft [ N s]

NOTE: kg m s 1  N s
impulse = change of momentum Ft = mv  mu

Work: Work is the product of a force and the distance moved by Its point of application in the
direction of the force. Work is a scalar.

Energy: Energy is the ability to do work. Energy is a scalar.

Power: Power is the rate of doing work or the rate of using energy. Power is a scalar.

work = force × displacement W = Fs

Energy = force × displacement E = Fs work W [ J = kg m 2 s 2 ]

Ep = m g h Energy E [ J = kg m 2 s 2 ]
1
Ek = mv2 1 joule (1 J) of work is done when the point
2
of application of a force of 1 N moves
1 2 through a distance of 1 m in the direction
Conservation of energy gh = v
2 of the force.

work W E power P [ W = kg m 2 s 3 ]
power = P = = =
time t t
Fv 1 walt (1 W) is the power used in doing 1 J
of work per 1 s.
output energy output power
efficiency = =
input energy input power

Weight: Weight is the product of mass by gravitational field strength.

Pressure: Pressure is the force acting normally per unit area. Pressure is a scalar.

Archimedes’ principle

Archimedes' principle states that when a body is completely' or partially immersed in a fluid, it
experiences an upthrust equal to the weight of the fluid displaced.

Weight = mass × gravitational field strength

W = m×g

Force F
Pressure = P =
Area A weight w[N]

pressure P [ Pa ]
Pressure in fluids = density of fluid × gravitational field
strength × depth in fluid P [ kg m  1 s 2 ]
P =  g h

Archimedes’ principle
F = weight of the fluid displaced =  g V
SECTION B: THERMAL PHYSICS AND KINETIC THEORY

Gas laws

Boyle’s law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant temperature, the pressure is inversely proportional
to its volume.

Charles' law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant pressure, the volume is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature.

Pressure law: For a fixed mass of gas at constant volume, the pressure is directly proportional to its
absolute temperature.

1
P  or P V = constant (when T constant)
V
P1 V1 = P2 V2

V V1 V2
V  T or = constant (when P constant) = temperature T [K]
T T1 T2
pressure P [ Pa ]
P P1 P2
P  T or = constant (when V constant) = volume V [ m3 ]
T T1 T2

P1V 1 P2V 2
No constant (general gas law) =
T1 T2

Temperature:Temperature is the degree of hotness or coldness.

Upper fixed point: The upper fixed point (100 °C) is the temperature of steam from pure boiling
water at standard atmospheric pressure.

Lower fixed point: The lower fixed point (0 °C) is the temperature of pure melting ice at standard
atmospheric pressure.

Heat: Heat is thermal energy in the process of transfer from a point of higher temperature to
one of lower temperature, due to the temperature difference between them.

A body possesses thermal energy, but not heat energy. The thermal energy of a body can rise or
fall, for example by the absorption or emission of heat.
 Kelvin = Celsius + 273
temperature T [ K ] or  [ °C ]
T =  + 273

Specific heat capacity: The specific heat capacity of a substance is the heat needed to change unit
mass of the substance by unit temperature. It is the property of a SUBSTANCE.

Heat capacity The heat capacity of a body is the heat needed to change the body by unit temperature.
It is the property of a BODY.

temperature T [ K ] or  [ °C ]
EH = m c ΔT J
specific heat capacity c[ ] or [
kg K
ΔT = ΔѲ
J
]
EH kg °C
C = mc =
∆T J J
heat capacity C[ ] or [ ]
K °C

The specific heat capacity of a metal by the

method of mixtures
Mass m[g]
mw c w (❑3−❑2 )
cm = J
mm (❑1−❑3 ) specific heat capacity c[ ]
g°C
1  Temperature of hot metal Temperature  [ °C ]
2  Temperature of cold water
2  Temperature of hot mixture
 The specific heat capacity of a metal by an
electrical method
voltage V [V]
VIt current I [A]
cm =
mm ( θ 2−θ1 )
Time t [s]
Ee = V i t
Temperature  1 [ °C ]
1  Temperature of hot metal
2  Temperature of cold water Electrical energy Ee [ J ]
2  Temperature of hot mixture

The specific heat capacity of a liquid by the

method of mixtures

m w c w (❑3−❑2 )
cL =
m L (❑1−❑3 )

Latent heat: Latent heat is the heat energy necessary to change the state of a body without a change
of temperature.

Specific latent heat of fusion: The specific latent heat of fusion of a SUBSTANCE is the heat energy
needed to change unit mass of the substance from solid to liquid without a change of
temperature.

Specific latent heat of vaporization: The specific latent heat of vaporisation of a SUBSTANCE is the
heat energy needed to change unit mass of the substance from liquid to gas without a
change of temperature.

mass m [ kg ]
E H = m lF or
J J
E H = m lv specific latent heat lF [ ] or l v [ ]
kg kg
 voltage V [V]
The specific latent heat of fusion of ice by an
electrical method current I [A]

VIt Time t [s]

lF =
mw
mass of water mw [ g ]
The specific latent heat of vaporisation of water
by an electrical method mass of hot water m1 [ g ]

VIt new mass of hot water m2 [ g ]

lV =
m1 −m2

Evaporation: Evaporation is the escape of molecules from the surface of a liquid.

Boling: Boiling is the escape of molecules from the body of a liquid and occurs only at a
particular temperature for a given pressure.

Differences between boiling and evaporation

Parameter of
Boiling Evaporation
Comparison
Boiling creates an extremely rapid
Movement of movement of water particles as this is an Molecules are always moving, but at a
Particles endothermic process which signifies the much slower rate than boiling.
addition of heat to a substance.
Natural or is a natural process; it is typically known
is an unnatural process.
Unnatural as the first step in the Water Cycle.
occurs all throughout the liquid due to the
Where it Occurs occurs at the surface of the liquid
addition of so much heat.
Time takes shorter period of time takes longer to complete.
requires a temperature that is greater than the
Temperature requires little change in temperature.
boiling point.
Energy requires lots of energy being added. requires little to no energy being added.

Factors affecting the rate of evaporation

1. Temperature. Temperature change is proportional to the rate of evaporation.

2. Humidity. Humidity is inversely proportional to the rate of evaporation.

3. Wind. Wind is proportional to the rate of evaporation.

4. Surface area. Surface is proportional to the rate of evaporation.

Conduction: Conduction is the transfer of thermal energy between two points in a medium by the
relaying of energy between adjacent particles of the medium, with no net displacement
of the particles. Conduction occurs significantly in solids (to a greater extent in
metals than in non-metals), less in liquids, and very little in gases. Cannot occur
through a vacuum.

Convection: Convection is the transfer of thermal energy between two points in a medium by the
movement of the particles of the medium due to existing regions of different density.
Convection occurs in liquids and gases. Cannot occur through a vacuum.

Boling: Radiation is the transfer of thermal energy by means of electromagnetic waves.

Radiation occurs readily through gases and through a vacuum.

Factors affecting the absorption or emission of radiation

Factors Good absorbers / emitters Good reflectors

Texture (rough or smooth) rough smooth
Colour (black or white/silver) black white/silver
Nature (dull or shiny) good emitters shiny
Area (large or small) large small
SECTION C: WAVES AND OPTICS

Pulse: A pulse is a single disturbance that propagates from point to another.

Waves: A wave is a continuous stream of regular disturbances.

Progressive wave: Progressive waves are those that transfer energy from one point to the next.

Transverse wave: A transverse wave is one that has vibrations perpendicular to its direction of
propagation.

Longitudinal wave A longitudinal wave is one that has vibrations parallel to its direction of
propagation

Amplitude: The amplitude of a wave is the maximum displacement of the vibration or oscillation
from its mean position.

Wavelength: The wavelength is the distance between two successive waves in phase.

Phase: Points in a progressive are in phase if the distance between then along the direction of
propagation is equal to a whole number of wavelengths.

Period: The period is the time for one complete vibration of oscillation.

Frequency: The frequency is the number of vibrations or oscillations per second.

Speed The speed of a wave is the rate at which the wavefronts of a wave propagate.

Wavefront: Wavefronts are taken as the line perpendicular to the propagation of a wave on which
all points are in phase.

The speed, frequency and period of a wave

speed v [ m s 1 ]
λ
v = f =
T frequency f [ Hz ] or [s 1 ]

1 Period T [ s]
f =
T
Sound: Sound is produced by vibrating systems and is transmitted as a longitudinal wave.

Loudness: Loudness is related to the amplitude of sound.

Pitch: Pitch is related to the frequency of sound.

Infrasound: infrasound is the classification of frequency of sound below 20 Hz

Audible range: This is the range of frequency of sound between 20 Hz and 20K Hz.

Ultrasound: Frequency range above 20K Hz.

Uses of ultrasound

 Communication.

 Measurement of distance and estimating speed of sound.

 Testing materials.

 Diagnostic imaging.

 Cleaning.

Electromagnetic waves: Group of frequency transverse waves consisting of of an electric field

and a magnetic field which vibrate perpendicular to each other and to their direction of
propagation.
Properties of electromagnetic waves

 Transverse waves.

 Travel at the speed of light (3 × 10 8 m s 1).

 Propagate through vacuum.

 Consist of varying electric and magnetic fields.

 Reflect, refract, diffract and interfere.

Wavelengths and frequencies of the electromagnetic spectrum

 Radio waves (10 8 Hz or ).

 Microwave (10 8 Hz or ).

 Infrared rays (10 8 Hz or ).

 Visible light rays (10 8 Hz or ).

 Ultraviolet (UV) rays (10 8 Hz or ).

 X- rays (10 8 Hz or ).

 Gamma () rays (10 8 Hz or ).

Uses of electromagnetic waves

 Broadcasting and communication  Radio waves

 Communication and warming food  Microwave

 Heater; Night vision equipment; Remote control; Fibre optics communication; Infrared
cameras; Infrared thermometers; Heat-seeking sensors  Infrared rays.

 Human vision; Photography; Remote control; Fibre optics communication 

Visible light.

 Fluorescent lamps; Bank notes; Detergents, chemicals inside them absorb UV rays and convert
the energy to visible light  Ultraviolet (UV) rays.

 Security scanning of passengers and luggage; Medical imaging of dense materials such as
bones or tumours within flesh; X-ray crystallography: a method of investigating the structure
of crystals, etc.  X- rays.

 Cancer therapy; Imaging using a gamma camera; Tracers; Sterilisation  Gamma ()
rays.

Light waves: Two theories of light are light wave theory (Huygens) and corpuscular (particle)
theory (Newton).

light Theories

Huygens: Huygens supported the wave nature of light based on the evidence that light can
undergo reflection, refraction, diffraction and interference.

Newton: Newton supported the particle theory of light based on the evidence that light travels in
straight lines and can travel through a vacuum. It is also supported by the phenomena
of photo electric effect.

Reflection: Reflection is the throwing back by a body or surface of light without absorbing it, is
known as reflection of light.
Laws of reflection

 The angle of incidence is equal to the angle of reflection.

 The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the reflected ray, all lie in the
same plane.

Reflection in a plane
Characteristics of the image formed in a plane mirror

 Same size as object

 Same distance perpendicularly behind the mirror as the object is in front

 Virtual

 Laterally inverted

In a virtual image, the rays appear to diverge from behind the mirror, so the image appears to
come from behind the mirror.

Laterally inverted means reversed side to side, so that the image of a word placed to face a
mirror is reversed.

Refraction: When light is travelling obliquely from one medium to another, then the direction of
propagation of light changes in the second medium, the phenomenon is known as
refraction of light.
For a given  frequency of light, the wavelength is proportional to the wave speed:

wave speed = frequency × wavelength ( v = f ×  )

The relative refractive index of the second medium

with respect to the first medium angle of incidence i [ degrees ]

 1 sin i =  2 sin r angle of refraction r [ degrees ]

η2 sin i Refractive index  [ no unit ]

= = 
η1 sin r

For light travelling from one medium to another, the ratio:

speed ∈incident medium η2

= = 
speed ∈refractive medium η1

Laws of refraction

 The incident ray, the normal at the point of incidence and the refracted ray, all lie in the
same plane.

sin i
 The ratio is a constant, for the light of a given color and for the given pair of media.
sin r
This law is also known as Snell’s law of refraction.
Critical angle: The critical angle is the angle of incidence that produces an angle of refraction of 90°
for light travelling from one medium to an optically less dense medium

Total internal reflection: Total internal reflection occurs when incident angle is greater than the
critical angle.

Applications of total internal reflection:

 Telecommunications.

 Endoscopic diagnostic imaging.

 Endoscopic therapy.
Reflecting prisms

Diffraction: Diffraction is the spreading of waves as they pass through obstacles. The smaller the
wavelength of the wave relative to the gap, the lesser is the diffraction.

Question: Why the diffraction of light is not normally observed?

Answer: Because the wavelength of the light waves might be considerably smaller than the gap
in the obstacle?

Interference: When two waves meet and pass through each other, the waves superimpose. The two
displacements caused by the separate waves are simply added together. This
phenomenon is known as interference
Lenses: A lens is a shaped piece of transparent glass or plastic that refracts light.

 Convex or converging lens is thicker at the optical centre and converges parallel rays of to
produce a real image.

 Concave or diverging lens is thinner at the optical centre and diverges parallel rays of to
produce a real virtual.

 Optical centre is the point at the centre through which all rays pass without deviation.
 Principal axis is the line that passes through the centre and is perpendicular the face of the
lens.

 Principal focus is also called the focal point. It is to this point that all of the rays converge (for
a convex lens) or from which they all diverge (for a concave lens)

 Focal length is the distance between the optical centre and the principal focus

 Focal plane is an imaginary plane located at the principal focus and perpendicular to the
principal axis.

 Magnification is the ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object.

The ratio of the size of the image to the size of the object

image height I magnification m [ no unit ]

magnification = = 
object height O
image height I [ cm ]
image distance v
magnification = =  object height O [ cm ]
object distance u
The lens formula image distance v [ cm ]
1 1 1 object distance v [ cm ]
=  +
focal length oject distance image distance
focal length f [ cm ]
1 1 1
=  +
f u v