bit – the basic computing element that is either 0 or 1, and is formed from the words Binary digit

binary number system – a number system based on 2 and can only use the values 0 and 1
hexadecimal number system – a number system based on the value 16 which uses denary digits 0 to 9 and letters A
to F
error code – an error message generated by the computer
MAC address – standing for Media Access Control, this address (given in hexadecimal) uniquely identifies a device on
the internet; it takes the form: NN-NN-NN-DD-DD-DD, where NN-NN-NN is the manufacturer code and DD-DD-DD is
the device code NN-NN-NN-DD-DD-DD
IP address – Internet Protocol identified either as IPv4 or IPv6; it gives a unique address to each device connected
to a network identifying their location
HTML – HyperText Mark-up Language is used in the design of web pages and to write, for example, http(s)
protocols; in the context of this chapter, colours used in web pages are assigned a hexadecimal code based on red,
green and blue colours
overflow error – the result of carrying out a calculation that produces a value that is too large for the computer’s
allocated word size (8-bit, 16-bit, 32-bit, and so on)
logical shift – an operation that shifts bits to the left or right in a register; any bits shifted out of a register (left or
right) are replaced with zeroes
two’s complement – a method of representing negative numbers in binary; when applied to an 8-bit system, the left-
most bit (most significant bit) is given the value –128
ASCII code – a character set for all the characters on a standard keyboard and control codes
character set – a list of characters that have been defined by computer hardware and software. The character set is
necessary so that the computer can understand human characters
Unicode – a character set which represents all the languages of the world (the first 128 characters are the same as
ASCII code) sampling resolution – the number of bits used to represent sound amplitude in digital sound recording
(also known as bit depth) bit depth – the number of bits used to represent the smallest unit in a sound file
colour depth – the number of bits used to represent the colours of a pixel
sampling rate – the number of sound samples taken per second in digital sound recording
bitmap image – an image made up of pixels
pixel – derived from the term 'picture element', this is the smallest element used to make up an image on a display
image resolution – the number of pixels in the X–Y direction of an image, for example, 4096 × 3192 pixels
pixelated (image) – this is the result of zooming into a bitmap image; on zooming out the pixel density can be
diminished to such a degree that the actual pixels themselves can be seen
pixel density – number of pixels per square inch
compression – reduction of the size of a file by removing repeated or redundant pieces of data; this can be lossy or
lossless bandwidth – the maximum rate of transfer of data across a network, measured in kilobits per second (kbps)
or megabits per second (Mbps)
lossy (file compression) – a file compression method in which parts of the original file cannot be recovered during
the decompression process for example, JPEG, mp3
lossless (file compression) – a file compression method that allows the original file to be fully restored during the
decompression process, for example, run length encoding (RLE)
audio compression – a method used to reduce the size of a sound file using perceptual music shaping
MP3 – a lossy file compression method used for music files
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MP4 – a lossy file compression method used for multimedia files
JPEG – from Joint Photographic Expert Group; a form of lossy file compression used with image files which relies on
the inability of the human eye to distinguish certain colour changes and hues
run length encoding (RLE) – a lossless file compression technique used to reduce the size of text and photo files in
particular
data packet – a small part of a message/data that is transmitted over a network; after transmission all the data
packets are reassembled to form the original message/data
packet header – the part of the data packet that contains the IP addresses of the sender and receiver, and includes
the packet number which allows reassembly of the data packets
packet trailer – the part of a data packet that indicates the end of the data packet and cyclic redundancy check error
check
cyclic redundancy check (CRC) – an error checking method in which all the 1-bits in the data packet payload are
added and the total is stored in the packet trailer; the same calculation is repeated at the receiving station
payload – the actual data being carried in a data packet
node – stages in a network that can receive and transmit data packets; routers are nodes in communication networks
packet switching – a method of transmission in which a message is broken into many data packets which can then
be sent along pathways independently of each other
router – a device that enables data packets to be moved between different networks, for example to join a LAN to a
WAN
real time streaming – the transmission of data over a network for live events where the data is sent as soon as it is
received or generated
hopping/hop number – a number in a data packet header used to stop data packets that never reach their
destination from ‘clogging up’ the data paths/routes
simplex – data that can be sent on one direction only
half-duplex – data that can be sent in both directions but not at the same time
full-duplex – data that can be sent in both directions at the same time (simultaneously)
serial data transmission – sending data down one channel/wire one bit at a time
parallel data transmission – sending data down several channels/wires several bits at a time (usually 1 byte)
skewed (data) – data that arrives at the destination with the bits no longer synchronised
universal serial bus (USB) – a type of serial data transmission which has become the industry standard for
connecting computers to devices via a USB port
parity check – a method used to check if data has been transferred correctly; it makes use of even parity (an even
number of 1-bits) or odd parity (an odd number of 1-bits)
parity bit – a bit (either 0 or 1) added to a byte of data in the most significant bit position; this ensures that the byte
follows the correct even parity or odd parity protocol
parity block – a horizontal and vertical parity check on a block of data being transmitted
parity byte – an extra byte of data sent at the end of a parity block; it is composed of the
parity bits generated from a vertical parity check of the data block
checksum – a verification method used to check if data transferred has been altered or corrupted; calculated from
the block of data of data being sent; the checksum value is sent after each data block
automatic repeat request (ARQ) – a method of checking transmitted data for errors; it makes use of
acknowledgement and timeout to automatically request re-sending of data if the time interval before positive
acknowledgement is too long
acknowledgement – a message sent to the receiver indicating that data has been received correctly (used in the ARQ
error detection method)
timeout – the time interval allowed to elapse before an acknowledgement is received (in the ARQ error detection
method)
echo check – a method used to check if data has been transferred correctly; data is sent to a receiver and then
immediately sent back to the sender; the sender then checks if the received data matches the sent data
check digit – an additional digit appended to a number to check if the entered number is error-free; check digit is a
data entry check and not a data transmission check
eavesdropper – another name for a hacker who intercepts data being transmitted on a wired or wireless network
encryption – the process of making data meaningless using encryption keys; without the correct decryption key the
data cannot be decoded (unscrambled)
plaintext – the original text/message before it is put through an encryption algorithm
ciphertext – encrypted data that is the result of putting a plaintext message through an encryption algorithm
encryption algorithm – a complex piece of software that takes plaintext and generates an encrypted string known as
ciphertext
symmetric encryption – a type of encryption in which the same encryption key is used both to encrypt and decrypt
a message
asymmetric encryption – a type of encryption that uses public keys and private keys to ensure data is secure
public key – a type of encryption key that is known to all users
private key – a type of encryption key which is known only to the single computer/user
quantum computer – a computer that can perform very fast calculations; it can perform calculations that are based
on probability rather than simple 0 or 1 values; this gives a quantum computer the potential to process considerably
more data than existing computers
internet – the world-wide interconnection of networks; the internet makes use of TCP and IP protocols
World Wide Web – a massive collection of web pages and is based on hypertext transfer protocols (http and https)
(web) browser – software that connects to a domain name server (DNS) to locate IP addresses; a browser interprets
HTML web pages sent to a user’s computer so that the user can read documents and watch multimedia
hypertext mark-up language (HTML) – the language used to design, display and format web pages, and to write
http(s) protocols
uniform resource locator (URL) – a text-based address for a web page
hypertext transfer protocol secure (https) – http with extra security (such as SSL) applied
hyperlink – highlighted text or an image that is activated by clicking and links to further text, images, a web page or a
website
domain name server (DNS) – a server that looks up domain names for websites (for example,
www.hoddereducation. com) in order to find the IP addresses that a computer needs to locate the web servers (for
example, 107.162.140.19)
cookie – a text file sent from a website to a user’s browser; it is used to remember user preferences each time they
visit the website
user preferences – settings or options stored in cookies that can remember customised web pages or indicate
browsing history to target adverts
session cookie – a cookie that is stored temporarily on a computer; it is deleted when the browser is closed or the
website session ends
persistent cookies – a cookie that is stored on the user’s hard drive and only deleted when the expiry date is reached
or the cookie is deleted by the user
virtual shopping basket – an area of memory in a website where items a user wishes to purchase are temporarily
stored; items remain in the basket until payment is made or the session has ended
digital currency – currency (a system of money) that exists in electronic form only; it has no physical form and is
essentially data on a database
cryptocurrency – a form of digital currency that uses a chain of decentralised computers to control and monitor
transactions
cryptography – the protection of data/information by use of coding; it usually involves encryption and decryption
blockchain – a decentralised database where all transactions are stored; it consists of a number of interconnected
computers but not a central server
timestamp – a digital record of the date and time that a data block is created in blockchain networks
proof-of-work – the algorithm used in blockchain networks to confirm a transaction and to produce new blocks to
add to the chain; special users called miners complete and monitor transactions on the network for a reward
brute force attack – a ‘trial and error’ method used by cybercriminals to crack passwords by finding all possible
combinations of letters, numbers and symbols until the password is found
word list – a text file containing a collection of words used in a brute force attack
data interception – an attempt to eavesdrop on a wired or wireless network transmission; cybercriminal often use
packet sniffing or access point mapping / wardriving to intercept data
packet sniffing – a method used by a cybercriminal to examine data packets being sent over a network and to find
the contents of a data packet, which are sent back to the cybercriminal
wardriving – using a laptop, antenna, GPS device and software to intercept Wi-Fi signals and illegally obtain data;
sometimes called Access Point Mapping
wired equivalency privacy (WEP) encryption protocol security – an algorithm for wireless networks to protect
them against data interception
denial of service (DoS) attack – a cyberattack in which cybercriminals seek to disrupt the normal operation of a
website by flooding it with requests; also used to clog up a user’s mailbox by sending out thousands of spam emails
distributed denial of service (DDoS) attack – a denial of service (DoS) attack in which the fake requests come from
many different computers, which makes it harder to stop
spam – unsolicited emails sent to a user’s mailbox

hacking – the act of gaining illegal access to a computer system without the owner’s permission
malware – programs (such as viruses, worms and Trojan horses) installed on a user’s computer with the aim of
deleting, corrupting or manipulating data illegally
virus – a program or program code that replicates itself with the intention of deleting or corrupting files or by
causing the computer system to malfunction
active host – functioning software that a virus can affect by attaching itself to the code or by altering the code to
allow the virus to carry out its attack
worm – a stand-alone type of malware that can self-replicate; unlike viruses, worms don’t need an active host; they
can spread throughout a network without the need for any action by an end-user
Trojan horse – a type of malware that is designed to look like legitimate software but contains malicious code that
can cause damage to a computer system
spyware – a type of malware that gathers information by monitoring a user’s activities on a computer and sends the
gathered information back to the cybercriminal who sent out the spyware
adware – a type of malware that attempts to flood the end-user with unwanted advertising
ransomware – a type of malware that encrypts data on a user’s computer and ‘holds the data hostage’ until a ransom
is paid
phishing – sending out legitimate-looking emails designed to trick the recipients into giving their personal details to
the sender of the email
spear phishing – similar to phishing but targeting specific people or organisations rather than carrying out a blanket
attack
pharming – redirecting a user to a fake website in order to illegally obtain personal data about the user without their
knowledge; unlike phishing, pharming is initiated without needing any action by the user
DNS cache poisoning – altering IP addresses on a domain name server (DNS) with the intention of redirecting a
user’s browser to a fake website; carried out by a pharmer (see pharming) or hacker (see hacking)
social engineering – manipulating people into breaking normal security procedures (such as giving away their
password) in order to gain illegal access to computer systems or to place malware on their computer
access levels – different levels of access in a computer system allowing a hierarchy of access levels depending on
user’s level of security
anti-spyware – software that detects and removes spyware programs installed on a system; the software is based on
typical spyware rules or known file structures
authentication – the process of proving a user’s identity by using something they know, something they have or
something unique to them
biometrics – type of authentication that uses a unique human characteristic, such as fingerprints, voice or retina
blood vessel pattern
two-step verification – a type of authentication that requires two methods of verification to prove the identity of a
user
patch – an update for software that is developed to improve the software and/or to remove any bugs
typo squatting – the use by cybercriminals of subtle spelling errors in website addresses used to trick users into
visiting their fake websites
firewall – software or hardware that sits between a computer and an external network (for example, the internet);
the firewall monitors and filters all incoming and outgoing traffic
proxy server – a server that acts as an intermediary server through which internet requests are processed; it often
makes use of cache memory to speed up web page access
privacy settings – controls available on social networking and other websites which allow users to limit who can
access their profile or what they are allowed to see
secure sockets layer (SSL) – a security protocol used when sending data over a network (such as the internet)
SSL certificate – a form of digital certificate which is used to authenticate a website; providing the SSL certificate can
be authenticated, any communication or data exchange between browser and website is secure