Extraction of Production of

raw material building materials

Application and
construction

Recycling

Building
in use

Demolition
Disposal
of building

Earth Building After sourcing the construction soil from its

natural deposits, earth building materials are
Materials – prepared. This process includes various me-
Production, thods of preparation, shaping and drying, and
turns construction soil into an earth building
Requirements material.
Earth building materials are unshaped or
and Testing shaped building materials made of unfired
construction soil with or without aggregates
or additives. Their suitability for a specific
pro
ate testing.

© Springer International Publishing Switzerland 2016 111

H. Schroeder, Sustainable Building with Earth,
DOI 10.1007/978-3-319-19491-2_3
112 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

3.1  Processing of Construction Soil

Construction soil is processed in order to turn the extracted soil into a ­homogeneous,
workable material which can be further prepared and shaped. The addition of appro-
priate aggregates and additives improves the soil’s properties. In this process, the
construction soil is also mixed with water in order to attain the required consistency.
When processing the excavated soil, it is important to break down and blend the
existing structure of the soil with its local disturbances. This includes natural geologi-
cal layers and layers created during excavation. During this process, the clay minerals
contained within the very fine grain particles in the form of agglomerates are allowed
to absorb additional water molecules. This loosens their bond to the coarser grains
and makes the soil easier to process. The quality of processing determines the proper-
ties which can be attained in the ensuing production of earth building materials.
The general goals of processing raw clay mineral materials also apply to the
production of fired bricks. This means that many of the preparation, shaping, and
drying methods are similar, except for one difference: at the end of the technological
chain there is a fired brick which, in addition to special requirements placed on the
raw material, also requires more energy for firing. The development of industrial
production methods for fired bricks in the second half of the nineteenth century also
improved processing procedures which guaranteed a high-quality product. Earth
building, however, did not benefit from this development.
There are natural and mechanical processing methods. While natural processing
typically consists of a wet process, mechanical processing methods can be both wet
and dry.

3.1.1  Natural Processing

During natural processing the construction soil is exposed to the prevailing weather
conditions. Here, time is a key factor. The physical and chemical processes change
(“break up”) the structure of the construction soil. They are caused by the effects of
exposure to sun and frost and by the rotting and decomposition of organic particles
contained within the soil.
In the cultures of Central Asia, China, and Japan, natural processing methods
were among the building tasks with the highest level of responsibility. They were
time intensive, required considerable care, and could, at times, take several years [1].

3.1.1.1  Winter and Summer Weathering

During the winter weathering process, freezing water inside the pores of the soil
increases in volume, causing the natural structure of the soil to break apart. In prep-
aration for winter weathering, the material is piled into heaps of approx. 1 m in the
3.1 Processing of Construction Soil 113

fall. Further mechanical processing of the soil after the winter is generally not nec-
essary. This method of processing requires sufficient and suitable storage facilities
and adequate time in the construction schedule for at least one winter season.
Similarly, for weathering in summer, the heaped construction soil is exposed to
fluctuations in temperature and moisture which lead to corresponding deformations
caused by swelling and shrinkage. This also results in a loosening of the clay par-
ticles which are attached to the coarser-grained mineral particles.

3.1.1.2  Soaking

The process of soaking involves mixing the construction soil with water and allow-
ing it to rest for a period of time. The resulting swelling breaks apart the structures
formed by the clay minerals, making the material easier to work with. In the ceram-
ics industry, extracted soil is filled into soaking pools or bins made of reinforced
concrete, mixed with water and mechanically processed. This method can be used
to mix various soils, clays, and sands together. After soaking, the soil blend can be
sliced out of the mix for further processing.

3.1.1.3  Aging

In contrast to soaking, aging is a biological process of decomposition which involves

fermentation. Algae or bacteria grow in the soil or clay material, causing an increase
in plasticity. This process can be enhanced by adding suitable additives (Sect. 3.1.2.4).
Humus particles in the soil have the same effect.

3.1.2  Mechanical Processing

In the past, soil was manually crushed using human and animal muscle power and
the help of simple tools. Today, a full range of machine systems is available, some
of which originated in unrelated industries (horticulture and agriculture, meat pro-
cessing and the food industry). These machine systems break the construction soil
down into the required agglomerate sizes using different mechanical operating prin-
ciples and both wet and dry methods.

3.1.2.1  Crushing, Chopping, and Kneading

Coarse crushing of the soil breaks down or crushes clods in the soil (d > 20  cm),
which have resulted from the excavation process, into agglomerate sizes <2 cm.
Historical methods of coarse crushing include stomping (by humans and animals)
114 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.1  Traditional processing of construction soil: kneading and crushing in a pug mill [3]

with the addition of water, as well as breaking up clumps of dry soil using hoes,
drop weights, or with the help of animal-operated pug mills reaching a daily output
of approx. 10 m3 [2] (Fig. 3.1 [3]). Hand-operated clay shredders were also used
(daily output approx. 3 m3) (Fig. 3.2 [2]).
Starting in 1850, machine-operated processing systems became more common
in the fired brick manufacturing field. Simplified versions of these systems were
also introduced into soil processing and are still in use today. Examples of widely
used systems are (Fig. 3.3 [4]):
–– Pan grinders/jaw crushers: Clumps of soil are crushed by counter-rotating
­rollers or by one fixed and one rotating roller (daily output approx. 7 m3).
–– Impact hammers: A horizontally positioned disc with attached steel brackets
rotates around its vertical axis at high speed breaking up clumps of soil and
solidified loose rock (daily output 15–40 m3 depending on the specific machine
system).

3.1.2.2  Sieving

During sieving, coarsely broken down soil is sorted according to grain or agglomer-
ate size. In this process, unusable rocks and coarse-grained particles as well as
organic matter, such as tree roots, are separated from the soil. Soil clumps which are
left on the sieve can be broken down mechanically and added to the sieving process
again. The screening device used needs to be able to support the coarse material and
allow the fine material to pass through its openings.
Depending on the final grain size, common mesh sizes are between approx. 2 and
7 mm. Stationary sieves and screens such as an inclined upright screen or a hand
sieve are used for smaller amounts of material which can be moved manually
(Fig. 3.4 [5]). The openings of the screen might become clogged if the soil is too wet
or contains too much clay.
For larger amounts of material, sieve sorting is carried out by machine-operated
sieving systems such as rotating or vibrating sieves (Fig. 3.5 [74]).
3.1 Processing of Construction Soil 115

loading of coarse material

movable roller with

interchangeable pin
pivot

pivot
bearings

hand lever

„pendulum“

frame

oversize screening
material, coarse
sieve passing,
fine

protective cover

Fig. 3.2  Traditional processing of construction soil: chopping in a clay shredder [2]
116 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.3  Mechanisms for the processing of construction soil: coarse crushing, breaking, kneading [4]

Fig. 3.4  Processing of construction soil: sorting by manual sieving [5]

3.1.2.3  Grinding and Granulating

A process of fine grinding is used to turn fine-grained wet or artificially dried con-
struction soils into powdered earth building materials with grain sizes d < 0.063 mm.
3.1 Processing of Construction Soil 117

Fig. 3.5  Processing of construction soil: sorting by machine sieving

Fig. 3.6  Powdered clay, forms of supply [7]. (a) Granulated powdered clay, (b) powdered clay,
“bagged,” (c) silo

Common trade names for this material are “powdered soil and powdered clay” or
“milled clay” (Sect. 2.2.1.2). These products can be purchased “bagged” or in silos
(Fig. 3.6b, c).
In the ceramics industry, different types of mills are used for grinding raw soil,
for example:
Tumbling—or ball mills (Fig. 3.7 [6], Technologie der Keramik, Bd. 2: Mechanische
Prozesse): A rotating steel cylinder (drum) contains grinding balls made of flint
stones (from river beds). The grinding effect takes place when the drum turns and
118 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.7  Processing of

construction soil: fine
grinding in a ball mill,
schematic diagram [6]

the balls, which move to the top of the ball cluster, roll down the incline of the
material pile. The grinding balls hit each other, grinding down the material which
finds its way between the balls. A further grinding effect is caused by the shifting
of the balls within the cluster.
Roller mills: Two rollers of equal diameter rotate quickly in opposing directions on
parallel shafts. This causes the material to be pulled up into the gap between the
rollers set at a width of <1 mm.
The final step in the processing of raw powder can be granulating. For this, a
semi-wet process is used to agglomerate the heated raw powder to a pellet size of
approx. 1–30 mm with the addition of atomized water (Fig. 3.6a [7]).

3.1.2.4  Batching, Combining, and Mixing

Construction soils often do not possess the properties required for their intended
use. A number of aggregates and additives can be used specifically for the purpose
of improving these properties.

Batching

During the batching process, the construction soil, along with any aggregates and
additives (Sect. 3.4.2), is picked up by machines operating in either a volumetric or
gravimetric manner and fed onto a downstream conveyor. Volumetric batching
means that a predetermined volume of solid material per time unit is extracted from
the storage pile and fed onto the conveyor. In gravimetric batching, on the other
3.1 Processing of Construction Soil 119

Fig. 3.8  Automatic batching machine for the production of earth mortar (Company Claytec) [8]

hand, the solid material is weighed using appropriate equipment before the speed
or extraction surface of the batching is regulated. Figure 3.8 shows a fully auto-
matic batching and mixing plant for the production of earth plaster (Company
Claytec) [8].
Batching can also be done manually with the help of simple volumetric m
­ easuring
devices (buckets, portable boxes).

Combining

During the combining process, different material streams—construction soil,

­aggregates and additives as well as any required water—are combined according to a
predefined formula. Different streams can also be homogenized by pouring them into
layers which can then be removed and processed immediately, or after some delay.

Mixing

The goal of mixing is to create a homogeneous and plastic material which retains its
composition over a long period of time. To achieve this, the construction soil, the
aggregates and additives as well as any required water are mixed via a kneading and
120 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.9  Processing of construction soil: different mixing methods with aggregates

cutting process. Here, the use of the term “plastic consistency” describes the ability
of the material to react to external forces by changing its shape without losing cohe-
sion between the individual components. This ability is created by the adhesive
strength of the clay minerals.
Figure 3.9 shows modern and historical techniques for mixing construction soil
with aggregates [9, 10].

3.1.2.5  Slurrying

The terms slurrying or dispersing refer to converting construction soil into a liquid
material through wet processing by using, for example, an electric-powered paddle
mixer. This method disperses the capillary binding forces between the different
grains of the construction soil and separates the clay mineral agglomerate coating
from the coarse grains. Impurities such as lumps of lime or gypsum are also
­dissolved or sorted out in this manner.
3.1  Processing of Construction Soil 121

Fig. 3.10  Pouring clay slurry straw layer [9]

Pouring a clay slurry over lightweight aggregates or submerging these aggre-

gates into the slurry applies a clay mineral coating which, after drying, acts as a
binding agent and ensures the dimensional stability of the shaped building material
or building element (Fig. 3.10 [9]).
Gravel quarries apply the principle of wet separation of clay mineral coatings
from coarse grains in connection with sieve classification with the help of dispers-
ing agents (surfactants). The resulting clay mineral waste product, known as
­compressed soil, can also be used for the production of earth building materials
(Sect. 2.2.1.4).
There is one big disadvantage to applying the slurrying method to break the
­capillary binding forces between the different grain sizes of construction soil: it uses
a lot of water which is typically of drinking quality.
The use of hot water steam is one water-saving method of processing
­construction soil. Exposure to hot steam heats the material to approx. 90 °C while
using a relatively small amount of additional water. This process increases the
material’s plasticity and, with it, its malleability. Accordingly, the shrinkage
deformations of the shaped products during the drying phase are also low. A simi-
lar effect is ­produced by the addition of hot water which heats the material to
approx. 30 °C.
122 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Exposing clay or soil material to hot water or steam is a process used in the
ceramics industry which is also applied in the production of shaped earth building
materials (earth blocks, clay panels). However, such methods are much more energy
intensive.

3.2  Shaping

The goal of the shaping process is to produce a shaped earth building material or
earth building element with a defined cohesion using a processed and unshaped
material mix of plastic consistency. The shaping procedures need to ensure that a
shaped product is created which is uniform in terms of its material and structure and
can be used as a building material or building element after drying. During the
shaping process, inhomogeneities in the shaped product need to be avoided.
­
Examples of inhomogeneities are separation during the mixing of components
made of different materials or grain sizes, differences in compaction during the
manufacturing of the shaped product (particularly during compression shaping) as
well as in the orientation and alignment of anisometric particles, especially of clay
minerals (plates and needles).
During the manufacturing of shaped products, various compaction methods
should be used in order to remove most of the air or water which is trapped in the
pores of the shapeless and typically plastic material. This guarantees the required
strength of the building element or structural component after drying. During com-
paction, not only the frictional resistance of the non-binding sands and gravels
needs to be overcome but also the cohesive strength of clay minerals attached to
the coarse grains. In this process, the particles move past each other and fill the
pores of the loose grain material with fine and very fine mineral particles. This is
only possible if the soil is sufficiently wet or if the applied level of compaction is
high enough.

3.2.1  Aspects of Shaping

The shaping methods for earth building materials can generally be grouped together
based on two aspects:
–– According to the format design of the shaped products as modular building mate-
rials intended for further processing or as complete building elements.
–– According to the consistency or the moisture content of the material mix.
Modular format design consists of the production of earth building materials as
elements, blocks, panels, or clumps made of unshaped, generally plastic earth
3.2 Shaping 123

b­uilding material. Several or many of these individual building elements are

­assembled in a wet or dry state with or without masonry mortar to form a finished
earth building element according to the rules of masonry construction.
Building element format design is characterized by the production of complete
building elements out of unshaped, plastic earth building materials by direct shap-
ing. This area can be divided into direct manual shaping without formwork and
shaping with formwork, which involves the placement and compaction of the earth
building material in layers.
The ceramics industry differentiates between the following types of shaping
based on the consistency or moisture content of the material mix ([6], Technologie
der Keramik, Bd. 2: Mechanische Prozesse):
–– Compression shaping: The materials form a relatively dry and shapeless mass
with a grainy, powdery consistency without any noticeable cohesion and a
­moisture content of <15 mass in %
–– Plastic shaping: The material is plastic and malleable and characterized by
­obvious cohesion of the construction soil and its aggregates, moisture content is
in the range of approximately 15–25 mass in %
–– Shaping by casting: The material is prepared as a viscous-stable, pourable
­suspension (slurry) with a moisture content of approx. 25–40 mass in %
These classifications can generally also be applied to the shaping processes used
in earth building.

3.2.2  Technological Procedures

Table 3.1 provides a general overview of the technological shaping procedures used

in earth building with regard to the aspects of format design, consistency, and mois-
ture content of the materials, as well as the required compaction pressure when
using machines ([6], Technologie der Keramik, Bd. 2: Mechanische Prozesse). As
there are many compaction devices on the market, this table only shows a selection
of typical examples.
The technological shaping procedure used in the production of the individual
earth building material becomes part of the building material’s properties and needs
to be declared in its designation (e.g., for earth blocks according to DIN 18945).

3.2.2.1  Compression Shaping

The compression shaping method is used in modular format design as well as build-
ing element format design. The consistency of the material is solid to semisolid.
Figure 3.11 [4, 11] gives an overview of the technological procedures of compres-
sion shaping with the help of compaction devices.
 124

Table 3.1  Shaping methods for earth building materials, according to ([6], Technologie der Keramik, Bd. 2: Mechanische Prozesse])
Format design Moisture Compaction
Type of Technological Building Building content pressure
No. shaping process material element Consistency CI [mass in %] [MPa] Machine Figure/source
1 Compression Solid— <8–15
semisolid
1.1 Dry compression x Solid <8 <40 Tile press [12], [13]
1.2 Moist/wet x Semisolid 8–15 1–2 Lever press Fig. 3.12
compression 4–6 “Lightweight” press Fig. 3.13a
<20 “Heavy-weight” press Fig. 3.13b
1.3 Superimposed load x Semisolid <10 Flat roller Fig. 3.11
1.4 Tamping/vibration x x Semisolid <10 Hand tamper Figs. 3.14a, b,
x x Electric/pneumatic 3.16
tamper
x Vibrating table, Fig. 3.11
x vibrating plate Fig. 3.15
Sheepsfoot vibration
roller
2 Plastic Soft–stiff 15–25
2.1 Manual shaping x x Soft 15–25 Manual Figs. 4.35, 3.22
2.2 Hand-throwing, x Soft 15–25 Impulse Wooden form, Fig. 3.24a, b
manual molding table
2.3 Extrusion shaping x Soft—stiff 0.5–5.0 Extrusion press Fig. 3.25a
x 10.3 Fig. 3.25c
2.4 Spraying x Soft ~18 15–20 m/s Spray gun Fig. 4.32
3 Casting Paste-like 25–40
3.1 Grid casting x Paste-like 25–40 “Egg layer”-machine Fig. 3.27b
3.2 Strip casting x Paste-like 25–40 Strip casting plant Fig. 3.27c
3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing
3.2 Shaping 125

Compaction method Compaction tool Diagram

static compaction by superimposed press, smooth-wheel roller

load / compression compaction

impulse compaction or ramming pneumatic and electric rammer,

compaction hand tamper

compaction by vibration vibrating plate compactor

combination of static compaction / vibrating sheepsfoot and grid rollers

compaction by vibration

Fig. 3.11  Compaction tools and methods for compression shaping of earth building materials,
overview [11], [4]

Modular Format Design

This type of format design is used in the production of earth blocks and clay panels.
The material is compacted in a sturdy, metal shaping chamber under the application
of a uniaxial static compressive load. It is also possible to apply pressure from two
sides using uniform compression movements in a rigid/cushioned shaping chamber.
Compression shaping is listed as the characteristic property “compression-­
molded (p)” in the declaration of earth blocks according to DIN 18945.
The various compression shaping methods can be divided into “dry c­ ompression”
and “wet or moist compression” depending on the applied level of compression
and the moisture content of the material.

Dry Compression
A free-flowing and relatively dry material is compacted at a moisture content of
<8 % and a compression level of up to 40 MPa. Under these conditions, the pre-
pared soil material is no longer plastic. The solid soil components slide against each
other and shift into a more densely packed mass while most of the pores become
filled. With an increase in compression, the solid particles are additionally plasti-
cized or broken apart. This increases the density of the particle packing further.
Some specific earth building products are manufactured using this method, such as
clay panels used for interiors [12, 13].
The advantages of this shaping method are the high mechanical strength of the
earth building materials, the negligible shrinkage deformations as well as the cost-
and time-saving aspects in terms of drying. Dry compression requires high compac-
tion which can only be achieved by using suitable, cost-intensive systems.
126 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.12  Shaping with a lever press [5]

Wet or Moist Compression

Wet or moist compression is carried out at a moisture content of 8–15 % and a com-
pression level of up to 20 MPa. At this level of compression the material becomes
free flowing and plastic. Compaction is limited by the incompressible water
content.
Nowadays, many different press types are available for wet or moist compression
which can be classified according to various criteria, such as power, compaction
level, daily output, and mobility.
Hand and Lever Presses: The simplest presses are manually powered punch presses
which contain a compaction chamber for shaping one or two earth blocks. Crumbly
material is first poured into a sturdy shaping chamber. By applying compression, the
earth building material achieves its final shape. During this static compaction pro-
cess, the platelike clay mineral particles align in the direction of the tensile forces
applied through compaction, in other words, perpendicular to the applied compres-
sive force. The building material “remembers” this process which means that the
load placed on the dried building material during its use should only be applied in
the direction of the initial compression.
A very popular press in developing countries is the CINVA Ram (Fig. 3.12 [5]),
developed by the Colombian engineer Pablo Ramirez and patented in 1957. The
advantages of this lever press are numerous: its ease of operation and transportation,
also in rough terrains, its independence from the power grid, its relatively low initial
cost, and, most of all, the superior quality of the earth blocks it produces. By today’s
standards, the productivity of this shaping method is very limited. It requires 3–5
people for optimal production in order to achieve a daily output of 300 blocks or
more. The applied compression level is in the range of 1–2 MPa.
3.2 Shaping 127

Fig. 3.13  “Lightweight” and “heavy-duty” earth block presses, selected examples

Motorized “Lightweight” Presses: One way to classify these presses is according to

the design of the work table (Fig. 3.13a [14]):
–– A fixed table with a single shaping chamber
–– A rotating table with several shaping chambers
These presses are mobile, powered by electricity or diesel, with a daily output of
approx. 800–3000 earth blocks. Hydraulic presses with comparable output numbers
are also available. The applied compression level is in the range of 4–6 MPa.
Hydraulic “Heavy-Duty” Production Units: The “Terrablock” press shown in
Fig. 3.13b is a hydraulically powered “heavy-duty” mobile production unit. It has a
daily output of approx. 7500 earth blocks. Production is fully automatic and com-
puterized. The hopper holds construction soil for approx. 10 min of continuous pro-
duction. Integrated sieves filter out large clumps of soil which did not get broken up
during the coarse grinding phase, as well as rocks and organic matter. A vibrating
system facilitates the continuous transport of the construction soil from the lower
128 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

a manuel b mechanized

Start position
A rammer motion during compaction
B direction of rammer motion during compaction
in relation to steel formwork

3 1 4 5 6 2
1 rammer
2 steel formwork
3 loading of soil mixture
4 compacted wedge of soil mixture
5 uncompacted soil mixture
6 unfilled part of steel formwork
Ongoing compaction process

Fig. 3.14  Shaping of earth blocks: ram compaction [10, 15]

part of the hopper to the shaping chamber. A hydraulic press compacts the prepared
construction soil inside the shaping chamber. When compressing is finished the
shaped product is automatically ejected from the shaping chamber onto a conveyor
belt. The applied compression level can reach up to 20 MPa [2].
Ram Compactors: They represent a special technology for producing “compacted”
earth blocks: the method is part of the category “modular format design/wet and
moist compaction” but is classified as “ram compaction” in the following para-
graph. “Compacted” earth blocks can be produced manually or mechanically.
Figure 3.14a [10] shows molds and compaction tools for the manual production
of “rammed” earth blocks. This method is suitable for the production of large-­
format earth blocks.
Figure 3.14b shows the principle of a mechanized ramming system for the pro-
duction of earth blocks [15]. The steel formwork is continuously filled with earth
building material during the compaction process. An expanding wedge of com-
pacted earthen material is built up in the direction of ramming in front of the ram-
mer. This wedge of compacted earth pushes the uncompressed earthen material
forward until it is reached by the rammer and also compacted. Such a system can
produce approx. 250 earth blocks per hour at the dimensions of 390 × 190 × 90 mm
(~1.7 m3) (http://ruskachely.ru).
3.2 Shaping 129

Format Design of Building Elements

For the format design of building elements using compression, the building element
is shaped by adding layers of the earth building material to a formwork (for wall
structures) or to a space with lateral boundaries (for floors and ceilings) which are
subsequently compacted. The interior dimensions of the formwork represent the
final dimensions of the finished building element. Suitable compaction methods are
“static or compression compaction” as well as “rammed compaction or compaction
by vibration.”

Static or Compression Compaction

For static or compression compaction, the earth building material is subjected to a
pulsating load and compacted by static rollers inside the formwork or the lateral
boundaries.
Smooth-Wheel Rollers produce compaction in the effective range of depth by apply-
ing a load. At the same time, however, they introduce a horizontal shear stress
which can lead to wavy deformations of the material layer and lateral cracks in
the roller’s direction of motion.
Grid and Sheepsfoot Rollers combine the static load of the roller’s weight with a
kneading effect. This results in effective compaction, particularly in connection
with cohesive earth building materials. The kneading effect is created by the
special design of the roller.
The roller drum of a grid roller is surrounded by a steel grid. The grid-like design
of the roller drum makes the roller surface three-dimensional thereby preventing
the shear stresses which typically occur with smooth-wheel rollers.
Sheepsfoot rollers are also called spiked or bristle rollers. The roller drum is covered
with rectangular or truncated feet with oval or angular soles. The compaction
effect is caused by the application of pinpoint pressure and horizontal kneading.
This method pushes air and water out of the coarse pores within the uncom-
pressed earthen material. The holes created by the sheep’s feet through pressure
(and possibly also vibration) increase the surface area of the earthen material
considerably. This allows more water to evaporate before the next layer of soil is
added. Sheepsfoot rollers compact the material from bottom to top causing the
penetration depth of the feet to decrease and the feet to lift as the number of
passes increases.
The rollers described above can also be designed as vibration rollers. In this
case, static compaction is combined with dynamic compaction by means of exciter
systems.
In recent years, grid rollers and sheepsfoot vibration rollers have also been suc-
cessfully employed in various rammed earth construction projects (Fig. 3.15 [8]).
130 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.15  Shaping of

building elements by
compacting rammed earth
with a sheepsfoot roller [8]

Ramming or Impulse Compaction/Compaction by Vibration

The “ramming” method of shaping is used both in modular format design for the
production of earth blocks (as described above) and in the production of complete
building elements (building element format design).
Construction soil prepared to a crumbly, free-flowing consistency with a mois-
ture content of <12 mass in % is loaded into formwork boxes, formwork frames, or
formwork for specific building elements. After the soil is added in layers, manually
or using a special pouring device, it is compacted with the help of ramming tools
and a specific ramming frequency. These ramming tools can be manually or
mechanically operated. After the formwork is removed, the shaped products and
building elements are allowed to air-dry.
Hand rammers have been traditionally employed in rammed earth construction
and are still in use today. Their net weight is between 5 and 8 kg with a contact area
of 100–200 cm2.
Pneumatic and electric rammers move in “bounce” and “impact” phases creat-
ing a combination of ramming and vibration between the upward bounce and the
landing of the press. This results in the compaction of the earth building material
within the formwork or lateral boundaries.
Today, pneumatic and electric rammers are used for processing rammed earth
material. Their net mass is limited to a maximum of 15 kg because of the compac-
tion pressure they apply to the formwork. The rate of frequency of these rammers is
3.2 Shaping 131

Fig. 3.16  Compaction of

rammed earth using a
pneumatic rammer

700/min (Fig. 3.16). Electric rammers do not require a compressor for their use on
the construction site. Their tamping plates are made of steel or hard rubber with a
round or square contact area.
Vibrating Rollers and Vibrating Plates: The compaction effect caused by vibrating
rollers is determined by a number of technical parameters with regard to the com-
paction tool and the properties of the rammed earth material. The impulses which
are applied to the rammed earth material in rapid succession (>1200/min) have the
ability to momentarily reduce adhesion within the coarse-grained range. This
allows larger pores to be filled by finer grains and causes excess pore water pressure
or increased air pressure in the finest grain range. Through this, the molecular cohe-
sive forces are partially neutralized and pore water is brought to the surface.
Sufficient superimposed loads and amplitudes can result in a denser particle struc-
ture. However, it is important to pay attention to the compaction pressure on the
formwork.
In addition to vibrating rollers, vibrating plates can attain the same compaction
effect. They consist of a wear-resistant base plate with a reinforced rim which the
motor and vibrator are securely attached to. Their exciter power is higher than their
net mass which causes them to lift off of the surface. Similar to smooth-wheel roll-
ers, this can cause wavy deformations of the material layer and lateral cracks in the
direction of motion of the vibrating plate.
132 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Formwork Systems
Formwork Systems for the format design of earth building elements can be divided
into temporary and permanent formwork systems. Depending on the earth building
materials and the type of compaction, different aspects of the formwork system
need to be considered.
Temporary formwork can be removed immediately after the earth building mate-
rial has been poured in and compacted as long as the newly shaped earth building
element is strong enough. In contrast, permanent formwork remains within the wall
structure and typically serves as the substrate for (earth) plaster. It should be perme-
able and should not significantly impede drying.
Rammed earth construction is related to monolithic concrete construction.
It requires sufficiently rigid formwork which consists of side panels made of wood
or wooden composites serving as temporary movable or climbing formwork.
The formwork panels in traditional rammed earth construction are strengthened
with vertical braces. Wooden or steel ties or anchors are attached horizontally to the
top end of the braces. The braces keep the formwork panels together and absorb the
soil compaction pressure. The ties guarantee the correct spacing for the required
wall thickness. At the bottom end of the braces, the anchors and the formwork pan-
els rest on the rammed wall, and have to be removed after completion of the rammed
wall section (Fig. 3.17).

Fig. 3.17  Traditional shaping in rammed earth construction using formwork panels
3.2 Shaping 133

Fig. 3.18  Prefabricated rammed earth wall elements

When using formwork systems in rammed earth construction the following

aspects need to be considered:
–– The formwork panels must not be allowed to bend outward during compaction.
–– The formwork must be easily adjustable.
–– The individual parts of the formwork must be easy to transport.
Modern rammed earth construction uses formwork systems common to concrete
construction. They are designed for a formwork pressure of approx. 60 kN/m2.
Before the rammed earth material is poured in, the interior surfaces of the formwork
are treated with linseed oil which has proven to be an effective release agent. The
removal of the formwork completes the shaping of the rammed earth building
element.
Figure 3.16 shows the formwork for a rammed earth wall section which is made
up of two layers of fiberboard in a curved line. The second, exterior board easily
overlaps the joints of the interior formwork panels.
A special application of this technique is the industrial prefabrication of wall ele-
ments made of rammed earth (d ≥ 250 mm). Using special installation technology,
these wall elements can be assembled into ceiling-high, load-bearing and non-load-­
bearing wall structures (Fig. 3.18) (Sect. 3.5.8). The formwork and compaction
techniques are the same as those used for producing rammed earth walls.
Straw-Clay and Light-Clay Construction: Straw-clay and light-clay construction
use both temporary and permanent formwork. Even though the level of compaction
for these earth building materials is less compared to rammed earth, the formwork
134 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.19  Shaping during the installation of light straw clay: formwork panels as temporary
formwork

needs to be similarly strong. Stability is attained by ensuring that the vertical posts
of the support frame as well as the non-load-bearing fill frame are positioned
­correctly (Sect. 4.2.3.2).
Temporary formwork is used for light clay with organic fiber additives and
allows for the removal of the formwork immediately after installation. The form-
work can easily be attached to the framing members (for example, using clamps)
(Fig. 3.19).
Permanent formwork should be used for “lighter” light-clay systems because
they typically do not have the necessary stability for the formwork to be removed
immediately. Reed mats are suitable for this type of formwork (70 stalks/m). As the
light-clay construction work progresses, the mats are continuously unrolled and
attached to the timber frame (Figs. 3.20 and 4.45). Other suitable formwork can be
made of lime-bound lightweight panels with organic fiber material. For exposed
exterior timber framing, a combination of temporary exterior formwork and perma-
nent interior formwork is possible. Lightweight panels should be diffusion-open
and should not significantly impede drying.
Cob: The traditional cob building technique was also used to produce building ele-
ments, but mostly without the help of formwork. Cob building elements were
shaped by using a pointed spade or shovel to apply a perpendicular or flush cut to
the protruding and still moist earthen material of the erected wall. Figure 3.21 [16]
shows this type of shaping in the Uzbek version of cob building called “pakhsa.”
3.2 Shaping 135

Fig. 3.20  Shaping of walls made of wood-chip light clay using permanent formwork [9]

Fig. 3.21  Traditional shaping of cob walls (Uzbek: Pakhsah) by cutting [16]

3.2.2.2  Plastic Shaping

Plastic shaping methods are primarily used in modular format design. For these
methods, the consistency of the material ranges from soft to stiff and the applied
compaction pressures are lower than those used during compression shaping.
136 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.22  Production and use of clump-shaped earth building elements

In addition to the specific compaction method used, building material declara-

tions for industrially produced earth blocks must identify the dimensions of the
blocks with a letter symbol (Sect. 3.5.7, in Germany generally the common DIN
formats). Furthermore, solid blocks and perforated blocks (in DIN 18945 identified
by the letter symbol “g”) need to be differentiated between.

Manual Shaping

The oldest and most primeval shaping method in earth building is the production
and use of manually shaped earth clumps without defined dimensions. These earth
clumps are made out of construction soil with a plastic consistency and are found in
a range of shapes: strips, balls, stone-like, and slab-like (Figs. 1.1–1.3). The clumps
were used in load-bearing walls or as earthen infill in a wet (without mortar,
Fig. 3.22a) or dry state (with masonry mortar). Formwork was not required for these
applications.
3.2 Shaping 137

Fig. 3.23  Manual shaping of block and slab-like building elements by cutting

Today, direct manual shaping is still widespread in traditional earth building,

particularly in Africa. Here, earth clumps with a plastic consistency are stacked in
layers to form walls. The “joints” which form between the clumps are evened out in
order to form a smooth wall surface (Fig. 3.22b).
In the wet grassland regions of Northern Europe and North America, square
chunks of sod and turf were cut out of the ground with spades to be used in the
construction of houses. They were stacked into load-bearing walls with their roots
facing up. These blocks have different local names which include “turfs” in Ireland,
“sods” in Great Britain, and “terrones” in the USA (Fig. 3.23b [17]).
Laterites are a fringe earth building material (Sect. 2.1.2.6). With a suitable clay
mineral content, they can be shaped in their naturally moist state. When exposed to
air, however, they harden irreversibly and are quarried manually using a pick ax or
machines and cut to the desired dimensions, similar to easily removable solid rock
(Fig. 3.23a).

Hand-Throwing

The “hand-throwing” shaping method represents the transition to earth blocks

with defined dimensions due to its use of formwork. This method is labeled as
“hand-­thrown (f)” as a characteristic property in the designation of earth blocks in
DIN 18945.
138 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.24  Shaping of earth blocks: hand-throwing

For traditional hand-throwing, the earth building material is prepared to a soft

consistency of 15–25 % by mass, manually thrown with force into a shaping cham-
ber or frame which is then struck with a board without any further compaction
(“hand-molded block,” Fig. 3.24a [16]). The momentum applied during hand-­
throwing aligns the clay mineral platelets perpendicular to the direction of the
motion. The formwork can usually be removed immediately and as soon as the earth
blocks are strong enough they can be turned up on edge to air dry.
Molding tables represent an advancement over simple formwork frames, partic-
ularly in regard to occupational physiology. Here, workers do not have to bend
down to work on the ground but can instead stand at a table (Fig. 3.24b).
Examples of technological improvements in molding tables are
–– A foot pedal for removing the block from the form.
–– Trimmers in slide rails for cutting off excess material.
3.2 Shaping 139

Molding tables were also equipped with a closing plate and a lever for applying
pressure to the plastic material inside the shaping chamber. This completes the tran-
sition to the hand lever press which allows for the application of higher compression
[2, 18].
During the process of mechanical throwing, the plastic material is discharged
from a hopper onto a conveyor belt in volumetrically metered “batches.” The con-
veyor belt then accelerates and throws the “batch” into a steel formwork which gets
completely filled with the earthen material. Excess material is struck off by a wire.
No additional compaction occurs.

Extrusion Shaping

Earth blocks can also be shaped in extruders: the prepared soil mix is added, com-
pacted with a mixing auger, and vented in a vacuum chamber until it is finally
pushed through an extrusion nozzle forming a continuous block which can be cut to
the desired dimensions. This method is labeled “extruded (s)” as a characteristic
property in the designation of earth blocks in DIN 18945.
Extruders can be manually or mechanically filled and operated, and are designed
as stationary or mobile units (Fig. 3.25). Historical extruders were driven manually

Fig. 3.25  Shaping of earth blocks: extruding. Section a–b: plastic flow planes
140 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

or by draft animals. In traditional fired brick extrusion, the brick is advanced by a

spiral drive shaft (Fig. 3.25a), in modern facilities, hydraulic presses with worm
gear drives are used (Fig. 3.25b).
Extrusion is the common shaping method used by the fired brick industry. Here,
the material consists of pure clays. After the shaping process, the “green” bricks are
fired at temperatures between 800 and 1000 °C which make them water resistant.
The amount of pressure applied depends on the consistency of the material (soft to
stiff) and ranges from 0.5 to 5.0 MPa [6]. Stiffer materials result in more dimension-
ally stable products with better drying characteristics but also require higher
­compression forces.
During the shaping process in the extruder, slip surfaces with an increased mois-
ture content form between the more solid areas of the material. This is particularly
true for pure clays. These slip surfaces lead to the formation of shell-like structures
within the brick along the plastic flow planes (Fig. 3.25a [19]). These structures
blend together during the firing of the bricks.
Unfired “clay” bricks or “green” bricks form shrinkage cracks when drying. This
leads to spalling in the case of renewed water penetration, e.g., in exterior walls
which are exposed to precipitation. Examples of such damage after World War II are
documented in [18] (Fig. 5.20).
In the USA, earth blocks up to 3 m in length at defined wall thicknesses are pro-
duced in addition to common earth block formats. These extruded columns are used
as finished wall elements. Figure 3.25c shows the EarthCo Megablock System with
a block cross section of 30 × 46 cm compared to a standard earth block format [20].
For this technique, the material is loaded into a hopper and slides into the pressing
chamber which contains an extended shaping chamber. The stiff earthen material is
compressed into a continuous block by the alternating piston strokes of the press
and pushed into the extended shaping chamber. The frictional resistance of the walls
of the shaping chamber (approx. 150 cm in length) allow for the application of up
to 10.3 MPa of compression force resulting in high compaction of the earth “mega-
blocks” produced.

Spraying

In earth building, the “spraying” shaping method is particularly popular for the
production of building elements including wall and ceiling infill, wall linings as
well as reinforced load-bearing wall construction (with steel) (Fig. 4.32) [21].
Today, the “plaster” building element is also applied through spraying, using earth
plaster mortar and sprayed earth plaster [22].
For this technique, the material is prepared from a mixture of construction soil
and aggregates, possible additives and water. It is mixed to a consistency suitable for
pumping. As with the spraying method used for the application of plaster mortars,
the material is then sprayed under high pressure into a formwork for building ele-
ments (or onto a plaster base) in single or multiple layers. The required compaction
of the earth building material is achieved by the mechanical impact of the soil mix
3.2 Shaping 141

Fig. 3.26  Plastering machine (Putzmeister system) consisting of a continuous mixer with horizon-
tal star wheel drive and mixing helix

onto the building element formwork or the base. The machine systems used for this
technique include a pan or continuous mixer (Sect. 3.1.2.4) and a mortar pump. The
spraying pressure as well as the composition and consistency of the soil mix can be
regulated [23, 24] (Sect. 4.3.3.2).
Figure 3.26 shows a plastering machine with a horizontal star wheel which trans-
ports the initial dry material to a mixing chamber with the help of a mixing helix.
The soil is then mixed with water inside the mixing chamber. In order to achieve
better homogenization of the material additional post-mixer aggregates can be
added before the mix is transferred to the first mortar hose. The cohesive strength of
the clay minerals ensures the adhesion of the material to the substrate during appli-
cation as well as the dimensional stability of the building element while drying.

3.2.2.3  Casting

Casting is used in earth building as a shaping method for building elements. For
casting, the material has a paste-like consistency and a moisture content between 25
and 40 % by mass. No additional static compaction takes place, but vibration com-
paction through agitation of the grid molds is possible.

Grid Casting

The technology of grid casting for the production of earth blocks was developed by
the German-American Hans Sumpf in the Southwestern USA in the 1930s. This
technology is still popular today in New Mexico and Arizona.
142 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

The process can be compared to slipform construction of concrete pavement: an

earth building material of viscous consistency is manually or mechanically poured
into a steel grid mold which is placed on a firm surface. The material is then struck
off and compacted by vibration (Fig. 3.27a, b [14, 25]). The mechanical version of
this method produces up to 20,000 earth blocks daily or up to 1.5 million per season.
The machine systems are also referred to as “laydown” or “egg layer” machines.
The arid climate in this region speeds up the drying process of the earth blocks.
Depending on the weather, the required drying time is 1–3 weeks.
Instead of the grid-shaped molds, a simple frame mold can also be used. Here,
the “earth slab” is laid down on a firm surface and cut into blocks with a plate cutter
while still in a plastic state. The earth blocks are allowed to dry on site until they are
strong enough to be transported and stacked.

Strip Casting

The “casting” shaping method can also be applied to produce thin clay panels.
During the shaping process, belt presses are used to remove water from the viscous
earthen material. Reinforcement can be integrated into the clay panels to increase
their flexural strength and their stability during transport. Figure 3.27c shows a plant
for the production of clay panels (Claytec-clay panel, Company Muhr).

3.3  D
 rying of Earth Building Materials and Earth
Building Elements

Immediately after shaping, earth building materials and earth building elements are
not dimensionally stable and display low levels of strength. They only achieve their
intended structural and physical properties in a dry state which means that the mix-
ing water necessary for the processing and shaping of the earth building materials
needs to dry out again. Shaping and subsequent drying thus complete the production
process of earth building materials.

3.3.1  Drying Process

The drying process of an earth building material or an earth building element can
generally be divided into three phases (Fig. 3.28 [6], Bd. 3: Thermische Prozesse):
Phase 1: The pore water flows to the surface of the building element and the drying
process begins when the water changes from a liquid to a gaseous state and is
released into the surrounding air by means of convection.
3.3  Drying of Earth Building Materials and Earth Building Elements 143

a) b)

loading the formwork manually (a) and using an “egg layer” – machine (b) [25]
with prepared viscous earth building material

Diagram “egg layer” – machine

[14]

c) plant for the production of clay panels (CLAYTEC clay panel, Company Muhr).

Fig. 3.27  Shaping of earth blocks: casting

144 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Drying speed v = f(w)

Loss of mass
w

t t w
TA – drying level

Fig. 3.28  Drying process in earth building materials and earth building elements (according to [6])

Phase 2: As the capillary menisci break down, the evaporation surface moves into
the interior of the building element. Capillary moisture migration extends from
the inner core to the “evaporation level” (Point A). The water vapor which is
formed there diffuses to the surface of the building element through the drier and
lighter-colored layer which becomes increasingly thicker. At the surface, it is
absorbed by the air and transported by convection. In this manner, the evapora-
tion level eventually moves all the way to the core of the building element.
In the second phase of drying, a loss in weight begins to take place which
becomes visible “on the outside” as shrinkage deformation (Sect. 2.2.3.3) and
cracking. In soil mechanics, this state is described as the water content reaching
the shrinkage limit SL (Sect. 2.2.3.2).
Phase 3: When the maximum attainable hygroscopic moisture content whygr (com-
pletely dry soil) is reached, the drying level (Point B) disappears. This moisture
content refers to moisture which is absorbed directly from the air by the building
material or building element through capillary pores. It levels off depending on
the prevailing humidity and temperature. When buildings are in use the practical
moisture content wc (also known as the continuous moisture content) refers to the
moisture content which eventually sets in as the average value within the build-
ing element (Sect. 5.1.2.4).

3.3.2  Drying Speed

The drying speed of a wet earth building element depends on a number of factors:
the initial moisture content, the thickness of the building element, the prevailing
weather and local conditions for natural drying as well as the way water is bound to
the mineral substance of the earth building material with its respective clay mineral
structure. Therefore, average drying times for earth building materials and earth
building elements can only be given as rough time frame estimates ([22], 1st and
2nd editions).
3.3  Drying of Earth Building Materials and Earth Building Elements 145

The drying process is considered ideal when the pore water at the evaporation
level or the water vapor on the surface of the building element evaporate at the same
speed at which moisture is being transported from the interior of the building ele-
ment. The same is true for shrinkage deformations: the decrease in volume of a
sample which shrinks uniformly and on all sides corresponds to the volume of the
evaporated water quantity.
In strong sunlight during the summer, the evaporation speed on the surface is
typically higher than the speed of the moisture transfer in the interior of the building
element. In most cases, sun exposure is uneven due to different prevailing condi-
tions (such as the geometry of the building elements or external shading). The inho-
mogeneity of an earth building material can also lead to uneven drying conditions.
The formation of cracks on the surface of the building element is a visible result of
this process. In the worst case, these cracks can be several centimeters wide and run
the complete length of the building element (e.g., very rich soils with a high mois-
ture content at the time of installation (Fig. 4.24)). It is therefore very important to
protect the surfaces of building elements from direct sunlight immediately after the
formwork has been removed, for example, by covering them with tarps.
The opposite can be true in conditions of high humidity and poor air flow. Here,
convection, particularly on the interior building element surfaces, is not high enough
to initiate a moisture transfer through evaporation from the interior to the surface of
the building element. In such situations, earth building materials containing organic
aggregates, in particular, can be subject to mold. Similar scenarios might develop if
drying can only occur in one direction (e.g., a light-clay panel lining >30 cm
attached to an old building) or if the building elements are particularly thick. It is
therefore essential to provide sufficient ventilation, especially for interior building
elements.
At the Bauhaus University in Weimar, Germany, the drying time and drying pro-
cess of seven specimens of different soil mixtures as well as a rammed earth wall
section were examined [26]. The specimens were dried naturally. The samples for
determining the moisture content were taken from the center of each specimen. The
tests also identified the influence of the initial moisture content on the strength
development of the specimens (Fig. 3.47, Sect. 3.6.2.2).
Figure 3.29a shows the drying process of the specimens at different initial mois-
ture content levels over the course of 90 days and the respective measured values
(Table  3.2). The loess soil specimens I and II (without aggregates) display little
change in moisture content during the first phase of drying. After 2 weeks, the mois-
ture content starts continuously decreasing before the residual water content level is
reached after 90 days. This corresponds to drying phase A in Fig. 3.28.
The rammed earth specimens with straw fibers V–VII show a continuous
decrease in moisture content from the beginning of the drying time, even in the
center of the specimens. It appears that the capillary water transfer from the center
of the specimens to the surface is aided by additional transport channels along the
fibers.
After 90 days, the results for the rammed earth mixtures without (III and IV) and
with straw fibers (V–VII) do not vary considerably, showing a residual water con-
146 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

a drying process / changes in moisture content over the course of 90 days in specimens of
different earth building materials
Water content [%]

7 14 28 45 90 Drying time [d]

(I) loess soil, natural, w ~ wpr

(II) loess soil, natural, w > wpr
(III) rammed earth with coarse aggregate, w ~ wpr
(IV) rammed earth with coarse aggregate, w > wpr
(V) rammed earth with coarse aggregate+ straw fibers, w ~ wpr
(VI) rammed earth with coarse aggregate+ straw fibers, w > wpr
(VII) rammed earth with coarse aggregate+ straw fibers, w < wpr

b moisture profile in the rammed earth test wall during the drying phase [26]

April 2004 May 2004 June 2004 July 2004 August 2004

> 13% water content

11 – 13 %

9 – 11 %

7–9%

< 7%

Fig. 3.29  Drying process in a rammed earth test wall

tent of <1.7 %, independent of their moisture content at the time of installation.

Both loess soil samples I (w–wPr) and II (w > wPr) are much higher, with a residual
water content of 2.8 and 3.8 %. The results for wPr for loess soil and rammed earth
with and without fiber aggregates vary accordingly.
3.3  Drying of Earth Building Materials and Earth Building Elements 147

Table 3.2  Drying process and changes in water content in different earth building material
specimens over the course of 90 days, measured values [26]
Moisture Moisture Moisture
Water content at time content content after
No. Mix saturation of installation after 7 days 90 days
I Loess soil, natural w ~ wPr 0.147 0.131 0.028
II Loess soil, natural w > wPr 0.203 0.172 0.038
III Rammed earth with coarse w ~ wPr 0.099 0.061 0.007
aggregate
IV Rammed earth with coarse w > wPr 0.124 0.106 0.013
aggregate
V Rammed earth with coarse w ~ wPr 0.123 0.101 0.014
aggregate + straw fibers
VI Rammed earth with coarse w > wPr 0.155 0.128 0.017
aggregate + straw fibers
VII Rammed earth with coarse w < wPr 0.093 0.088 0.009
aggregate + straw fibers

Figure 3.29b shows the development of the moisture profile in the rammed earth
test wall while drying over the course of 90 days. Even after 6 months of natural
drying, the moisture content at the core of the 50 cm thick rammed earth wall was
still the same as the initial moisture content at the time of installation.

3.3.3  Drying Methods

In terms of energy economy, natural drying (air drying without additional artificial
heating) of earth building materials which have been processed in a wet state is the
most energy efficient, but also the most time-consuming drying method (Fig. 3.30).
In this context, producers of earth building materials face the following challenges:
depending on the prevailing climate, long drying times are required as well as large
amounts of space in order to ensure the continuous operation of the production
machines.
Artificial drying of earth building materials (e.g., in tunnel or chamber dryers) is
generally more cost-effective, particularly for large and continuous production vol-
umes, because it shortens the drying time. This results in a more efficient use of
machines and a reduction in the required space for drying. However, it has a nega-
tive impact on the energy balance for the production of the earth building materials
(Sect. 1.4.3.2). Brick yards for fired bricks might have an advantage here because
they generally have suitable drying systems at their disposal.
When working with earth building materials which are used in a wet state (plas-
ter, walls, floors), artificial drying with sufficient ventilation is often used, indepen-
dent of seasonal conditions. In winter, artificial drying is always required because of
148 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.30  Natural drying of earth blocks

the risk of frost, but it is also particularly effective because the outside air is often
very dry. In summer, certain weather conditions with high humidity levels make it
almost impossible to naturally dry indoor spaces to prevent mold. Therefore, the
drying process should be monitored and documented (Sect. 4.3.6.3).
The method of drying also plays a role in testing: to prepare specimens used for
determining dry compressive strength, DIN 18952-2 recommended storing the
specimens for 5 days under standard atmospheric conditions followed by artificial
drying at 80 °C until the residual moisture level is reached. According to [27], how-
ever, artificial drying reduces the compressive strength by up to 30 %. It remains to
be seen if the method of drying also affects the strength properties of naturally and
artificially dried earth blocks.

3.4  Designation, Certification, and Production Control

The Lehmbau Regeln [22], developed by the Dachverband Lehm e.V. and officially
approved by the building authorities, define consistent designations and correspond-
ing letter symbols for earth building materials in Germany according to Table 3.3.
The material name is part of the earth building material declaration.
In addition, the designation system also describes the characteristic properties of
the respective earth building material which are given as classes and descriptions,
3.4  Designation, Certification, and Production Control 149

Table 3.3  Designation of No. Name of building material Letter symbol

earth building materials
1 Rammed earth STL
according to the Lehmbau
Regeln [22] 2 Cob WL
3 Straw clay, clay mixed with SL, FL
fiber
4 Light clay LL
4.1 –  Light wood-chip clay HLL
4.2 –  Light straw clay SLL
4.3 –  Light clay mixed with fiber FLL
4.4 –  Light mineral clay MLL
5 Earthen loose fill LT
6 Earth blocks LS
7 Clay panels LP
8 Earth mortar LM
8.1 –  Earth masonry mortar LMM
8.2 –  Earth plaster mortar LPM
8.2.1 –  Clay thin layer finishes LDB [34]
8.3 –  Sprayed earth mortar LSM

Table 3.4  Characteristic properties for the designation of earth building materials, overview
No. Characteristic properties Description/Class
1 Place of production On site or factory mix
2 Aggregates/additives Mineral and organic
3 Consistency/processing Wet (semisolid, stiff, soft, paste-like, liquid) and dry (solid)
4 Degree of prefabrication/ Unshaped (earthen mortar, ready-to-use mixtures) and
format design shaped (earth blocks and panels)
5 Shaping procedure Ramming, compressing, hand-shaping, spraying, casting
6 Dry bulk density Low (ρd < 1.2  kg/dm3)
Medium (1.2 ≤ ρd ≤ 1.7  kg/dm3)
High (ρd > 1.7  kg/dm3)
7 Type of application/ Load-bearing (carrying loads from building elements, e.g.,
application class ceiling, roof, live loads) and non-load-bearing (e.g., infills
in framed structures)
8 Fire performance According to DIN 4102-1: Building Material Classes A1,
A2, B1, B2

e.g., the physical-mechanical properties, certain aggregates (and possible additives),

their intended use as well as aspects related to production and function. Table 3.4
provides an overview of the characteristic properties of earth building materials.
The designation according to DIN 18945-47 is carried out in a predefined order
of characteristic properties of the respective earth building material. Presently, such
designations only exist for earth blocks and earth mortar (Sects. 3.5.7, 3.5.6.1, and
3.5.6.2). For all other earth building materials according to Table 3.3 a specific form
of designation has not (yet) been defined.
150 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

The certification procedure verifies the conformity of the declared data with the
results of tests and inspections of the production process of the earth building mate-
rials. This certification is supplied by external testing authorities according to a
predefined pattern in the form of a conformity certificate (Ü mark in Germany, CE
mark on a European level) as well as by the manufacturers in the form of a confor-
mity declaration. By establishing test and inspection intervals of the characteristic
properties the constancy of performance of an earth building material is proven
beyond its production period.

3.4.1  Place of Production

Earth building materials can be produced traditionally “on site” or “industrially”

using modern methods (e.g., factory mortar mix). For earth building materials pro-
duced industrially or in a plant, it must be proven that their characteristic properties
conform to the requirements of the relevant technical regulations (DIN standards/
Lehmbau Regeln). It should be pointed out that the Lehmbau Regeln also officially
allow the traditional processing of earth building materials “on site.”

3.4.2  Aggregates and  Additives

To improve certain characteristics of construction soil, aggregates and additives can

be added during the production of earth building materials. These added materials
then become part of the designation of the building material.
The earth building materials defined in the Lehmbau Regeln [22] and in DIN
18945-47 are characterized by the properties of their clay minerals. They are the
sole binding agents for the soil mixture during processing and ensure dimensional
stability and strength during use (Sect. 2.2.3.4). Chemically stabilized earth build-
ing materials and clay products containing synthetic binders are therefore not cov-
ered by the Lehmbau Regeln. This does not mean, however, that they should be
excluded. In many countries, these building materials are used on a daily basis and
are subject to local building regulations (Sect. 4.2.1.3). When producing earth build-
ing materials according to DIN 18945-47 all aggregates added to the construction
soil must be declared.
Aggregates mainly change the physical properties of earth building materials.
They decrease shrinkage during drying and increase tensile strength and resistance
to erosion. Lightweight aggregates improve the insulation properties of the building
elements produced from these earth building materials.
Aggregates can be of mineral or organic origin (Fig. 3.31a [28]). Examples of
mineral aggregates are sand, gravel, and lightweight aggregates in the form of ther-
mally modified products such as expanded clay, expanded glass, or expanded slate.
However, the production of thermally expanded products requires more energy.
3.4  Designation, Certification, and Production Control 151

Fig. 3.31  Earth building materials, aggregates and additives [28]

Recycled glass used for the production of expanded glass must not have higher
levels of contaminants than the primary raw material and needs to be tested for its
environmental impacts according to DIN EN 13055 (D).
Organic aggregates are mainly plant fibers such as chopped straw, wood chips,
and hemp shavings. Animal hair, for example, calf hair and pig bristles, can also be
used.
Additives can also be of mineral or organic origin (Fig. 3.31b [28]). They alter the
chemical structure of the clay minerals in the soil thereby reducing unfavorable
properties such as shrinking and swelling. They furthermore increase the compres-
sive strength as well as the earth building elements’ resistance to abrasion and weath-
ering. Organic additives include, but are not limited to, sap and animal excrement.
152 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

For earth building, the most significant mineral additives are represented by the
large group of binders. Binders can be divided into hydraulic and non-hydraulic.
Some of the most common hydraulic binders are cement and hydraulic lime CaCO3.
They completely harden through a chemical process when exposed to air or under
water (after some initial air hardening). In the production of earth building materials
they are often referred to as “chemical stabilizers.”
The chemical stabilization of construction soil with additives restricts an impor-
tant and special ecological quality of earth as a building material which needs to be
preserved: by adding water, dry construction soil can be made plastic again (replas-
ticized), further processed (Sect. 6.2.2.2) or easily returned to the natural cycle
without significant energy expenditures.
Chemical stabilization of earth building materials, especially by adding binders
such as lime and cement to rammed earth mixtures and earth blocks, is most notably
common in developing tropical countries as well as in Australia and the
USA. Particularly in developing countries, different local substitutes are added to
the construction soil in place of expensive cement. These substitutes, which include
ashes of plant by-products (rice husks), can also alter the chemical structure of the
clay minerals.
The use of additives based on synthetic hydrocarbons always needs to be consid-
ered very carefully. Such additives could pollute the indoor air during the building’s
useful life. Possible adverse health effects in connection with the use of bitumen
(asphalt emulsion) have not been examined. Synthetic additives are also problem-
atic in terms of their ability to break down in the natural cycle when soil from
demolished structures is disposed of.
Clay minerals (Sect. 2.2.3.4) are non-hydraulic binding agents. This means that
they harden physically through air drying (air-setting mortars) while retaining their
plastic characteristics. Renewed water absorption results in a “replasticization.”
This makes it possible to return the earth building materials to the shaping process
and keep them in the life cycle without any added energy. The life cycle principle is
an essential component of ecological and sustainable building. Clay minerals can
also serve as additives for construction soil (e.g., as clay powder) if the soil is too
lean for a specific application.
Examples of other non-hydraulic binders are building limes (non-hydraulic lime
Ca(OH)2), gypsum (CaSO4∙2H2O), anhydride (CaSO4), and magnesium oxychlo-
ride cement (MgCO3). In contrast to clay minerals, these binders harden chemically
and can therefore not be replasticized.

3.4.3  Consistency and Processing

The earth building field differentiates between “wet” and “dry” consistency states
for the processing of earth building materials. Accordingly, all earth building mate-
rials that are processed in a wet state, such as rammed earth, cob, straw clay, light
straw clay, and earth mortars (including earth plasters) are classified as wet earth
3.4  Designation, Certification, and Production Control 153

construction. Their application requires adherence to specific consistency states

which, in certain cases, is tested using defined test methods (e.g., for earth
plasters).
Dry earth construction mainly covers interior work using clay panels. Earth
masonry construction is a combination of dry (earth blocks) and wet earth construc-
tion (earth masonry mortar, earth plaster).

3.4.4  Degree of Prefabrication and Format Design

Pre-processed, shapeless mixtures can be used for different shaping methods to pro-
duce modular earth building materials, such as earth blocks and earth panels, or
entire building elements, such as rammed earth walls (Sect. 3.2.2).
Formwork is used to shape the building elements. In traditional earth building,
the surface of the building element is also shaped by manual manipulation, such as
cutting in cob construction.
The actual dimensions of shaped earth building materials need to conform to the
manufacturer’s declared data. In regard to earth blocks, it is important to know if the
blocks are solid or perforated. Perforated blocks need to meet specific requirements
concerning the permitted percentage of holes and the minimum web thickness.
In Germany, the dimensions of earth blocks (with or without perforations) largely
correspond to the DIN formats for masonry construction with rectangular shapes.
Special size variations are also permissible.

3.4.5  Shaping Methods

According to Table 3.1 and Sect. 3.2.2.1, the following shaping methods for earth
building materials can generally be differentiated between:
–– Compression (compression molding and extrusion shaping)
–– Hand-throwing (hand-shaping)
–– Ramming
–– Spraying
–– Casting
–– Manual shaping (earth clumps)
The shaping methods influence the mechanical properties of the earth building
materials used in the production of the building element or structure.
154 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

3.4.6  Bulk Density Class

According to DIN 18945-47 the dry bulk density of earth building materials is given
in classes at intervals of 0.1 kg/dm3. “Light” can be added to the name of the build-
ing material for bulk density classes <1.2 kg/dm3, e.g., “light clay” or “light-clay
block.”

3.4.7  Type of  Application

The mechanical properties of earth building materials determine their suitability for
certain applications. For example, they stipulate if a material can be used in load-­
bearing or non-load-bearing building elements, or if it is for interior or exterior use.
As an example, the respective usage classes for earth blocks are defined in DIN
18945 (Sect. 3.5.7).

3.4.8  Fire Performance

According to DIN 4102-1 and DIN EN 13501-1, building materials are classified
into nonflammable (Building Material Class A) and flammable (Building Material
Class B) in terms of their fire performance. The fire performance of a building mate-
rial is influenced not only by the actual type of material but also by its shape, spe-
cific surface area and mass as well as its combination with other materials, the
connectors used and the type of installation.
The fire performance of earth building materials according to DIN 18945-47
must be tested according to DIN 4102-1 and DIN EN 13501-1. Soil and mineral
aggregates (sand, gravel, etc.) are classified as nonflammable (A1) according to
DIN 4102-4.
The fire performance of earth building materials is therefore of particular rele-
vance when natural and artificial organic aggregates are used in the production of
light clays. Common organic aggregates which could affect the fire performance of
earth building materials are chopped straw, wood chips, wood shavings, sawdust,
and crushed cork. To be classified as Building Material Class A1 (nonflammable)
earth building materials are allowed to have a homogeneously distributed organic
aggregate content ≤1 % of the mass or volume, whichever is greater.
Chapter “5.5 Fire Performance” of the Lehmbau Regeln [22] has been invali-
dated by the German Institute of Construction Technology (DIBt). This means that
the respective Table 5.6 can no longer be applied. For earth building materials not
defined in DIN 18945-47, the determination of their building material class and
their fire performance is currently not regulated. In order to be classified as Class A1
“nonflammable,” the abovementioned percentage of “homogeneously distributed
3.4  Designation, Certification, and Production Control 155

organic aggregate content ≤1 % of the mass or volume” can also serve as a guide-
line for all remaining earth building materials in Table 3.3.
For the time being, DIN 4102-1 is in effect as a national standard in Germany,
together with DIN EN 13501-1 which was introduced in 2010. Its application is
only mandatory for harmonized European permits carrying the CE mark (e.g., ETA,
Fig. 4.18).
DIN EN 13501-1 differentiates between Classes A (nonflammable) and F (highly
flammable). In addition to fire performance, it also includes and classifies smoke
emissions (s1–s3) and flaming droplets (d0–d2). It is therefore not easy to make a
direct comparison to conventional building material classes according to DIN 4102-­1.
However, the “nonflammable” building material classes are identical in both norms.

3.4.9  C
 ertification and Monitoring of the Constancy
of Performance

The procedure defined in DIN 18200 serves as the basis for the conformity certifica-
tion used for assessing a building product. It consists of in-factory production con-
trol and regular external monitoring which includes an initial type testing of the
building product.
The performance of a building product describes its performance in terms of its
declared characteristic properties. It can be expressed through levels, classes, or a
short description (see overview in Table 3.4). Inspection of the characteristic prop-
erties is carried out in predefined cycles throughout the entire production process of
the (earth) building material and is referred to as monitoring the constancy of
performance.
Figure 3.32 shows the systems used for assessing and verifying the constancy of
performance of building materials according to Regulation (EU) No. 305/2011,
Appendix V, which consist of different inspections initiated by the manufacturer or
by an authorized body. A national Technical Assessment Body (in Germany: DIBt)
determines which characteristic properties need to be verified for each material and
which inspection system must be used.

3.4.9.1  Inspections Initiated by the Manufacturer

Before manufacturers can establish in-factory production control they need to carry
out an initial type testing to determine if the requirements applicable to the building
products (= characteristic properties) are met. In-factory production control can
only be started after an initial type testing has been successfully completed.
In-factory production control consists of production monitoring which must be
carried out regularly and documented by the manufacturer in order to guarantee
that production of the earth building materials is in accordance with technical
156 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Inspection systems 1+ 1 2+ 3 4
Initial type testing
Testing of samples taken from the factory
In-factory production control
initial monitoring
Random sample inspection
Initial inspection of the factory and the in-factory production
control
Continuous monitoring, assessment and evaluation of in-
factory production control
Type of conformity Z Z Z E E

Inspection initiated by:

Manufacturer E declaration of conformity
Authorized body (external monitoring) Z certificate of conformity
S 2+: for earth masonry mortar M2 to M4, earth blocks strength class ≥ 2
S 4: for earth masonry mortarM0 and earth plaster mortar, earth blocks strength class 0

Fig. 3.32  Systems for assessing and verifying the constancy of performance of building products
according to Regulation EU No. 305/2011, Appendix V (BauPVO)

regulations and declared parameters are attained. Manufacturers are responsible

for this monitoring procedure, and can implement it themselves or commission an
external lab.
If the results of the inspections initiated by the manufacturer conform with the
characteristic properties which are required by DIN 18945-47 a Declaration of
Conformity is issued for the respective earth building material (Fig. 3.32) in the
form of a conformity mark. The “Ü mark” contains the following information:
–– Manufacturer’s name
–– Proof of conformity certification, such as technical regulations, building registra-
tion number or number of the respective test certificate, or “individual approval”
by an authorized body
–– Symbol or name of certifying body, if required

3.4.9.2  Inspections Initiated by an Authorized Body

External inspections are production controls which are carried out at fixed intervals
in the production facilities of the manufacturer by independent testing institutes on
behalf of the certification and monitoring body. They consist of initial type testing
and compliance monitoring.
For initial type testing, an authorized body checks if the product meets all
demands in terms of its declared properties and if the declarations on its packaging,
and the enclosed information are correct. This test also verifies that all requirements
for continuous and adequate production as well as for in-factory product control are
met. Compliance monitoring can only begin after successfully passing initial type
testing.
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 157

Compliance monitoring covers in-factory production control in terms of

p­ ersonnel and technical requirements to guarantee proper production methods and
correct designation of the products. It is carried out at least twice a year at reason-
able intervals and without prior notice.
If the results of the inspections initiated by the authorized body conform with the
characteristic properties required by DIN 18945-47 a Certificate of Conformity is
issued for the earth building material (Fig. 3.32).

3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties

Earth building materials according to Table 3.3 can be used if their characteristic

properties and their constancy of performance meet the requirements of the
Lehmbau Regeln or DIN 18945-47.

3.5.1  Rammed Earth

Terminology

Rammed earth is a shapeless mixture of construction soil, possible aggregates (and

additives), and water. The dry bulk density ρd of rammed earth ranges from 1.7 to
2.2 (and up to 2.4) kg/dm3 depending on the soil and aggregates used. In recent
years, the use of thermally expanded lightweight mineral aggregates has produced
dry bulk densities of <1.7 kg/dm3.

Construction Soil

For load-bearing rammed earth wall construction, a well-graded (even and consis-
tent) grain size distribution curve is particularly important. Well-suited construction
soils are soils with mixed grain sizes including coarse grains (eluvial soils or glacial
till, Chaps. 2.1.2.2 and 2.1.2.3), which can be classified as lean to rich with low to
medium cohesion in terms of their cohesive strength and plasticity. Houben and
Guillaud [14] identify a wide range of fluctuation in plasticity values (PI = 0.03–
0.30 and LL = 0.24–0.46) and point to the difficulties of clearly defining this range.

Table 3.5  Recommended grain size composition for rammed earth [29]
No. Grain fraction Minimum [%] Maximum [%]
1 Clay + silt 20–25 30–35
2 Sand + gravel 50–55 70–75
158 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Maniatidis and Walker [29] recommend the following upper and lower limits for
the individual grain fractions (Table 3.5).
Similar recommendations are given in [14] in the form of grading envelopes of
the various grain size fractions for the composition of rammed earth.

Processing, Aggregates and Additives

Possible shortcomings of an available construction soil in terms of particle size

(degree of shrinkage, erosion risk) can be balanced through the addition of the
­missing grain sizes (coarse sand, gravel or pea gravel, also thermally expanded
lightweight aggregates). The Fuller curve model can serve as a guideline (Sect.
2.2.3.1). Often, small amounts of organic aggregates (straw or other suitable plant
fibers) are added as well.
The grain parameters (Sect. 2.2.3.1) should, however, never be isolated from the
processing parameters (Sect. 2.2.3.2).
In most developing countries, but also in the USA and Australia, the addition of
lime and cement binders to rammed earth is common practice (Sect. 3.4.2).
Today, a rammed earth mix is typically prepared in pan mixers, but manual
­mixing is also possible. Mixing is complete when the soil mix has a homogeneous,
fine and crumbly structure with evenly distributed moisture. The recommended
consistency is stiff to semisolid.

Application

Rammed earth construction with formwork can be used for producing load-bearing
and non-load-bearing building elements. It is also suitable for the production of
rammed or compressed earth blocks which, after drying, can be used in the con-
struction of load-bearing or non-load-bearing structures in the same manner as stan-
dard masonry. In addition, rammed earth is used for floors and to prefabricate
large-format to ceiling-high wall elements.

Characteristic Properties/Requirements

–– Dry bulk density according to Sect. 3.6.1.3

–– Dry compressive strength according to Sect. 3.6.2.2
–– Maximum grain size according to Sect. 2.2.3.1
–– Linear shrinkage according to Sect. 3.6.2.1
–– Fire performance/fiber additives according to Sect. 3.4.8
The consistency of the mix for delivery to the building site should not be wetter
than “naturally moist.” The mix should have a homogeneous, crumbly structure
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 159

with evenly distributed moisture. During transport of the rammed earth material to
the building site it is important to prevent demixing.

Designation

Based on DIN 18945-47 the following designation is proposed for rammed earth:
Rammed earth—load-bearing/non-load-bearing—Lehmbau Regeln—letter
­symbol with maximum grain size and fiber aggregate—strength class—bulk density
class.
Example  Designation of a rammed earth mix for load-bearing applications accord-
ing to the Lehmbau Regeln with a maximum grain size of 20 mm without fiber
aggregates, compressive strength class 2 N/mm2, and bulk density class 2.0 kg/dm3.
Rammed earth—load-bearing—LR—STL 20–2–2.0.

3.5.2  Cob

Terminology

Cob is a shapeless mixture of construction soil, straw and other suitable fibers, and
water. Depending on the proportion of fiber in the mixture, cob has a dry bulk
­density ρd of 1.4–1.7 kg/dm3.

Construction Soil

In terms of cohesive strength and plasticity, suitable construction soil is a fine-­

grained soil, lean to rich, with low to medium cohesion (loess soil). Due to their
high degree of shrinkage very rich or highly cohesive soils (clays) are difficult to
process and can cause cracking despite the reinforcement effect of the straw fibers.
Rocky construction soils complicate the preparation process as well. However,
they were used regionally for the production of similar building materials in areas
where suitable fine-grained soils where not available.

Processing, Aggregates and Additives

For the manual preparation of cob, straw or other available and suitable plant fibers
with a fiber length of approximately 30–50 cm are spread out in 4–5 layers at a
height of approximately 5 cm. These fiber layers are alternated with 10-cm-high
layers of paste-like or viscous construction soil. The total height should not exceed
60 cm. Niemeyer [30] recommends 25 kg of straw per m3 of soil material. The mix
can also be prepared mechanically in mixers.
160 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Application

Cob is used for repairing existing structures. Generally speaking, new construction
of load-bearing and non-load-bearing walls is also possible, but this is rarely carried
out due to the considerable manual effort it requires. In contrast to rammed earth
construction, cob walls are built without formwork. Cob can also be used to produce
earth blocks.

Characteristic Properties/Requirements

–– Dry bulk density according to Sect. 3.6.1.3

–– Dry compressive strength according to Sect. 3.6.2.2
–– Shrinkage of building element specimen
–– Fire performance according to Sect. 3.4.8
If the cob mix is prepared manually, the mixing water in the layered material will
be evenly distributed after 1 day of resting. It should therefore be possible to mix the
materials with only a small amount of additional water (Fig. 3.33 [10]). The goal is
to achieve a homogeneous, plastic material with uniform processing characteristics.
The fiber material needs to be evenly coated with the clay mix. The recommended
consistency of the soil portion is stiff.

Fig. 3.33  Processing of cob [10]

3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 161

Designation

Based on DIN 18945-47 the following designation is proposed for cob:

Cob—load-bearing/non-load-bearing—Lehmbau Regeln—letter symbol—strength
class—bulk density class.
Example  Designation of a cob mix for load-bearing application according to the
Lehmbau Regeln, compressive strength class 1 N/mm2, and bulk density class
1.8 kg/dm3:
Cob—load-bearing—LR—WL—1–1.8.

3.5.3  Straw Clay and Clay with Added Fibers

Terminology

Straw clay and clay with added fibers is a shapeless mix of construction soil, sand
(if needed), organic fibers, and water. Depending on the fiber content, the dry bulk
density ρd is between 1.2 and 1.7 kg/dm3.

Construction Soil

The recommended construction soil is lean to semi-rich, silty and with low cohesion
(e.g., loess soil, Sect. 2.1.2.1).

Processing, Aggregates and Additives

Suitable organic aggregates are soft straw, hay, or other soft plant fibers with a
length up to 25 cm. The Lehmbau Regeln [22] recommend 40–60 kg of fibers/straw
per m3 of soil material. The material is prepared in the same manner as cob. It is also
possible to process old infill material which might be amended with sand and/or
straw to make it leaner. The recommended consistency of the soil portion is stiff to
soft and depends on the intended use.

Application

Straw clay or clay with added fibers has many uses as a building material: as earthen
infill material for half-timber or timber-frame construction, as earthen infill for tim-
ber beam ceilings, as plaster-like coats, or for producing shaped earth blocks and
panels, typically for non-load-bearing applications.
162 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Characteristic Properties/Requirements

–– Dry bulk density according to Sect. 3.6.1.3

–– Shrinkage of building element specimen
–– Fire performance according to Sect. 3.4.8
The goal is to achieve a homogeneous, plastic material with uniform processing
characteristics. The fiber material needs to be evenly coated with the clay mix. The
recommended consistency of the soil portion is stiff to soft and depends on the
intended use.

Designation

Based on DIN 18945-47 the following designation is proposed for straw clay/clay
with added fibers:
Straw clay/clay with added fibers—non-load-bearing—Lehmbau Regeln—letter
symbol—bulk density class.
Example  Designation of a mix of straw clay/clay with added fibers for non-load-­
bearing applications according to the Lehmbau Regeln with a bulk density class of
1.4 kg/dm3:
Straw clay/clay with added fibers—non-load-bearing—LR—SL—1.4.

3.5.4  Light Clay

Terminology

Light clay (LL) is a shapeless mix of construction soil, organic and/or lightweight
mineral aggregates, and water. The dry bulk density ρd is between 0.3 and 1.2 kg/
dm3. In terms of bulk density classes, light clay is grouped into:
–– Light mixes: ρd = 0.3–0.8  kg/dm3
–– Heavy mixes: ρd > 0.8–1.2  kg/dm3
The predominant aggregate can be integrated into the name of the building mate-
rial, e.g.:
Light straw clay: Straw fibers as an organic aggregate (Fig. 3.19)
Light wood-chip clay: Wood chips as an organic aggregate (Fig. 3.20)
Light mineral clay: E.g., expanded clay as a lightweight mineral aggregate
(Fig. 3.34)
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 163

Fig. 3.34  Light clay, expanded clay used as a lightweight mineral aggregate for infill [77]

Construction Soil

With an increase in the proportion of aggregates, the cohesive strength of the con-
struction soil also needs to increase. This means that suitable soils for heavy mixes
are lean and have low cohesive strength (loess soils) while soils for light mixes are
rich to very rich or fine grained and have medium to high cohesive strength (fluvial
soils, with some clay powder added).

Processing, Aggregates and Additives

Aggregates which can be used are organic fiber material (all types of straw, wood
chips) and/or lightweight mineral aggregates (thermally expanded materials, pum-
ice, perlite). Mixtures of both types of aggregates are also possible. Organic fibers
should not be longer than the shortest length of the finished building element or
building material. For lightweight aggregates, the Lehmbau Regeln [22] recom-
mend the following amounts as aggregates per m3 of building element:
–– Straw from bales: Approx. 60–90 kg/m3
–– Wood chips: Approx. 300 kg/m3
–– Lightweight mineral aggregates: Approx. 300–600 kg/m3
The preparation of heavy mixes is done manually in the same manner as cob or
can be mechanized (Sect. 3.1.2.4). In light mixes, the clay minerals need to coat all
aggregates with a very fine layer. To achieve this, the construction soil is prepared
manually as a slurry or in suitable mixers. The aggregates can then be blended in a
pan mixer (Fig. 3.9). For organic aggregates with long fibers (straw), the slurry is
either poured over the straw (Fig. 3.10) or the straw is immersed into the slurry
(Sect. 3.1.2.5). The straw-clay mixture should rest on a level surface for a period of
time, preferably overnight. This helps distribute the water evenly within the mix-
ture. In this state, the consistency of the soil portion is somewhat stiff.
164 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Application

Light clay is used for non-load-bearing building elements. It has many different
uses as a building material: as earthen infill material for half-timber or timber-frame
construction, particularly for exterior walls and as a lining, as earthen infill of tim-
ber beam ceilings, as plaster-like coats, or for producing shaped earth blocks and
panels.

Characteristic Properties/Requirements

–– Dry bulk density according to Sect. 3.6.1.3

–– Dry compressive strength and degree of linear shrinkage tested on a building
­element specimen
–– Slump of the clay slurry according to Sect. 3.6.2.1
–– Fire performance according to Sect. 3.4.8
The goal is to achieve a homogeneous, plastic material with uniform processing
characteristics. The fiber material needs to be evenly coated with the soil mix. The
recommended consistency of the soil portion is stiff to soft and depends on the
intended use.

Designation

Based on DIN 18945-47 the following designation is proposed for light clay:
Light clay—Lehmbau Regeln—letter symbol with mineral/organic fiber aggre-
gate—bulk density class.
Example  Designation of a light-clay mix for non-load-bearing applications
according to the Lehmbau Regeln with a fiber aggregate and a bulk density class of
0.9 kg/dm3:
Light clay—LR—LL f—0.9.

3.5.5  Earthen Loose Fill

Terminology

Earthen loose fill is loose, free-flowing earth building material made of construction
soil (with or without aggregates) used as fill material for horizontal building ele-
ments (e.g., in ceilings). Water is added if needed. In terms of dry bulk density, the
following types can be distinguished between:
–– Earthen loose fill: ρd > 1.2  kg/dm3
–– Light-clay loose fill: ρd = 0.3–1.2  kg/dm3
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 165

The names can also be formed based on the predominant aggregate, e.g., light
wood-chip clay loose fill; straw-clay loose fill; and construction soil loose fill
­(without aggregate).

Construction Soil

There are no specific requirements in terms of cohesive strength/plasticity and par-

ticle size of the construction soil. Preference can be given to recycled soil under
consideration of the points given in Sect. 2.2.1.3.

Processing, Aggregates and Additives

The construction soil, possible aggregates and water are mixed manually or mechan-
ically and processed into a loose material. Water is mainly added to prevent dusting
during installation. Possible aggregates are lightweight minerals and organic fibers.

Application

Earthen loose fill is used for bulk filling of ceilings and building voids. Soils and
clays which have been prepared as powders and then granulated are particularly
suitable for this application (Fig. 3.6a).

Characteristic properties/requirements

–– Fire performance according to Sect. 3.4.8

In order to check assumed loads the bulk density of the building material can be
tested according to Sect. 3.6.1.2.

Designation

Based on DIN 18945-47 the following designation is proposed for earthen loose fill:
Earthen loose fill—Lehmbau Regeln—letter symbol with mineral/organic fiber
aggregate—bulk density class.
Example  Designation of an earthen loose fill mix according to the Lehmbau Regeln
with an organic fiber aggregate, bulk density class 1.4 kg/dm3:
Earthen loose fill—LR—LT f—1.4.
166 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

3.5.6  Earth Mortars

Terminology

Earth mortars are mixes of suitable fine-grained construction soils, mineral and/or
fine-fibered organic aggregates and water. Earth mortars with a dry bulk density of
ρd < 1.2  kg/dm3 are referred to as light earth mortars.
Based on DIN EN 998, earth mortars are distinguished by the following names
which have also been incorporated into DIN 18946 “Earth Masonry Mortar” and
18947 “Earth Plaster Mortar”:
Fresh earth mortar is a completely mixed, ready-to-use earth mortar. Hardened
earth mortar is earth mortar that has hardened. Stabilized earth mortars are mortars
with the addition of chemically setting binders which have irreversibly changed the
mortars’ strength and ability to replasticize.
Oversize is the screen size of the test sieve on which no sieve residue is left after
sieving according to DIN EN 1015-1. The maximum grain size refers to the screen
size of the upper test sieve D of the grain size fraction for which no sieve residue or
only single oversized particles can be detected. The particle size group of the aggre-
gate is described by the lower (d) and upper (D) screen size as d/D.

Construction Soil

Suitable construction soils are fine-grained, silty to sandy and lean to semi-rich
soils, and soils with low cohesion (e.g., loess soil).

Processing, Aggregates and Additives

DIN EN 998 defines general terms for mortars according to their place and method
of preparation. These terms are correspondingly applied to earth mortars in the
Lehmbau Regeln [22] and DIN 18946-47.
Earth mortar can be mixed out of different materials on the building site as site-­
sourced mortar. Earth mortar made from open pit soil first needs to be prepared
according to Sect. 3.1, and all grain sizes >5 mm must be screened out. Suitable
mortar mix formulas are generally based on experience at the specific location.
For industrially produced mortars, the cohesive binding materials (such as dry
soil, Sect. 2.2.1.2) are supplied by the manufacturer and mixed with additional
aggregates (e.g., sand) on site following a predefined mixing formula. By adding
water, the plasters then reach their required consistency. Site-sourced mortars and
industrially produced mortars are subject to the Lehmbau Regeln [22].
Ready-to-use bagged mortars are finished blends of construction soil and aggre-
gates. They are delivered to the building site dry (in paper bags or silos) or naturally
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 167

moist (in so called big bags, Fig. 3.30). After water is added (according to the manu-
facturer’s instructions), these mortars can be used immediately or after a predefined
period of preparation and tempering. Ready-to-use bagged mortars are subject to
DIN 18946-47.
Reused mortar (recycled earthen material, Sect. 2.2.1.3) is earth masonry or
plaster mortar which has been salvaged from demolished building elements and
prepared with water to attain a workable consistency. It should not contain any
chemical or biological impurities and can be amended with sand and/or straw as
needed (Lehmbau Regeln [22]).
The properties of earth mortar can be influenced according to their intended
use by specifically adding mineral and/or organic aggregates and additives
(Sect. 3.4.2).

Characteristic Properties/Requirements

The suitability test for site-sourced mortar can be carried out on sample surfaces or
building element specimens.
For ready-to-use bagged mortars, the characteristic properties for the intended
use must be verified and declared for initial type testing and as part of in-factory
production control.

Deformations
Fresh Earth Mortar Consistency. In order to attain the required performance char-
acteristics, the consistency of fresh earth mortars can be tested before they are fur-
ther processed. Testing determines the flow consistency a of the test earth mortar
according to DIN EN 1015-3 (Fig. 3.40, Sect. 3.6.2.1). The specimens used for
shrinkage testing are prepared using fresh earth mortar with a flow consistency of
140 mm according to the Lehmbau Regeln.
Degree of Linear Shrinkage. The degree of linear shrinkage of earth mortar is tested
according to Sect. 3.6.2.1. The test specimens are prepared according to the
Lehmbau Regeln with fresh earth mortar with a flow consistency of 140 mm.

Forms of Supply
The manufacturer needs to indicate the consistency at which the earth mortar is sup-
plied (dry/wet). The most common form of supply is dry mortar in paper bags or
silos (Fig. 3.6). The moisture content of dry mortar with organic fibers packaged
airtight should not exceed the equilibrium moisture content of the mortar under
standard climatic conditions (23 °C/65 % RH). A moisture content higher than
“dry” needs to be declared on the packaging by the manufacturer in addition to
information about the amount of water needed to achieve the required processing
consistency.
168 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

The manufacturer’s product information also needs to include recommended

storage conditions and the expected shelf life when storing the product with the
building material supplier and on the building site. Mortar can also be supplied as
ready-to-use fresh mortar.
Concentration of Harmful Salts
The concentration of harmful salts, which could enter the mortar mix through the
addition of aggregates and additives, should not exceed certain limits. Generally,
the property “harmful concentration of salts” refers to soluble anions of the indi-
vidual salts and is given in different levels of contamination. The following classi-
fication in Table 3.6 [31] is for plasters.
The permissible concentration of harmful salts in ready-to-use earth mortar is
defined in DIN 18946 and 18947 or [32, 33] as follows:

Nitrates <0.02 mass in %

Sulfates <0.10 mass in %
Chlorides <0.08 mass in %

The total concentration of harmful salts should not exceed 0.12 mass in %.
Fire Performance
Earth mortars according to DIN 18946 and 18947 continue to be classified as build-
ing material class A1 without additional testing according to DIN 4102-4 as long as
their homogeneously distributed organic aggregate content is ≤1 % of their mass or
volume, whichever is higher. Building material classes A1, A2, and B1 must be
certified once a year as part of the compliance monitoring process conducted by an
authorized body. Building material class B2 must be verified as part of the in-­factory
production control by the manufacturer (Tables 3.9 and 3.11 and Sect. 3.4.8).

Table 3.6  Contamination levels of harmful salts in plasters

Sulfates Chlorides Nitrates Concentration
No. [mass in %] [mass in %] [mass in %] [mmol/kg] Assessment
1 Up to 0.024 up to 0.009 up to 0.016 Up to 2.5 Level 0—no contamination
2 Up to 0.077 up to 0.028 up to 0.05 Up to 8.0 Level I—low contamination
3 Up to 0.24 up to 0.09 up to 0.16 Up to 25.0 Level II—medium
contamination
4 Up to 0.77 up to 0.28 up to 0.50 Up to 80.0 Level III—high
contamination
5 0.77 and 0.28 and 0.50 and 80.0 and Level IV—extremely high
higher higher higher higher contamination
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 169

Application

Earth mortars are divided into the following groups based on their application:
–– Earth masonry mortar
–– Earth plaster
–– Sprayed earth mortar
The application is part of the name of the building material. Mortars which have
been specifically declared for a particular application are only intended for use in
this particular field. For example, an earth masonry mortar is unsuitable as an earth
plaster.

3.5.6.1  Earth Masonry Mortar

Terminology

Earth masonry mortar is earth mortar for masonry construction according to DIN
18946.

Construction Soil

Suitable soils for earth masonry mortar are lean to semi-rich and soils with low
cohesion.

Processing, Aggregates and Additives

The construction soil is typically amended with medium-grained to coarse-grained

sand (d < 2 mm) and organic fibers, if needed. It is designated accordingly with “m”
(mineral) or “f” (fiber reinforced).
According to DIN 18946, the following aggregates are allowed in earth masonry
mortars:
Mineral (m): Natural aggregates according to DIN EN 12620, crushed brick made
from mortar-free bricks, expanded perlite/expanded clay/expanded slate/natural
pumice according to DIN EN 13055-1,
Organic (f): Plant parts and fibers, animal hair, chemically untreated chopped wood
(wood chips).
According to DIN EN 12878, the addition of inorganic pigments is also permis-
sible. All aggregates which have been added to the soil mix must be fully declared.
The individual components need to be blended into a homogeneous material
using suitable mixers in the manufacturer’s plant. Demixing must be largely pre-
vented during bagging and transport.
170 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Application

Earth masonry mortar is used in load-bearing and non-load-bearing earth block

masonry construction (DIN 18946) and other masonry construction using bricks,
concrete, or natural stone (Lehmbau Regeln).

Characteristic Properties/Requirements

Due to their function as connections between earth blocks or clay panels as well as
between bricks or natural stones, earth masonry mortars need to be able to transmit
compressive and shear stresses within the building element. This requires sufficient
adhesion between the earth masonry mortar and the (earth) blocks. Earth masonry
mortars also need to balance out dimensional deviations in the building materials
within permissible limits and seal joints within the masonry structure to make them
windtight.
With regard to the characteristic properties which need to be declared by the
manufacturer, the following requirements are placed on earth masonry mortar
according to DIN 18946.

Maximum Grain Size/Oversized Grain

The oversized grain of earth masonry mortars must be smaller than 8 mm. Tests
should be carried out according to Sect. 2.2.3.1.

Dry Bulk Density

The bulk density of hardened earth masonry mortar is divided into classes according
to Table 3.7.
Standard earth masonry mortars which are used in load-bearing masonry con-
struction have a dry bulk density ρd of approx. 1.8 kg/dm3.

Table 3.7  Bulk density classes of hardened earth masonry mortar

No. Bulk density class Average value of dry bulk density [kg/dm3]
1 0.9 0.81–0.90
2 1.0 0.91–1.00
3 1.2 1.01–1.20
4 1.4 1.21–1.40
5 1.6 1.41–1.60
6 1.8 1.61–1.80
7 2.0 1.81–2.00
8 2.2 2.01–2.20
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 171

Table 3.8  Strength classes for earth masonry mortar

No. Strength class Compressive strength [N/mm2] Adhesive shear strength [N/mm2]
1 M0 – –
2 M2 ≥2.0 ≥0.02
3 M3 ≥3.0 ≥0.03
4 M4 ≥4.0 ≥0.04

Strength
Based on the specific stress earth mortars are exposed to, their strength properties
are classified as compressive strength and adhesive shear strength. They are classi-
fied into strength classes (Table 3.8).
The minimum compressive strength for earth masonry mortar in load-bearing
masonry (strength classes ≥ M2) is 2.0 N/mm2. Earth masonry mortar of the strength
class M0 should have a minimum compressive strength of 1.0 N/mm2. The respec-
tive minimum for adhesive shear strength is 0.02 N/mm2. Tests should be carried out
according to Sect. 3.6.2.2.

Degree of Linear Shrinkage

The degree of linear shrinkage should not exceed 2.5 %. For fiber-reinforced earth
masonry mortars it should not be more than 4 %. Tests should be carried out accord-
ing to Sect. 3.6.2.1.

Resistance to Water Vapor Diffusion

It can be assumed as μ = 5/10 without testing or can be determined using the test
method according to Sect. 3.6.3.4.

Thermal Conductivity
It should be determined according to Sect. 3.6.3.4 and after rounding up the dry bulk
density values ρd to the next 0.1 kg/dm3 according to DIN 4108-4.

Designation

According to DIN 18946:

Earth masonry mortar—main DIN number—letter symbol with maximum grain
size and organic fiber/mineral aggregate—strength class—bulk density class.
Example  Designation of an earth masonry mortar according to DIN 18946 with a
maximum grain size of 4 mm and an organic fiber aggregate, strength class M2,
bulk density class 1.6 kg/dm3:
Earth masonry mortar—DIN 18946—LMM 04 f—M2—1.6.
172 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Monitoring of the Constancy of Performance and Certification

The constancy of performance during the production of earth masonry mortar

according to DIN 18946 is monitored according to the systems defined by the DIBt
which are shown in Fig. 3.32.
Earth masonry mortar of strength class M0:
System S4: Initial type testing and in-factory production control by the manufac-
turer; Declaration of Conformity by manufacturer after successful testing.
Earth masonry mortar of strength classes M2–M4:
System 2+: Initial monitoring of factory and in-factory production control, con-
tinuous monitoring of in-factory production control (compliance monitoring) by the
authorized certifying body; after successful testing, Certificate of Conformity issued
by authorized certifying body; initial monitoring and in-factory production control
are carried out by the manufacturer; after successful testing, Declaration of
Conformity by the manufacturer.
Before in-factory production control takes place, the manufacturer must conduct
an initial type testing which needs to correspond to the listed requirements specific
to earth masonry mortar. Testing must include the characteristic properties listed in
Table 3.9. In-factory production control cannot commence until the initial type test-
ing has been successfully completed.
Compliance monitoring of in-factory production control and of personnel and
technical requirements to ensure adequate production and correct labeling of the
earth masonry mortar must be carried out at least twice a year by the authorized
certifying body. Compliance monitoring cannot commence until the initial monitor-
ing has been successfully completed.
The Product Data Sheet (= Declaration of Performance by the manufacturer)
includes all characteristic properties which have been declared in the building mate-
rial designation and in the material requirements. It can also include a voluntary
declaration of the CO2 value.
The packing slip must include the following information:
–– Manufacturer and plant with manufacturer’s logo
–– Designation, quantity, and form of supply of the delivered earth masonry
mortar
–– Recipient and date of delivery
–– Conformity mark (which also needs to be displayed on the enclosed information
sheet/packaging if applicable)

3.5.6.2  Earth Plaster Mortar

Terminology

Earth plaster mortar is an earth mortar used to cover interior wall and ceiling sur-
faces as well as exterior surfaces which are protected from the weather. The plaster
can be applied in one or multiple layers. A plaster coat is applied in one or more
Table 3.9  Test system for monitoring the constancy of performance of earth masonry mortar
according to DIN 18946
In-factory Scope of Declaration
production testing of building
Characteristic property Initial control/ in-factory material name/
of earth masonry type compliance production product data
No. mortar testing monitoring control sheetd Chapter
1 Oversized grain ○ ○ Every Product data 2.2.3.1
400 tons sheet
2 Bulk density class of ○ ○ /● Every Building 3.6.1.3
the hardened mortar 400 tons material name,
Product data
sheet
3 Linear degree of ○ ○ Every Product data 3.6.2.1
shrinkage 400 tons sheet
4 Strength class Building
according to Table 3.8 material name
M0a Product data
M2–M4b sheet
5 Dry compressive ○ ○ /● Every Product data 3.6.2.2
strength M2–M4 400 tons sheet
6 Adhesive shear ○ ○ Product data 3.6.2.2
strength M2–M4 sheet
7 Fire performance, ○ ○ Once per Product data 3.4.8
building material class ○/● year sheet
B2a
A1, A2, B1b
8 Harmful salts ○ 2.2.3.4
(suspicion)
9 Grain size fraction Building 2.2.3.1
(upper sieve size D) material name
Product data
sheet
10 Aggregates mineral/ Building 3.4.2
organic material name,
Product data
sheet
11 Type of earth mortar Product data 3.5.6
in terms of form of sheet
supply
12 Thermal conductivity Product data 3.6.3.2
sheet
13 Water vapor diffusion Product data 5.1.2.2
resistance factor sheet
14 CO2 equivalentc Product data 1.4.3.1
sheet
15 Activity concentration Product data 5.1.6.1
indexc sheet
Inspection initiated by:
Manufacturer ○: initial type testing; in-factory production control
Authorized body ●: initial monitoring; compliance monitoring
a
Declaration of Conformity by manufacturer
b
Certificate of Conformity by authorized body
c
Voluntary
d
Integrated into: building material name, product data sheet
174 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

steps “wet on wet.” A plaster system consists of one or more plaster coat(s). The
base coat plaster refers to the bottom layer(s) of a multilayer plaster system while
the top coat plaster is the top layer of a plaster system (DIN 18947).
Earth plaster mortars of the bulk density class ≤1.2 according to Table 3.7 can be
referred to as light-clay plaster mortars.
In terms of individual requirements, earth plaster mortar is considered a building
material while earth plaster is considered a building element (Sect. 4.3.6).
Clay thin-layer finishes can be classified as waterborne coating materials accord-
ing to DIN EN 13300. They include (mostly colored) earth plaster mortars which
are applied at a maximum thickness of 3 mm, clay “putty knife” masses, and earth
paint coats. Clay thin-layer finishes are regulated in Technical Information Sheet 06
published by the DVL [34]. In contrast to [22] and DIN 18945-47, this sheet also
includes stabilized earth building materials.

Construction Soil

Suitable soils for earth plaster mortar are silty-sandy soils (loess soil) with a suffi-
cient portion of coarse-grained silt to medium-grained sand to reduce shrinkage. In
addition, the clay minerals contained in the soil need to have enough cohesion to
bind the silt and sand grains to the plaster surface and to keep abrasion to a mini-
mum after the plaster has dried. For very lean soils this can be achieved by adding
clay powder.

Processing, Aggregates and Additives

The construction soil is typically amended with medium- to coarse-grained sand

(d < 2 mm) and, if applicable, organic fiber material, and designated accordingly
with “m” (mineral) or “f” (fiber reinforced). Fiber materials in the plaster act as
reinforcement to prevent cracking during the drying process. They increase the
earth plaster’s mechanical resistance to abrasion and impact and improve thermal
insulating properties in the plaster’s finished state. Sharp-edged sands display higher
interlocking resistance within the soil skeleton and should therefore be given prefer-
ence over rounded sands for use as aggregates.
According to DIN 18947 the following aggregates are allowed in earth plaster
mortars:
Mineral (m): Natural aggregates according to DIN EN 12620, crushed brick made
from mortar-free bricks, expanded perlite/expanded clay/expanded glass (see
Sect. 3.4.2)/expanded slate/natural pumice according to DIN EN 13055.
Organic (f): Plant parts and fibers, animal hair, chemically untreated chopped wood
(no wood composites).
According to DIN EN 12878 the addition of inorganic pigments is also permis-
sible. All aggregates which have been added to the soil mix must be fully declared.
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 175

The individual components need to be blended into a homogeneous material

using suitable mixers in the manufacturer’s plant. Demixing should be prevented
during bagging and transport.
In the earth building traditions of Central Asia, North Africa, and Arabia, the use
of earth plasters with different chemically modifying additives and aggregates is
widespread. In interior spaces they mainly have decorative functions and are an
integral part of the local building culture. The application of earth plasters also has
a very long tradition in Japan where it requires great skill.
In rural areas of Germany, earth plasters were traditionally also used for exterior
walls for economic reasons. In addition to lime, available local waste products were
added as aggregates and additives to improve the plasters’ weather resistance. These
additives included fresh cow dung, whey, and animal blood (Fig. 3.31) which chem-
ically altered the clay mineral structure. These traditional mixes have demonstrated
their suitability and can also play a role in today’s earth building practice, particu-
larly in reconstruction and preservation work.
Currently, the lack of adequate criteria does not allow for a differentiated eco-
logical assessment of chemically modifying additives in earth plasters in particular,
and earth building materials in general. Possible health hazards for the user and
questions of biodegradability of the additives after their return to the natural cycle
are of particular concern.
The organization natureplus e.V. has developed the guidelines called “Earth
Plaster” and “Clay Paints and Clay Thin-Layer Finishes” for their quality seal [35].
The section on “Composition, Banned and Restricted Materials” states the
following:
The product “earth plaster” must contain 100 % mineral and renewable resources.
Clay minerals are the only permissible binders, synthetic binders and chemically
modifying additives are banned. Earth plaster mortars are specifically not allowed
to contain the following materials:
–– Biocides
–– Organohalogen materials
–– Synthetic additives and fibers (e.g., acrylates, polyvinyl acetates)
–– Lime, gypsum, and cement as synthetic binders
–– Cellulose and starch derivatives
The content level of volatile organic compounds (VOCs) in dry earth masonry
mortar is limited to a maximum of 100 ppm. Limits for absorbable organic halogen
compounds (AOXs), pH values, metals/metalloids as well as radioactivity are
defined in the corresponding testing procedures. If recycled earthen materials are
used (Sects. 2.2.1.3 and 6.2.2.1), the products need to be tested for possible absorb-
able content which could pose a health hazard, particularly asbestos fibers, heavy
metals, and aromatic hydrocarbons (PAHs).
Earth plaster mortars must not have increased levels of radioactivity and need to
stay within the limits shown in Table 6.1.
According to [35] and [34], the product group “Clay Paints and Clay Thin-Layer
Finishes” must consist of a minimum of 99 % mineral and renewable resources by
176 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

weight (including chemically modified natural materials) plus water. Clay minerals
must be the main binding agent. The products are specifically not allowed to contain
the following materials:
–– Organohalogen materials
–– Preservatives which are not approved as food additives or for cosmetics
–– Biocides, provided they do not require in-can preservation due to their product
characteristics (e.g., very high alkalinity)
If primers contain solvents which emit harmful substances, plasticizers, and/or
preservatives, they must adhere to the limits listed in Table 6.1. If methyl cellulose
is used as an aggregate/additive, it must be verified that waste water is not polluted
during its production.

Application

In recent years, the field of earth plaster mortars has diversified into areas of various
specialized applications. This has resulted in the development of plasters with spe-
cial properties and product names.

Base Coat Plaster Mortars

Base coat plaster mortars are used for the bottom layer(s) of a multilayer plaster
system, for filling in uneven substrates, and for attaching insulation panels. Because
this layer is intended for applications up to several centimeters thick (typically
10–20 mm) the plaster mix is often rather rich. This can lead to cracks which are
covered during subsequent steps, for example, with the application of a fine-finish
plaster. Base coat plasters contain relatively coarse aggregates, such as fibers up to
a length of 30 mm and fine-grained gravel up to a grain diameter of 4 mm.

Top Coat Plaster Mortars

Top coat plaster mortars are used for the top layers of a plaster system. They can
also be applied as a single coat with a maximum thickness of about 12 mm. In con-
trast to base coat earth plaster mortars, they form the final plaster surface, and there-
fore finer fiber aggregates and grain sizes are used (d ≤ 2 mm). Industrially produced
dry mineral mortars for use as top coat plasters are also referred to as “fine-finish
plaster mortars” or use the abbreviation “CR” (colored rendering mortar) according
to DIN EN 998-1.
Earth top coat and base coat mortars have similar compositions and create rela-
tively rough surface textures. Therefore, many manufacturers do not differentiate
between base coat and top coat mortars but offer the same product for both types of
application.
Thin-Layer Earth Plaster Mortars are earth plaster mortars with fine-grained
mineral and/or fiber aggregates used as the finishing coat of a multilayer plaster
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 177

system. They are applied in thin layers of 3–5 mm and create a very fine and dense
surface texture.
Clay Adhesives are used to connect large-format (earth) blocks and to attach
(clay) panels in dry construction. They are applied at a maximum thickness of 5 mm
with the help of a putty knife. In addition to sand and fine organic fibers they contain
clay powder and other binders such as cellulose and talcum resulting in relatively
high cohesion.
Clay adhesives can also be used as thin-layer earth plaster mortars.

Clay Thin-Layer Finishes

The product group of clay thin-layer finishes constitutes the transition from thin-­
layer plasters to paints. Clay thin-layer finishes consist of construction soil, possible
mineral aggregates, fibers as well as possible stabilizing additives. According to
their use, they are applied at a thickness of <3 mm.
This group includes the following products [34]:
Colored finish earth plaster mortars are applied at paste-like to plastic consistency
as a final surface. They contain color pigments which are added to neutral-­
colored soil mixes. Coloring can also be achieved by adding special colored
clays as binding agents. Both methods can be used to produce a colored surface
finish for creative effects in interior spaces.
Earth putty coats are sandable clay thin-layer finishes with a particularly fine grain
size. They are applied as level substrates for finish earth plasters in a very thin
layer at paste-like to plastic consistency using a putty knife.
Earth paint coats comprise brushable earth plasters and clay paints which are
applied as finish coats at paste-like to plastic consistency.
Brushable earth plasters are “granulated paints” which create a textured surface
through specific grain sizes contained in the plaster. They are applied like
paints and can be compared to fine-finish earth plasters in terms of their fin-
ished surface structure. In addition to clay powder, cellulose or starch can also
be used as binders.
Clay paints are paints composed of a combination of clay powder and cellulose/
starch as the binding agent but without a visibly grainy texture.

Dry Clay Plaster Boards

Dry clay plaster boards are unique among earth plasters as an alternative to the wet
application of plaster mortars. They are thin clay panels reinforced with reed, cur-
rently available at a thickness of 16 mm and dimensions of 62.5 × 62.5 cm2. The
board’s surface is covered with coarsely woven jute fabric. Dry clay plaster boards
are glued like tiles to a level and dry substrate and covered with a thin fine-finish
earth plaster.
178 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Characteristic Properties/Requirements

Earth plaster mortars must adhere sufficiently to the substrate. Top coat plasters
should be free of cracking and meet the visual requirements placed on them (Sect.
4.3.6.3).
Concerning the characteristic properties which need to be declared by the manu-
facturer, earth plaster mortars must meet the following requirements according to
DIN 18947:

Maximum Grain Size/Oversized Grain

The oversized grain of earth plaster mortars must be smaller than the minimum
plaster coat thickness given by the manufacturer.

Dry Bulk Density

The bulk density of hardened earth plaster mortar is divided into classes according
to Table 3.7. Earth plaster mortars of the bulk density class ≤1.2 can be referred to
as light-clay plaster mortars.

Strength and Abrasion
The strength properties of earth plaster mortar are classified according to DIN
18947 into different strength classes. Based on the stresses they are exposed to, they
consist of compressive strength, flexural strength, and adhesive strength. Earth plas-
ter mortars must meet the minimum requirements for the individual strength classes
listed in Table 3.10. Concerning cohesive strength and abrasion, clay thin-layer fin-
ishes must meet the requirements of strength class S II.
Abrasion must not exceed the specific values listed for the respective strength
classes (Table 3.10). The abrasion of colored finish earth plaster mortars and earth
putty coats should not exceed 0.70 g, of brushable earth plasters and clay paints 0.20
and 0.03 g, respectively.

Degree of Linear Shrinkage

The degree of linear shrinkage should not exceed 2.0 %, or 3.0 % for fiber-­reinforced
earth plaster mortars. Fiber-reinforced and mineral mortars for thin-layer plaster can
exhibit a degree of linear shrinkage up to 4 %. Here, the material-specific workabil-
ity must be ensured for the specific layer thickness defined by the manufacturer.

Table 3.10  Strength classes of earth plaster mortar

Strength Compressive Flexural strength Adhesive strength
No. class strength [N/mm2] [N/mm2] [N/mm2] Abrasion [g]
1 SI ≥1.0 ≥0.3 ≥0.05 ≤1.5
2 S II ≥1.5 ≥0.7 ≥0.10 ≤0.7
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 179

Resistance to Water Vapor Diffusion

It can be assumed as μ = 5/10 without testing or can be determined using the test
method according to Sect. 3.6.3.4.

Water Vapor Adsorption

At a minimum, earth plaster mortars should meet the requirements of water adsorp-
tion class WS I according to Table 3.32. Clay thin-layer finishes should not signifi-
cantly reduce the water vapor adsorption of the underlying earth plaster mortar. This
requirement is met as long as the clay thin-layer finishes reduce the water vapor
adsorption of earth plaster mortars of water adsorption class WS III
–– More than 3 g/m2 after 1 h.
–– More than 7 g/m2 after 6 h [34].

Thermal Conductivity
It must be determined according to Sect. 3.6.3.4 and after rounding up the dry bulk
density values ρd to the next 0.1 kg/dm3 according to DIN 4108-4.

Designation

According to DIN 18947:

Earth plaster mortar—main DIN number—letter symbol with maximum grain
size and organic fiber/mineral aggregate—strength class—bulk density class.
Example  Designation of an earth plaster mortar according to DIN 18947 with a
maximum grain size of 2 mm and an organic fiber aggregate, strength class SII, bulk
density class 1.6 kg/dm3:
Earth plaster mortar—DIN 18947—LPM 02 f—SII—1.6.

Monitoring of the Constancy of Performance and Certification

The constancy of performance during the production of earth plaster mortar accord-
ing to DIN 18947 is monitored according to the systems defined by the DIBt which
are shown in Fig. 3.32.
System S4: Initial type testing and in-factory production control by the manufac-
turer; after successful testing, Declaration of Conformity by the manufacturer. Earth
plaster mortars do not receive a conformity mark as is the case with all mineral
plaster mortars.
Before in-factory production control takes place, the manufacturer must conduct
an initial type testing which needs to correspond to the listed requirements specific
to earth plaster mortar. Testing must include the characteristic properties listed in
Table 3.11. In-factory production control by the manufacturer cannot commence
until initial type testing has been successfully completed.
Table 3.11  Test system for monitoring the constancy of performance of earth plaster mortar
according to DIN 18947
Scope of Declaration
testing of
Characteristic Initial In-factory in-factory Building material
property of earth type production production name/product
No. plaster mortar testing control controlb data sheetc Chapter
1 Oversized grain ○ ○ 400 tons Product data sheet 2.2.3.1
2 Bulk density class of ○ ○ 400 tons Building material 3.6.1.3
hardened mortar name
Product data sheet
3 Linear degree of ○ ○ 400 tons Product data sheet 3.6.2.1
shrinkage
4 Strength class Building material
according to name
Table 3.10 Product data sheet
5 Dry compressive ○ ○ 400 tons Product data sheet 3.6.2.2
strength
6 Flexural strength ○ Product data sheet 3.6.2.2
7 Cohesive strength ○ Product data sheet 3.6.2.2
8 Fire performance, ○ ○ Once per Product data sheet 3.4.8
building material year
classes A1, A2, B1
9 Harmful salts ○ 2.2.3.4
(suspicion)
10 Grain size fraction Building material 2.2.3.1
(upper sieve size D) name
Product data sheet
11 Mineral/organic Building material 3.4.2
aggregates name
Product data sheet
12 Type of earth mortar Product data sheet 3.5.6
in terms of form of
supply
13 Thickness of layer Product data sheet
min./max.
14 Thermal conductivity Product data sheet 3.6.3.2
15 Water vapor diffusion Product data sheet 5.1.2.2
resistance factor
16 Abrasion (suspicion)a ○ Product data sheet 3.6.2.2
17 Water vapor Once Product data sheet 3.6.3.1
adsorption classa every 2 5.1.2.5
according to years
Table 3.32
18 CO2 equivalenta Product data sheet 1.4.3.1
19 Activity Product data sheet 5.1.6.1
concentration indexa
Inspection initiated by manufacturer ○: initial type testing; in-factory production control
a
Voluntary
b
At a yearly production volume ≤ 1600 tons or 4× per year at a production volume > 1600 tons; for
earth mortar used in thin-layer plasters, the following applies: 200 tons or 8× per year in-factory
production control at yearly production volumes of ≤ or > 1600  tons
c
Integrated into: building material name, product data sheet
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 181

The packing slip must include the following information:

–– Manufacturer and plant with manufacturer’s logo.
–– Designation, quantity, and form of supply of the earth plaster mortar in
delivery.
–– Recipient and date of delivery.

3.5.6.3  Sprayed Earth Mortar

Terminology

Sprayed earth mortar is earth mortar used for filling in skeletal framework using a
spraying technique. Sprayed earth mortars are not considered earth plaster mortars
according to Sect. 3.5.6.2. Sprayed earth mortars with a bulk density class ≤1.2
according to Table 3.7 can be referred to as sprayed light-clay mortars.

Construction Soil

Suitable construction soils are semi-rich to rich and low to semi-cohesive.

Processing, Aggregates and Additives

It is especially important for sprayed earth mortar mixes, and in particular for their
aggregates, to be suitable for use in machines. Sand is a suitable mineral aggregate and
suitable organic aggregates include sawdust as well as finely chopped straw fibers [23].

Application

Sprayed earth mortar is used as half-timber infill, for the construction of linings and
steel-reinforced walls (Fig. 4.32), and as ceiling infill.

Characteristic Properties/Requirements

Sprayed earth mortars which are applied in single or multiple layers need to adhere
firmly to the substrate or the formwork.
–– Dry bulk density according to Sect. 3.6.1.3
–– Linear shrinkage of the final mix (or a building element specimen if necessary)
according to Sect. 3.6.2.1
182 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Designation

Based on DIN 1894-47 the following designation is proposed for sprayed earth
mortar:
Sprayed earth mortar—Lehmbau Regeln—letter symbol with mineral/organic
aggregate—bulk density class.
Example  Designation of a sprayed earth mortar mix according to the Lehmbau
Regeln with an organic fiber aggregate, bulk density class 1.4 kg/dm3:
Sprayed earth mortar—LR—LSM f—1, 4.

3.5.7  Earth Blocks

Terminology

Earth blocks are typically rectangular-shaped earth building materials which are
made from unshaped earthen materials according to Sects. 3.5.1, 3.5.3, and 3.5.4.
Based on DIN EN 771-1, the following terms are defined for earth blocks and are
used in the corresponding DIN 18945.
Solid earth blocks are blocks with an overall perforation surface of <15 %
­running perpendicular to the horizontal bedding side.
Perforated earth blocks have an overall perforation surface of ≥15 % running
perpendicular to the horizontal bedding side. Earth blocks with a bulk density class
of <1.2 according to Table 3.7 are referred to as light-clay blocks based on DIN
18945.
A further distinction is made between the terms block bulk density (= gross dry
bulk density, the perforation surface is ignored) and material bulk density (= net dry
bulk density, equivalent to the bulk body density of fired bricks).
Stabilized earth blocks contain chemically modifying additives which alter the
blocks’ water solubility and strength.
In historical earth building, earth blocks were divided into the categories of earth
blocks and green unfired bricks: Green unfired bricks were bricks intended for firing
by industrial brick producers but used in their unfired state.

Construction Soil

The soil used for making earth blocks must meet the quality requirements of
unshaped earth building materials, particularly in regard to cohesive strength and
plasticity as well as grain size distribution. For unstabilized blocks, Houben/
Guillaud [14] recommend the following range of plasticity for construction soil:
PI = 0.17–0.33 and LL = 0.32–0.50. According to the authors, it is difficult to narrow
down this range.
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 183

Table 3.12  Usage classes of earth blocks according to DIN 18945

No. Usage class Application
1 Ia Plastered exterior masonry infill of timber-frame construction, exposed to
the weather
2 Ib Fully plastered, exterior masonry walls, exposed to the weather
3 II Cladded, weather-protected exterior masonry walls, interior masonry walls
4 III Dry earth block construction (e.g., ceiling infill or stacked wall lining)

Processing, Shaping, and Aggregates/Additives

The processing and shaping of earth blocks is carried out following the methods
described in Sects. 3.1 and 3.2.2. Similarities can be found in the ceramics industry,
with the exception of the final firing process.
There are three different shaping methods for making earth blocks according to
DIN 18945:
f: Thrown—shaped by forceful (manual or) mechanized throwing or pouring into
a formwork followed by a striking pass without further compaction
p: Compression molded—made by pressing or ramming into a form
s: Extruded—cut from an extruded block which has been forced through a nozzle
The shaping method largely influences the mechanical properties of earth blocks.
It is declared as a characteristic property in the designation system of DIN 18945
using the letter symbols “f,” “p,” and “s.”
Earth blocks of the usage classes I (and II) according to Table 3.12 must form a
(largely) homogeneous structure without a shell-like texture (often found in histori-
cal “green” bricks) and without highly compressed areas close to the surface.
Earth blocks contain the aggregates and additives of the unshaped earth building
materials they were made from in the shaping process. The following aggregates are
permissible for earth blocks according to DIN 18945. The corresponding letter sym-
bols for their designation are “m” and “f”:
Mineral (m): Natural aggregates according to DIN EN 12620, crushed brick made
from mortar-free bricks, expanded perlite/expanded clay/expanded glass (see
Sect. 3.4.2)/expanded slate/natural pumice according to DIN EN 13055.
Organic (f): Plant parts and fibers, animal hair, chemically untreated chopped wood
(no wooden composites).
According to DIN EN 12878, the addition of inorganic pigments is also permis-
sible. All aggregates which have been added to the soil mix must be fully declared.
In many developing countries, but also in the USA and Australia, the use of syn-
thetic binders (particularly cement, but also asphalt emulsion) in the production of
earth blocks is common practice. The use of these binders is regulated by local
codes.
184 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Application

Earth blocks according to DIN 18945 are classified into usage classes based on their
application and the type of load they are exposed to (Table 3.12). Earth blocks of the
usage classes Ib and II can be used in load-bearing walls if they meet the strength
requirements.

Characteristic Properties/Requirements

According to DIN 18945 earth blocks must meet the following requirements:

Formats, Perforation, and Dimensions

Earth blocks are rectangular-shaped building materials. Their ends can be smooth or
with tongue and groove joints. Their sides can be smooth or with shaped profiles.
Deviations from the rectangular shape of earth blocks are possible but need to be
clearly declared by the manufacturer.
The dimensions of earth blocks are stated according to DIN 105-100 in the fol-
lowing order: length (l) × width × (w) × height (h) in mm or as format symbols
(Table  3.13). Common earth block formats are the standard format NF
240 × 115 × 71 mm and the thin format DF 240 × 115 × 52 mm, or multiples derived
from the thin format up to a maximum of 12 DF (Fig. 3.35). Deviating dimensions
are also permissible.
For earth blocks produced according to DIN 18945, the following nominal sizes,
minimum and maximum sizes as well as dimensional tolerances for length l, width
w, and height h apply (Table 3.14). The nominal size is the standard size, the mini-
mum and maximum sizes are the permissible dimensional deviations per block.
The dimensional tolerance defines the permissible variation in block dimensions
within a batch delivered to the building site.

Table 3.13  Nominal sizes and symbols for earth blocks according to DIN 18945
Nominal sizes [mm]
No. Format symbol Length l Width w Height h
1 1DF (thin format) 240 115 52
2 NF (standard format) 240 115 71
3 2DF 240 115 113
4 3DF 240 175 113
5 4DF 240 240 113
6 5DF 240 300 113
7 6DF 240 365 113
8 8DF 240 240 238
9 10DF 240 300 238
10 12DF 240 365 238
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 185

w
l
1

5
h
6

earth block formats according to DIN 105-100 clay panel formats non-standardized
l x w x h [cm] 1 150 x 62.5 x 2.5
24 x 11.5 x 5.2 DF 2 100 x 24.5 x 6.0
24 x 11.5 x 7.1 NF 3 85 x 29.5 x 9.5
24 x 11.5 x 11.3 2DF 4 67 x 67.0 x 14.0
24 x 17.5 x 11.3 3DF 5 50 x 25.0 x 12.0 (10.0)
24 x 24.0 x 11.3 4DF 6 NF for comparison

Fig. 3.35  Common formats of earth blocks and clay panels, according to [9]

Earth blocks for load-bearing masonry construction need to meet the require-
ments listed in Table 3.15.
Perforations in earth blocks of the usage classes I and II according to Table 3.12
should run perpendicular to the bedding side and should not fall below the mini-
mum values for perforations, face shell thickness, and web t­hickness given in
Table 3.15. Perforations should be distributed evenly across the bedding side. Their
cross sections can take any shape but should not exceed 6 cm2 with the exception of
handling recesses and grip holes. Individual handling or grip holes should not
exceed 25 cm2 and are only intended for formats ≥3DF and special formats.
Recesses and grip holes for handling the block should be positioned in the center
and only where necessary. The distance between two handling recesses or grip holes
186 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Table 3.14  Dimensions of earth blocks according to DIN 18945

Nominal Minimum Maximum Dimensional
No. Dimension size [mm] size [mm] size [mm] tolerance [mm]
1 l and w 90 84 95 6
2 l and w 115 108 120 7
3 l and w 145 137 148 8
4 l and w 175 166 178 9
5 l and w 240 230 245 12
6 l and w 300 290 308 14
7 l and w 365 355 373 14
8 h 52 48 54 4
9 h 71 66 74 5
10 h 113 107 118 6
11 h 155 149 160 6
12 h 175 169 180 6
13 h 238 231 243 7

Table 3.15  Permissible perforation, minimum face shell, and web thickness of earth blocks of
different usage classes according to DIN 18945
Permissible Web
Usage perforation of Face shell thickness Direction of perforation
No. class bedding side [%] thickness [mm] [mm] in relation to bedding side
1 Ia Unperforateda ≥50 ≥70 Perpendicular
2 Ib ≤15 ≥30 ≥20 Perpendicular
3 II ≤15 (≤30)b ≥20 ≥20 (≥4)b Perpendicular
4 III No requirements Any direction
a
With the exception of two centrally arranged grip holes for formats ≥3DF and special formats
with an overall surface of ≤15 %
b
Values for non-load-bearing earth masonry

should be at least 70 mm and there should not be any additional perforations between
them. Grip holes are counted as part of the overall perforation surface.
The perforation volume used for determining the net volume for material bulk
density can be calculated according to DIN EN 772-9.
Perforations of earth blocks are listed as a characteristic property in the DIN
18945 designation using the letter symbol “g” for “perforated.”

Concentration of Harmful Salts

According to Sect. 3.5.6.
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 187

Table 3.16  Compressive strength classes of earth blocks according to DIN 18945
Compressive strength [N/mm2]
No. Compressive strength class Average value Lowest single value
1 2 2.5 2.0
2 3 3.8 3.0
3 4 5.0 4.0
4 5 6.3 5.0
5 6 7.5 6.0

Dry Bulk Density

Earth blocks are divided into classes of block bulk density according to Table 3.7,
starting with bulk density class 0.5. Earth blocks for load-bearing masonry con-
struction must conform to a minimum bulk density class of 1.4. For bulk density
classes ≤1.0 individual values should not be 0.05 kg/dm3 above or below the limit,
for bulk density classes >1.0 not more than 0.1 kg/dm3 above or below.

Strength
The strength properties of earth blocks are defined by compressive strength classes
according to Table 3.16. The compressive strength class corresponds to the smallest
permissible single value. The average value of a series (which consists of at least
three test specimens according to the Lehmbau Regeln) must be at least 25 % above
the value of the compressive strength class. Test results should not be lower than the
defined average values and minimum single values according to Sect. 3.6.2.2.
Earth blocks for load-bearing masonry construction must conform to a minimum
compressive strength class of 2. Earth blocks for non-load-bearing masonry con-
struction need to be sufficiently strong for processing and their intended use. This is
generally the case if they have a compressive strength of at least 1 N/mm2.

Deformation Behavior
Under Load. Earth blocks for load-bearing applications must have a minimum
modulus of elasticity of 750 N/mm2. Earth blocks of compressive strength class
≥2 generally meet this requirement. When in doubt, a test initiated by the
manufacturer must be conducted according to Sect. 3.6.2.2.
Exposure to Moisture and Frost. Earth blocks must have sufficient moisture and
frost resistance for their respective area of application and must meet the require-
ments of Table 3.17. Any swelling in earth blocks of usage classes I and II must not
affect their use and surface finishing. The respective tests are conducted according
to Sect. 3.6.3.1.
188 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Table 3.17  Moisture and frost behavior requirements for earth blocks according to DIN 18945
Usage Dip test loss
No. class of mass [%] Contact test Suction test [h] Frost test [cycles]
1 Ia ≤5 No cracking ≥24 ≥15
2 Ib or swelling ≥3 ≥5
3 II ≤15 ≥0.5 No requirements
4 III No requirements No requirements No requirements

Resistance to Water Vapor Diffusion

It can be assumed as μ = 5/10 without testing or can be determined using the test
method according to Sect. 3.6.3.4.

Thermal Conductivity
It must be determined according to Sect. 3.6.3.4 and after rounding up the dry bulk
density values ρd to the nearest 0.1 kg/dm3 according to DIN 4108-4.

Fire Performance
Earth blocks according to DIN 18945 can continue to be classified as building mate-
rial class A1 without additional testing according to DIN 4102-4 as long as the
organic aggregates are homogeneously distributed and do not exceed 1 % of the
block’s mass or volume, whichever is higher (Sect. 3.4.8). Building material classes
A1, A2, and B1 must be certified once a year as part of compliance monitoring by
an authorized body. Building material class B2 must be verified as part of in-factory
production control by the manufacturer (Table 3.18).

Designation

According to DIN 18945 the designation of earth blocks is implemented as

follows:
Earth block load-bearing/non-load-bearing—DIN number—letter symbol of
earth block and production method, perforation (if applicable) and compressive
strength class—usage class—bulk density class—letter symbol of format.
Example  Designation of a load-bearing compressed earth block without perforations
of the compressive strength class 3, usage class Ib, bulk density class 1.6, with a
length of 240 mm, a width of 115 mm, and a height of 71 mm (“standard format NF”):
Earth Block—load-bearing—DIN 18945—LS p 3—Ib—1.6—NF.
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 189

Table 3.18  Test system for monitoring the constancy of performance of earth blocks according to
DIN 18945
In-factory Scope of Declaration
production testing of Building
Characteristic Initial control/ in-factory material
property of earth type compliance production name/product
No. block testing monitoring controld data sheete Chapter
1 Usage class (UC ● Building 3.5.7
Ia) and type of use material name
“load-bearinga/ Product data
non-load-bearing” sheet
2 Production Building 3.2.2
methods material name
Product data
sheet
3 Format, ○ ○/● 250 m3 LS Building 3.5.7
perforation and material name
dimensions Product data
sheet
4 Bulk density class ○ ○/● 250 m3 LS Building 3.6.1.2
according to material name
Table 3.7 Product data
sheet
5 Compressive ● ○/● for 250 m3 LS Building 3.6.2.2
strength class strength class ≥2 material name
according to Product data
Table 3.16 sheet
6 Deformation ○ ● 3.6.2.1
behavior in the
presence of
moisture/frost
Usage class I
Usage class II
7 Mineral/organic ○ Product data 3.4.2
aggregates sheet
8 Harmful salts 3.5.6
(suspicion)
9 Thermal Product data 3.6.3.2
conductivity sheet
10 Water vapor Product data 5.1.2.2
diffusion sheet
resistance factor
11 Fire performance, ○ ○ Once per Product data 3.4.8
building material ○/● year sheet
class
B2b
A1, A2, B1a
(continued)
190 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Table 3.18 (continued)
In-factory Scope of Declaration
production testing of Building
Characteristic Initial control/ in-factory material
property of earth type compliance production name/product
No. block testing monitoring controld data sheete Chapter
12 CO2 equivalentc Product Data 1.4.3.1
Sheet
13 Water vapor Once every Product Data 3.6.3.1
adsorption classc 2 years Sheet 5.1.2.5
14 Activity Product Data 5.1.6.1
concentration Sheet
indexc
Inspection initiated by:
Manufacturer ○: initial type testing; in-factory production control
Authorized body ●: initial monitoring; compliance monitoring
a
Certificate of conformity by authorized certifying body
b
Declaration of conformity by manufacturer
c
Voluntary
d
Characteristic properties must be inspected for usage class Ia every 500 m3, for usage classes Ib
and II every 1000 m3
e
Integrated into: building material name, product data sheet

This information must be clearly legible and attached to the packaging and/or
included in the enclosed product information sheet along with the manufacturer’s logo.

Monitoring of the Constancy of Performance and Certification

The constancy of performance during the production of earth blocks according to

DIN 18945 is monitored according to the systems defined by the DIBt which are
shown in Fig. 3.32.

Load-Bearing Earth Blocks and Usage Class I

System 2+: Initial monitoring of factory and in-factory production control, continu-
ous monitoring of in-factory production control (compliance monitoring) by the
authorized certifying body; after successful testing, Certificate of Conformity issued
by authorized certifying body; initial type testing and in-factory production control
carried out by the manufacturer; after successful testing, Declaration of Conformity
by manufacturer.

Non-load-Bearing Earth Blocks

System S4: Initial type testing and in-factory production control by the manufac-
turer; Declaration of Conformity by the manufacturer.
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 191

Before the in-factory production control takes place, the manufacturer must
c­ onduct an initial type testing which consists of the testing of the characteristic
properties listed in Table 3.18. In-factory production control cannot commence
before initial type testing has been successfully completed.
Compliance monitoring of in-factory production control and of personnel and
technical requirements to ensure adequate production and correct labeling of the
earth blocks must be carried out at least twice a year by an authorized body.
The packing slip must include the following information:
–– Manufacturer and plant with manufacturer’s logo
–– Designation and number of earth blocks in delivery
–– Recipient and date of delivery

3.5.8  Clay Panels

Terminology
Clay panels are basically flat, panel-shaped building materials which are loaded
perpendicular to the plane. Compared to their surface dimensions, their thickness d
is small. There are no defined dimensional limits, the line between “earth blocks”
and “earth panels” is blurred.
Wall panels made of earth building materials are flat, panel-shaped building ele-
ments which are loaded parallel to the plane. They need to be sufficiently rigid to
prevent buckling.
Clay panels with a dry bulk density of ρd < 1.2  kg/dm3 can be referred to as light-­
clay panels.

Format
Currently there are no standardized formats for clay panels. Their dimensions can
vary greatly and are not subject to regulations (Fig. 3.35). Panel thicknesses depend
on the intended use:
–– Thin clay panels (16–50 mm thick)
–– Thick clay panels (>50–100 mm thick)
–– Heavy clay panels (>100 mm thick)
Thin clay panels are similar to drywall panels in terms of their size and usually
require a substructure. Thick clay panels are block-like and their formats are similar
to those of earth blocks. Like heavy clay panels, they are self-supporting and might
have perforations parallel to the panel plane.
Heavy clay panels are designed as hollow-core sheets or solid panels (wall pan-
els) depending on their application.
192 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Construction Soil
Clay panels are produced from prepared, unshaped earth building materials accord-
ing to Sects. 3.5.1, 3.5.3, and 3.5.4. The construction soil used in the production of
clay panels must meet the quality requirements of unshaped earth building materi-
als, particularly in terms of cohesive strength and plasticity as well as grain size
distribution. Cohesive clay powders or dry soils amended with sand are used for
“thin” clay panels while rammed earth is used in the production of solid panels
(wall panels).

Processing and Shaping
Clay panels are produced using special shaping technologies (Sect. 3.2.2). For
example, belt presses are used in the production of “thin” clay panels (Fig. 3.27c).
“Thick” clay panels are produced using a standard extrusion pressing method as
well as other methods used in the production of building elements. On-site manual
shaping is also possible. Prefabricated, large-format rammed earth wall panels for
load-bearing wall construction require an adequate formwork system.
The panel edges are either smooth or have a tongue and groove design (around
all the edges). A mortise and tenon joint design is also possible.

Aggregates and Additives
Dry soil has a limited capacity to absorb tensile forces and flexural tensile forces.
The unshaped earth building materials which are used in the production of clay
panels should therefore be reinforced with suitable fiber. Reinforcement can also be
achieved using integrated mats or webbing made of plant fibers.
The organization natureplus e.V. has developed a “Clay Panels” guideline for the
certification process of its quality seal [35]. This guideline applies to industrially
produced clay panels and the section on “Composition, Banned and Restricted
Materials” states the following:
The “clay panel” product must contain 99 % mineral and renewable resources
using clay minerals as the main binder. Natural materials which have been syntheti-
cally modified (such as waxes and derivatives of cellulose and starch) must not
exceed 10 % of the mass.
Clay panels are specifically not allowed to contain the following materials:
–– Biocides
–– Organohalogen materials
–– Synthetic materials and fibers (e.g., acrylates, polyvinyl acetates), with the
exception of waxes and chemically modified natural materials such as methyl
cellulose
3.5  Requirements and Characteristic Properties 193

Application
Clay panels can be installed in a number of ways: using masonry methods,
­butt-­jointed, or installed as dry construction. They can be attached using standard
fasteners or glued. Clay panels have many applications which determine their
dimensions and composition, for example:
–– Thin panels for lining and facing interior building elements and non-load-­bearing
partition walls with a substructure (Sect. 4.3.6.2), also as permanent formwork or
interior lining in multilayer wall construction or as a “substitute” for plaster
through the use of dry clay plasterboards (Sect. 3.5.6.2); they can also be used as
dry flooring panels and for lining the interior of pitched roofs.
–– Thick panels for non-load-bearing partition walls without a substructure or as
lining panels in existing structures, as infill in pitched roofs or as ceiling linings
and infill. Clay panels with integrated heating coils or hypocaust elements for
wall heating as hollow-core sheets (Sect. 4.3.7.3) present a special type of
application.
–– Heavy panels as ceiling infill panels (Sect. 4.3.4.4). Prefabricated large-format
rammed earth wall panels for load-bearing wall construction require adequate
assembly techniques.

Characteristic Properties/Requirements

–– Formats, dimensions, and perforations/cavities if applicable

–– Dry bulk density according to Sect. 3.6.1.3
–– Flexural strength
–– Shrinkage and swelling behavior (joints and connections)
For the production of clay panels, the organization natureplus e.V. requires
adherence to the following ecological reference values per m3 of finished product in
connection with their certification process [35] (Table 3.19). If individual reference
values are exceeded, it must be determined (on a case-by-case basis) if these are
permissible for achieving an overall optimization of production. The product needs
to be tested for pesticides (Table 6.1), if there is any suspicion of their presence, and
for increased radioactivity levels (Sect. 5.1.6.1).

3.5.9  Other Earth Building Materials

In addition to the earth building materials mentioned in Sects. 3.5.1–3.5.8 other

earth building materials for special building projects, e.g., for renovation and resto-
ration, can be produced and sold by companies according to respective specifica-
tions. One example is the production of straw-clay reels for use as infill in
timber-frame walls or ceilings (Sect. 4.3.4.1).
194 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Table 3.19  Ecological parameters for the production of clay panels

Indicator Reference value Test method
Primary energy, nonrenewable 4000
[MJ/m3]
Primary energy, total, incl. 9000 Life cycle inventory analysis according
renewable [MJ/m3] to DIN EN ISO 14040
Global warming potential 450 Impact categories according to CMLa 2001
[kg CO2 equiv./m3]
Photochemical smog 0.1 Primary energy demand according to
[kg ethylene equiv./m3] Frischknecht 1996
Acidification potential [kg SO2 1.0 Global warming potential 1994/100 years
equiv./m3]
Ozone depletion potential 5 E-05 Up to the ready-to-ship product
[kg CFC-11 equiv./m3]
Over-fertilization potential 0.2
[kg PO4 equiv./m3]
a
Inst. of Environmental Sciences Leiden

3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials

As a result of the lack of technical developments in the field of earth building from
the 1950s to the 1980s (Sect. 1.3), scientific research is in its early stages compared
to the mass-produced mineral building materials of concrete and fired brick. There
is particular demand for the development of earth-specific test methods and the
systematic identification of parameters of building materials and building elements.
Issues concerning the sustainability of earth building also pose complex problems
and testing criteria still need to be developed.
New approaches to test methods have been developed in recent years in connec-
tion with the creation of new DIN standards for earth building materials
(Sects. 3.5.6.1, 3.5.6.2, and 3.5.7). These approaches, however, still need to prove
themselves in the practical earth building field.
The most important parameters and tests for earth building materials are classi-
fied according to the following main groups (Table 1.1):
–– Mass and structural parameters
–– Deformation parameters
–– Strength parameters
–– Building physics parameters
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 195

ma
air Va
VP = n e
mw water V-Vs VP
Vw
1
V
solid 1-n
ms Vs VS 1
mass
ρs

natural and idealized porosity n = e / (1 + e) void ratio e = (V – Vs ) / Vs

distribution of solid mass ms, water mw and air ma in total volume V
VP – pore volume, Vs – solid mass volume, ms – solid substance mass, mm –moist mass, ρs – specific gravity of soil solids

Practical applications for various degrees of saturation Sr

A dry B wet C saturated

Va
Va Vw
Va Vw
Vw

Vs Vs Vs Vs

Sr = 0 Sr ~ 60% Sr ~ 30% Sr = 100%

ρd = m s / V ρ = mm / V ρsr = (1-n) ρs + n • ρw

Fig. 3.36  Distribution of solid mass and pores in earth building material according to [81]

3.6.1  Mass and Structural Parameters

Every earth building material consists of a solid mineral mass and voids or pores
which are formed by the mineral particles and aggregates (Fig. 3.36). These pores
are either filled with air or partially or completely filled with water (Sect. 2.1.1.2).
The distribution and spatial arrangement of these three components—the structural
elements or phases—have a significant effect on the processing and deformation
properties of wet earth building materials as well as on the strength and building
physics properties when the finished structure is in use.

3.6.1.1  Porosity and Void Ratio

In order to describe the void content of a soil sample, two parameters are used in a
model of idealized distribution of solid mass, water and air in the total volume
V. Here, the void content Vp is based on either the volume of the total sample V
(porosity n) or the volume of the solid mass Vs (void ratio e) as a proportion by
volume. Both parameters are non-dimensional. The porosity n is often given as a
percentage. Both parameters can be expressed through each other:
196 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Table 3.20  Filling conditions of the pores of earth building materials for practical applications
Processing method of the Consistency of Bulk density of
earth building material the earth the earth building
Case Filling of voids (example) building material material
B With air or water “Wet” processing or shaping Semisolid, stiff, ρ = mm/V
vapor, and water of earth building materials soft and
(rammed earth), drying starts paste-like
after formwork is removed
C With water, Earth mortar (earth plaster) Paste-like to ρsr = (1−n) • ρs + n
completely filled liquid • ρw
Sr = 1
A With air or water “Dry” processing (earth Solid ρd = ms / V
vapor, blocks) Sr = 0
completely filled

void ratio e = Vp / Vs = n / (1 - n )
porosity n = Vp / V = e / (1 + e ) .

The model of the idealized distribution of the three phases of solid–liquid–gas can
be used to show practical cases which are significant for the processing of earth
building materials into earth building elements and structures (Fig. 3.36)
(Table 3.20). Based on these cases of phase distribution in the total volume of the
earth building material, different types of density can be differentiated between.

3.6.1.2  Bulk Density ρ/Saturated Bulk Density ρsr

Terminology

The bulk density ρ of a wet sample of earth building material (also called wet bulk
density) is typically expressed as the ratio of its moist mass mm to its volume V
(Case B):

r = mm / V ëé g / cm 3 ùû

The ratio of the void volume filled with water to the total void volume of the speci-
men is also called the saturation level Sr (also known as degree of saturation).
The saturated bulk density ρsr refers to the density at which all voids are filled
with water (Case C):

r sr = r d + n ´ r w ëé g / cm 3 ùû

with ρw = 1.0  g/cm3 (= density of the water).
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 197

In this case, the degree of saturation Sr of a sample is 1.

Sr = Vw / Vp [ - ].

The unit weight γ of a wet earth building sample is generally expressed as the ratio
of its dead load G, allowing for the gravitational acceleration g as a permanent load,
to its volume V:

g = G / V = r ´ g ëé kN / m 3 ùû .

For this purpose, the gravitational acceleration is estimated at g = 10  m/s2. In this
manner, the corresponding weights (strength parameters and assumed loads for
structural calculations, 1 kg–10 N) can be derived from the densities (mass
parameters).

Test Methods

To test the bulk density ρ, the moist mass mm of an earth building material specimen
is determined through weighing and its volume is determined through measuring
(dip test) or with the help of a known volume, such as by using a tube soil sampler.
These tests are based on DIN 18125-1.

Lab and Calculation Values

The specific density ρs of the earth building material specimen is dependent on the
true density ρs of the solid mineral material (of the construction soil), the amount of
mixing water as well as the drying progression. DIN 1055-2 specifies unit weights
γ of naturally moist construction soils based on empirical values (Table 3.21).
These numbers apply to the characteristic weights of naturally formed cohesive
soils. They can also be applied to loose and compacted cohesive soils as long as the
compaction degree is Dpr ≥ 0.97. For soils with particularly high coefficients of uni-
formity Cu (glacial marl, clay-rich soils, mixed-particle soils of the soil groups GU,
GT, SU, ST and GU*, GT*, SU*, ST*) the weights must be increased by 1.0 kN/m3.

3.6.1.3  Dry Bulk Density ρd

Terminology

According to DIN 18125-1 the dry bulk density ρd is determined by the ratio of the
dry mass md of a sample of earth building material to its volume V (Case A: drying
has been completed).
198 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Table 3.21  Unit weights γ of construction soils for assumed loads

No. Soil type with letter symbol according to DIN 18196 Consistency γ [kN/m3]
1 Slightly plastic silts UL (LL < 0.35) Soft 17.5
Stiff 18.5
Semisolid 19.5
2 Semi-plastic silts UM (LL = 0.35–0.5) Soft 16.5
Stiff 18.0
Semisolid 19.5
3 Slightly plastic clays TL (LL < 0.35) Soft 19.0
Stiff 20.0
Semisolid 21.0
4 Semi-plastic clays TM (LL = 0.35–0.5) Soft 18.5
Stiff 19.5
Semisolid 20.5
5 Highly plastic clays TA (LL > 0.5) Soft 17.5
Stiff 18.5
Semisolid 19.5

Test Methods

For the experimental identification of the dry bulk density ρd of a soil sample, the
mass of a moist specimen is determined through weighing while the corresponding
volume is established through immersion weighing (e.g., a specimen enclosed in
paraffin). The water contained in the void volume of the wet sample is then extracted
by drying the specimen at +105 °C. What remains in the specimen is the water
bound in the capillary water films surrounding the clay minerals.
The dry bulk density ρd can also be determined mathematically using the known
value of the wet bulk density ρ and the corresponding moisture content w. Three
subsamples are obtained from the wet specimen (2 from the edge we1 and we2, and
one from the center wc). These subsamples are weighed and the corresponding water
content is determined by drying them at +105 °C.

w = ( we1 + 2 wc + we 2 ) / 4.

r d = ms / V = mm / V (1 + w ) = r / (1 + w ) .

The Lehmbau Regeln [22] define that the specimen used for determining the dry
bulk density ρd of unshaped earth building materials should be shaped into cubes
with an edge length of 200 mm and prepared in the same manner as “on the building
site.”
For testing earth mortars according to DIN 18946-47, mortar prisms with dimen-
sions of 160 × 40 × 40 mm are prepared according to DIN EN 1015-11 (Table 3.25).
Depending on when final shrinkage is reached (Sect. 3.6.2.1), the specimens are
removed from their molds after 2–7 days and stored on paper on top of a grate.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 199

For testing, a series of three mortar prisms is conditioned under standard

a­ tmospheric conditions (23 °C/50 % RH) until constant weight is reached. Constant
weight has been reached when the results of two consecutive weighings at 24 h
intervals differ by no more than 0.2 mass in % based on the smaller measured value.
For in-factory production controls, the following fluctuations are tolerated: air tem-
perature ±5 °C, RH ± 15 %. The bulk density is calculated from the mass in relation
to the external volume of the mortar prism.
For rammed earth it is nearly impossible to prepare specimens in the same man-
ner as “on the building site.” In order to determine the achieved level of compaction,
obtaining specimens with the aid of a tube sampler during actual construction is
recommended as an alternative. The sample should be taken from the upper layer of
soil which has just been compacted and is still wet. It is also important to ensure that
the specimen is “undisturbed” in terms of grain composition, compaction density,
and moisture content. The moisture content of the extracted specimen must remain
constant until testing begins (quality class 2, Sect. 2.2.2.2).
For testing shaped earth building materials, the materials themselves can be
used along with specimens cut to a suitable size. These specimens should be in a dry
state (= dry mass md).
To determine the block bulk density of earth blocks according to DIN 18945
(Sect. 3.5.7), a series of three earth blocks is conditioned under normal atmospheric
conditions. The block bulk density is calculated from the determined mass of the
earth blocks in relation to their respective volume (including any perforations) and
then an average of the series is obtained.
For testing perforated earth blocks, suitable unperforated rectangles are cut out
of the block and conditioned as described above. They are weighed, coated with
heated paraffin (applied with a brush) in order to make them watertight and then
weighed again. Next, the specimens are weighed under water (using a suitable
scale) in a container filled with distilled water. Alternatively, the so-called sand fill-
ing method according to DIN EN 772-9 can be used.

Lab and Calculation Values

The Lehmbau Regeln [22] give dry bulk densities ρd of earth building materials as
calculation values for the time when the material is in use (Table 3.22):
Dry earth building materials are hygroscopic which means that the surfaces of
the clay minerals can bind water molecules contained in the air. This results in a
moisture content which is referred to as the “equilibrium moisture content” (Sect.
5.1.2.4) for the time when the material is in use (40–70 % RH, +20 °C). The corre-
sponding “dry” bulk density differs numerically from the dry bulk density deter-
mined under laboratory conditions at +105 °C. This is taken into account with the
help of conversion factors used for determining the thermal conductivity λ in the
laboratory.
200 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Table 3.22  Dry bulk densities of earth building materials

No. Earth building material Dry bulk density ρd [g/cm3]
1 Rammed earth 1.700–2.400
2 Cob 1.400–1.700
3 Straw clay, clay with added fibers 1.200–1.700
4 Light clay 300–1.200
5 Earthen loose fill 300–2.200
6 Earth mortar 600–1.800
7 Earth blocks 600–2.200
8 Clay panels 300–1.800

The dry bulk density ρd is a characteristic property in the designation of earth

blocks and earth mortars according to DIN 18945-47. It is listed in the form of
classes according to Table 3.7.

3.6.1.4  Proctor Density ρpr

Terminology

For every earth building material, the dry bulk density which can be attained through
compaction depends on the compaction work and the material’s moisture content.
With an optimal moisture content wpr and predefined compaction work, the highest
dry bulk density—the standard or Proctor density ρpr,—can be attained for every soil.

Test Methods

The experimental determination of the Proctor density is defined in DIN 18127.

It requires a minimum of four individual tests with different moisture contents. The
prepared soil specimen is placed into a steel cylinder in three equally thick layers
and compacted using evenly distributed blows from a free-falling rammer (Fig. 3.37).
The ramming mass, drop height, dimensions, and rotation of the specimen are pre-
defined using mechanical compaction. These specifications result in a compaction
level of 60 Ncm/cm3. Compaction can also be carried out using manual rammers in
which case the predefined value cannot be exactly set.

Lab and Calculation Values

Placed in an orthogonal coordinate system (w; ρd), the single values form a charac-
teristic parabolic compaction curve with the highest attainable dry bulk density ρpr
at wpr as the vertex. Table 3.23 [11] shows empirical values of ρpr and wpr for differ-
ent construction soils.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 201

25 blows advancing offset

per layer direction of the rammer

zero-air-voids
free height of fall

curve
dry bulk density ρd [kg/dm3]
300

ramming
weight 2.5 kg

moisture content [-]

Fig. 3.37  Determining the Proctor density [11, 43]

Table 3.23  Proctor densities of different construction soils

No. Soil Proctor density ρpr [g/cm3] wpr [−]
1 Loess, loess soil 1.70–1.85 0.18–0.13
2 Glacial till, glacial marl 1.80–2.00 0.14–0.11
3 Eluvial soil 1.75–1.95 0.17–0.10
4 Slope-wash soil 1.65–1.85 0.21–0.14
5 Fluvial soil 1.50–1.75 0.27–0.16
6 Pure clay <1.50 >0.25
202 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

For practical compaction work, the attained bulk density Dpr is given as the dry
bulk density ρd in percentages of the Proctor density ρpr (=100 %) as a quality
requirement:

Dpr = r d / r pr [ - ]

As part of the construction monitoring process of the “Himmelsleiter” project in
Nordhausen, Germany [36], the following values were determined for the rammed
earth used in the project:

r pr = 1.81g / cm 3 at w pr = 12.66%.

The attained bulk density of the compacted rammed earth was in the range of
Dpr = 0.95–0.98. This corresponded to values most commonly required for earth
works.

Influencing Variables

The Proctor test was developed to verify the attained quality of compression work
in road construction. In principle, it can also be employed for comparable applica-
tions using impulse and ramming compaction (Sect. 3.2.2.1) in earth building, e.g.,
for rammed earth building elements.
Particularly for load-bearing earth building elements, it is important to achieve a
high density of the mineral grains through appropriate compaction, thereby mini-
mizing the void volume. While this is relatively easy for non-cohesive gravels and
sands due to their comparatively large pores, the air contained in clay soils can only
be pushed out of the larger pores. As a result of low porosity, air contained in the
finer pores, which are partly enclosed by water, is very difficult to remove or cannot
be removed at all.
The moisture content at the time of installation has the following effect on com-
paction: If the vertex is approached from the “dry” side of the compaction curve, the
capillary strength of the soil sample obstructs compaction: the applied compaction
work is not high enough to completely break up the crumb structure of the soil. On
the “wet” side, the pore water or capillary tension limits compaction: the ­compaction
tool “bounces.” The compaction curve runs roughly parallel to the zero-air-­voids
curve which specifies the saturated bulk density of the soil ρsr (Fig. 3.37).
A higher liquid limit LL or plasticity PI results in an increase in the water binding
quality of the soil, which is based on mineral-chemical conditions, and the optimal
moisture content wpr. At the same time, the maximum dry bulk densities ρpr decrease
(Fig. 3.38). It can also be observed that a decreasing maximum dry bulk density ρpr
and an increasing optimal moisture content result in a flatter compaction curve [11].
Figure  3.39 shows the relationship between compaction work, achievable dry
bulk density, and moisture content at the time of installation based on the Proctor test
[11]. This relationship has been established for road and embankment construction
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 203

2,0
Dry bulk density ρd [g/cm3] GL

1,9
GL
GL glacial till
GL VL eluvial soil
1,8 LL loess soil
VL HL slope-wash soil
LL LL AL fluvial soil
1,7
LL
HL
1,6
HL

AL
1,5

AL
AL
0,05 0,10 0,15 0,20 0,25 0,30
1,1 Moisture content w [-]
1,0

0,9
0,8
Void ratio e

0,7

0,6
0,5

0,4

Fig. 3.38  Proctor curves for different construction soils [11]

2,30
21

1
[g/cm3]
12

2,10
Dry bulk density [g/cm3]

2,00
A= 7 kp cm
cm 3

1,90
2
2

1,80
A= 27
A=

1,70 Relationship between compaction work, dry

1,60 bulk density and moisture content for different
construction soils in comparison to sand
1,50 1 – well-graded gravel sand
cm 3
1,40 kp cm 2 – slope-wash soil with semi-strong cohesion
27 3
A= 3 – clay with high cohesion
1,30 12
A=
1,20 6 1 kp = 0.01 kN
A=

0 0,10 0,20 0,30 0,40 0,50

Water content

Fig. 3.39  Influence of compaction work A on the Proctor density [11]

204 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

and, in principle, can also be applied to earth building: If the compaction work is
increased while the moisture content at the time of installation remains the same, the
maximum dry bulk densities ρpr increase in a more or less logarithmic manner. An
increase in compaction work thus makes it possible to use (nearly) dry, unshaped
earth building materials. This virtually solves the problem of shrinkage deforma-
tions. Applications in the earth building field include the “dry compression” of earth
blocks and clay panels [12] (Sect. 3.2.2.1) and high-pressure spraying of nearly dry
light-clay mixes as infill for timber-frame construction [24].
On the other hand, a direct comparison between standard compaction work
applied in road construction and the specific compaction work applied in rammed
earth construction is not possible. Compared to rammed earth construction, the level
of compaction in road construction seems to be higher because the maximum dry
bulk densities are achieved at a relatively low moisture content at the time of instal-
lation. This might be an explanation for the fact that the maximum dry bulk density
of rammed earth samples is achieved at moisture contents w > wpr [26].
It also becomes obvious that pure clays clearly exhibit lower dry bulk densities
compared to construction soils with much wider grading (here: slope-wash soil)
when compacted at the same level. This can be explained by the micropores in the
clay which are enclosed by water. When compared to construction soils, consider-
ably higher pressure needs to be applied to pure clays to extract water in order to
achieve higher dry bulk densities.

3.6.1.5  Specific Density ρs

Terminology

The term specific density ρs (also: specific gravity Gs) refers to the average density
of the minerals of the grain mixture contained within the nonporous solid substance
ms (Fig. 3.36)

r s = ms / Vs éë g / cm 3 ùû .

Test Methods

DIN 18124 describes the pycnometer method used to determine the specific density
ρs. For this test, a pycnometer (a glass flask with a stopper) is filled about two thirds
full with distilled water. Next, a prepared, dry soil sample is added and weighed at
+20 °C. The air in the water was removed earlier through boiling. The mixture is
vaporized and the mass of the soil sample is determined.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 205

Table 3.24  Specific densities No. Soil Specific density ρs [g/cm3]

of different construction soils
1 Loess, loess soil 2.65–2.70
2 Glacial till 2.68–2.72
3 Eluvial soil 2.68–2.74
4 Fluvial soil (clay) 2.69–2.75
5 Pure clay 2.70–2.78

Lab and Calculation Values

Specific densities ρs can be found in the range of approximately ρs = 2.65–2.80 g/cm3

and can be used for calculations as tabular values or according to Table 3.24 [11].

Influencing Variables

Soils with high proportions of Al or Fe in their clay mineral substance (e.g., laterite
soils, Sect. 2.1.2.6) exhibit much higher single values whereas soils with organic or
lime portions (Sect. 2.2.3.4) are below the values listed above.

3.6.2  Structural Parameters

Structural parameters describe the behavior of an earth building material or earth

building element under load as a result of external stresses. It is essential to know
these structural parameters in order to ensure the structural integrity of load-bearing
earth building elements.
A distinction is made between
–– Deformation parameters
–– Strength parameters
In general, strength parameters (β) are used to describe the resistance of a build-
ing material to deformation caused by external forces (stress). It is important to
know the stress limits of the material in order to prevent its failure. The stress which
a building material can be permanently exposed to is referred to as creep
resistance.
Deformation parameters, on the other hand, describe the path leading to the point
where failure occurs. This path is shown as the relationship between stress (σ, τ) and
deformation (ε: compression/expansion or s: displacements). In soil mechanics, the
relationship is described with the help of Hooke’s law or the Mohr—Coulomb fail-
ure criterion. These principles generally deal with subgrade or hydraulic engineering
in connection with soil material with a moist consistency in its finished state.
(Load-bearing) building elements and structures made of earth building materi-
als are in a “dry” state once they are in use. For calculation purposes, this state needs
206 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Table 3.25  Deformations of building materials, overview

Load dependent
Deformations Immediate Time dependent Load independent
Reversible Elastic εel Delayed elastic εv,el Thermal expansion εT
Moisture expansion εf
Non reversible εbl settling Flow viscous, Chemically induced expansion εc
(permanent) plastic εfl Cracking

to be described using corresponding parameters (e.g., dry bulk density ρd,

Sect.  3.6.1.3). Once the building elements are in use, the remaining moisture is
defined as the equilibrium moisture content (Sect. 5.1.2.4). Load transfer within the
building element occurs via the “grain-to-grain pressure” mechanism (Fig. 2.34).
For earth building, it is also important to consider the state of the building during
construction (before drying has been completed), as well as possible water damage
during the building’s lifetime. In such situations, the load-bearing earth building
elements are (still) wet and load transfers with significant deformations are only
possible to a limited extent.

3.6.2.1  Deformation Parameters

Deformations ε of materials are generally defined as the ratio of the volume change
ΔV to the initial volume V as a result of exposure to various external stresses

e = DV / V .

The accompanying sign specifies the type of deformation: expansion (+), compres-
sion (–). Vertical compression is also called settling.
Deformation parameters can be classified according to Table 3.25.

Load-Independent Deformations

Terminology
Load-independent deformations of earth building materials are a result of volume
changes caused by different exposures or mechanisms:
–– Thermal strains εT are caused by a change in temperature ΔT of the solid mineral
substance.
–– Moisture strains εf are caused by the release or absorption of physically bound
pore water and are referred to as shrinking (–) and swelling (+) (Sect. 2.2.3.3).
They are reversible. Expansions caused by freezing pore water (+) constitute a
special type.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 207

–– Chemically induced strains εc. For chemically stabilized earth building materials
(lime, cement), shrinkage (–) can also be of importance. “Chemical shrinkage”
results in a permanent decrease in volume caused by the chemical binding of
water. Here, the volume of the new formation is always smaller than the sum of
the volumes of the binding agent and water. However, when gypsum hardens the
volume of the new formation is larger than the sum of the volumes of the initial
material and water. These deformations are referred to as chemical expansion (+).
It is important to point out that the term “shrinkage” describes two different types
of volume decrease which have to be clearly distinguished between: it can refer
either to a loss in volume caused by the physical act of drying (shrinkage limit SL,
Sect. 2.2.3.2) or to a loss in volume caused by a chemical reaction.
The ceramics industry distinguishes between the terms “shrinkage during dry-
ing” and “firing shrinkage.” Shrinkage during drying describes the decrease in vol-
ume of the unfired pieces caused by the evaporation of the physically bound water
before firing (Sect. 3.5.7 “unfired bricks”). Firing shrinkage refers to an additional
and irreversible decrease in volume which is caused by a loss of the chemically
bound water within the clay during the sintering process at the time of firing ([6],
Bd. 3: Thermische Prozesse). In earth building, firing shrinkage does not occur.
Therefore, it is sufficient to use the general terms “shrinkage” and “degree of shrink-
age” in the following sections.
If a building element is unable to move freely during load-independent deforma-
tions, stresses occur which can result in cracks once the strength of the building
material is exceeded. Although these cracks generally do not affect the stability of
the building element, they restrict its usability. There are external and internal
obstructions of movement. External obstructions can occur, for example, in building
elements which are fixed in place while internal obstructions are caused by fluctua-
tions in temperature and moisture across the building element (e.g., different degrees
of drying in a rammed earth wall).

Test Methods
Linear Degree of Shrinkage: The linear degree of shrinkage (or linear shrinkage) of
earth building materials is determined using a similar method as for testing con-
struction soils. However, the moisture content at the time of installation and the
dimensions of the prism-shaped specimens are different for the individual earth
building materials (Table 3.26). Mortar prisms for earth mortar are prepared accord-
ing to DIN EN 1015-2.
The demolded specimens are stored on a piece of plastic wrap and dried until the
final degree of shrinkage under standard atmospheric conditions (for earth mortar
23 °C/50 % RH) is reached. The constant weight of earth mortar according to DIN
18946-47 has been reached when the results of two consecutive weightings taken at
24 h intervals differ by no more than 0.2 mass in % based on the smaller value. The
linear shrinkage is the change in the specimen’s length compared to its initial length
in %. A test consists of a series of three specimens from which the average change
in length is calculated and given as the result.
208 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Table 3.26  Specimen dimensions for determining the linear shrinkage, overview
Distance
Dimensions between Moisture content/
Earth building (l × w × h) measuring consistency at
material [mm] marks [mm] time of installation Source Chapter
Construction soil 220 × 40 × 25 200 Standard DIN 2.2.3.3
consistency 18952-2
Rammed earth 600 × 100 × 50 500 From ready-to-use Lehmbau 3.5.1
mix Regeln [22]
Earth mortar 160 × 40 × 40 – Slump 175 ± 5  mm DIN 3.5.6
EN-1015-3
and 11 or
DIN
18946-47

T
T cone a flow table, 70 x 70cm
G handle b 4cm lifting height arrester
F F leg c foot rail

Fig. 3.40  Determining the slump of fresh earth mortar [37]

Volumetric shrinkage deformations of earth building elements can be tested for

different earth building materials with the help of a building element sample.
Slump of Fresh Earth Mortar: This test requires a flow table and a truncated cone
with predefined dimensions. The cone is placed exactly in the center of the flow
table and filled with 1.5 L of the test earth mortar. The cone is then removed by
slowly pulling it upward. Next, the flow table is lifted all the way to the arrester
(4 cm) and dropped 15 times at 1-min intervals. During this process, the mortar
should not separate or crumble (Fig. 3.40, [37]).
Afterwards, the diameter of the mortar is measured in two perpendicular axes a1
and a2 with the help of a sliding caliber and the arithmetic mean is calculated. The
consistency of the mortar is time dependent, the elapsed time after mortar prepara-
tion (when water is added) is therefore given in the form of an index, e.g., a15 = slump
after 15 min.
The abovementioned mortars must conform to the declared properties. Sampling
needs to be conducted according to DIN EN 1015-2.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 209

Lab and Calculation Values

For linear shrinkage of construction soils, see Sect. 2.2.3.3.

Influencing variables
The shrinkage deformations is influenced by a number of factors: the respective
consistency of the earth building material which is attained by adding water, the
structure and proportion of clay minerals in the construction soil (cohesive strength),
the pore structure of the earth building material and aggregates as well as the drying
conditions. Shrinkage deformations typically increase with a higher moisture con-
tent at the time of installation, an increase in cohesive strength, a denser pore struc-
ture, and faster and uneven drying.

Load-Dependent Deformations

Terminology
Load-dependent deformations are caused by dead loads, other permanent loads, and
live loads. Depending on the duration of the load stress, these deformations are
divided into immediate or long-term deformations with elastic and plastic, or plastic
and delayed-elastic portions (Table 3.25).
The term elastic means that deformations caused by exterior strains develop
shortly after the loads are applied and reverse immediately after load removal
(swelling).
Plastic deformations remain permanent after load removal. After a specific
­elastic limit has been reached the so-called “plastic flow” occurs. This means that
the deformation continues to increase as time progresses without a further increase
in stress. This condition is referred to as viscous behavior. Liquids as well as solid
materials generally resist deformation. Their molecules are bound by the Van der
Waals forces. When the plastic flow sets in, these forces are continuously overcome
and bonds are newly formed. In earth building, this characteristic becomes relevant
in practical situations, for example, when preparing earth mortar to the required
consistency (Fig. 3.40).
In the first case of linear-elastic material behavior, the relationship between nor-
mal stresses σ and compression ε forms a straight line. The slope of this straight line
between two normal stresses σ1 and σ2 is the uniaxial modulus of elasticity in com-
pression E (also called: elastic modulus E, E modulus, Young’s modulus) based on
Hooke’s law (Fig. 3.41):

E = Ds z / De z ,el éë N / mm 2 ùû

actual s = E × e el .

For the spacial state of stress for an elastic body, this results in
210 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Stress σ

σ2

secant modulus of
elasticity E
σ1 E = (σ2 – σ1) / (ε2 – ε1)

Strain ε
ε1 ε2

initial load

Stress σ

secondary load
secondary load at some
point in time after initial
load
hysteresis loop

unloading

Strain ε

εs + ε fl ε v,el

Fig. 3.41  Deformations of elasto-plastic materials: stress-strain diagram and determination of the
secant modulus of elasticity, according to [42]

e x = 1 / E éës x -n (s y + s z ) ùû , for e y , e z accordingly.

Here, ν (also μ) is the Poisson’s ratio. In the elastic range, it expresses the ratio
between the lateral strain εx and the longitudinal compression εz

n = e x / e z [ - ].

As a dimensionless material constant, its values range from 0 to 0.5 and are often
between 0.1 and 0.4. For clay-rich soil, the Poisson’s ratio is ν = 0.30–0.45 [38].
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 211

Stress σ

σ0
σ0

t0 t

Strain ε
ε
ε (t)
εel
εv,el

ε0 εbl

t0 t

Fig. 3.42  Deformations of visco-elastic materials: creep, according to [42]

The linear-elastic behavior of a specimen caused by the shear force Q or the

shear stress τ is described by shear modulus G. For isotropic material it is connected
to the modulus of elasticity E as follows:

G = E / 2 (1 + n ) éë N / mm 2 ùû , éë MN / m 2 ùû .

“Linear elastic” behavior is the ideal situation. In reality, transitional forms are more
likely with an overlapping of elastic deformations and plastic or viscous behavior
after loading and unloading.
Materials exhibiting elasto-plastic deformation behavior (for example, concrete
but also clay-rich soils) have a curved σ–ε–line. In order to be able to apply Hooke’s
law to these materials as well, the E modulus is defined as a secant or tangent modu-
lus (Fig. 3.41). Corresponding to the variable rise of the σ–ε–line, the E modulus is
also variable and must be specified for the respective stress interval σ2–σ1.
After unloading has occurred, the deformation reverses immediately by the
amount of the elastic portion εel. If the unloading is permanent, the delayed elastic
expansion εv,el is also reversed. The permanent expansion εbl now consists of settling
εs and flow εfl. The intersection of the unloading curve with the x-axis corresponds
to the permanent expansion. With delayed reloading, the expansion decreases fur-
ther by the delayed elastic portion εv,el. The loading and unloading curves form the
hysteresis loop.
212 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

An elastic expansion εel occurs immediately upon loading, and a continued per-
manent load σ0 results in an increase in deformation called creep (Fig. 3.42). The
total strain increases over time aiming for a final state εk∞ which consists of delayed
elastic and delayed permanent portions. For concrete and masonry, creep is almost
entirely finished after 3 to 5 years, provided that stress, temperature, and humidity
remain constant.
If the expansion ε0 is constant, the deformation-causing stress σ0 decreases over
time. Under constant load, the initial stress σ0 is decreased by viscous structural changes
until the residual stress becomes too small to allow further flow. The stress drop (σ0 − σt)
relates to the initial stress and is referred to as relaxation ψ: σt = σ0(1 – ψt).
Due to the proportionality between creep stresses σk and creep expansions εk a
stress-independent creep coefficient Φ or final creep coefficient Φ∞ is introduced as
a parameter to describe this property.

F = e k / e el or F ¥ = e k¥ / e el = e k¥ × E / s k .

Test Methods
E Modulus. It is possible to determine the deformation behavior of earth building
materials using a test which is based on the standard test method of the elasticity
modulus E in soil mechanics. In this test, cylindrical specimens with a specimen to
height ratio of 1:1.5 are used [39]. The three test methods in Table 3.27 (according
to [38]) show different possibilities of lateral expansion of the loaded specimens
based on their applications in soil mechanics.
Applied to the deformations of a vertically loaded, load-bearing wall made of
earth building materials, different deformations perpendicular to the plane of the
load application within the axes can occur: the lateral expansions in the wall’s lon-
gitudinal axis are more confined than in the lateral axis. The constrained modulus Es
based on the oedometer consolidation test would correspond to the “prevented”
expansions in the longitudinal axis, whereas the uniaxial or E modulus based on the
unconfined compression test would more likely describe the “unconfined” lateral
expansion.
It would be possible to model such a situation in the triaxial test according to
DIN 18137-2. The condition of use which is described in soil mechanics as “moist”
corresponds, in the field of earth building, to a situation of water damage or to build-
ing materials during construction. In order to examine the behavior of earth building
materials in a “dry” condition of use, specimens with a solid consistency would
have to be tested. No known tests exist.
Dierks and Ziegert [27] determined the E modulus based on DIN 1048-5 (con-
crete) using dry, prism-shaped rammed earth specimens with the dimensions
150 × 150 × 300 mm and unconfined lateral expansion.
The E modulus for earth blocks according to DIN 18945 is determined using a
compression test machine of at least class 2 according to DIN EN ISO 7500-1.
Table 3.27  Load-dependent deformation parameters of earth building materials, experimental determination, overview
Test Unconfined compression test Triaxial test Oedometer consolidation test
DIN 18136 18137-2 18135
Lateral expansion Unconfined Confined Prevented
Strains/ σx = σy = 0; σz ≠ 0 1. Hydrostatic phase εx = εy = 0; εz ≠ 0; σz ≠ 0
deformations σz = F/A σx = σy = σz = σ; εx = εy = εz = ε; εz = Δh/h σz = F/A; εz = Δh/h
A—specimen cross section 2. Shear phase σx = σy radial stresses
F—applied compression force Δσz = Δσ1 > 0;
d—specimen diameter εz = Δh/h; εx = εy = Δd/d
h—specimen height
State Uniaxial state of stress (sign) Rotationally symmetric stress and strain state Uniaxial deformation state
• Longitudinal compression εz = Δh/h (−)
• lateral extension εx = εy = Δd/d (+)
E-Modulus E = Δσz/Δεz (based on Hooke, also Young’s E = Δσz/Δεz (based on Hooke, also Young’s Constrained modulus Es = Δσz/Δεz
modulus) modulus)
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials

Diagram σz σz = σ1 + ∆σ1 σz
∆h/2 ∆h/2 ∆h/2

h h h

∆h/2

σx = σy = σ3
σz ∆h/2 σz ∆h/2 σz ∆h/2

∆d/2 d ∆d/2 ∆d/2 d ∆d/2 d

213
214 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

F [N/mm2]

30

30 Time [s]

Fig. 3.43  Time sequence for the measurement of the E modulus for earth blocks according to
DIN 18945

To produce the test specimens, earth blocks with a nominal height of ≤71 mm
are sawed in half perpendicular to their longitudinal axis. The halves are laid on top
of each other and joined with mortar. The cut surfaces should face away from each
other in opposing directions. Cement mortar (mix: 1 part cement of strength class
42.5 to 1 part washed natural sand 0/0.1) is used for joining the blocks or leveling
the pressure-loaded areas. The slenderness ratio of the height/width of the specimen
must be ≥1.
The blocks do not have to be evened out with mortar if the specimens can be
sanded to make them plane parallel. In this case, the pressure-loaded area must form
a continuous surface. It is important to ensure that the sanding does not pull aggre-
gates >1 mm out of the surface.
The prepared specimens are conditioned under normal atmospheric conditions
(23 °C/50 % RH) until a constant weight is reached. This can be confirmed by
weighing the specimens two times at 24 h intervals. Their difference should not
exceed 0.2 mass in % based on the smaller value.
For earth blocks with nominal heights >71 mm, the E modulus must be tested
using a full block.
The E modulus is determined in the third load cycle at a load of 1/3 of the ulti-
mate load. First, the specimen is loaded twice and then once again after a 30 s inter-
val using 1/3 of its ultimate load each time. Each load is maintained for 30 s
(Fig. 3.43). If needed, the dry compressive strength can also be tested after a further
unloading phase. The same test setup can be used for determining the E modulus
and the dry compressive strength. The test is shown in Fig. 3.44 with earth blocks
which have been cut using a chisel according to ARSO [40].
A third of the ultimate load means a load selected for all specimens which cor-
responds to a minimum of 1/3 and a maximum of 0.4 times the ultimate load.
A special problem is posed by the deformation behavior of earth building materi-
als under dynamic loads. This is particularly important for earth building structures
in seismic areas (Sect. 5.2.4.2). Olivier and Velkov [41] used three different soil
samples, one of them cement-stabilized, to determine the dynamic E modulus. Here,
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 215

Fig. 3.44  Determining the E modulus and the dry compressive strength of earth blocks [40]

a dynamic load is applied to the specimens in the form of dynamic vibration (0.5,
1.0, and 2.0 Hz) after the individual levels of the designed load path have been
reached. The load levels were in the elastic, non-linear plastic range and near the
ultimate load.
216 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

F γ zx ∆x
τ zx

τ xz
specimen
pivot points distorted by
γ zx H
γ zx
shear
strength
S
direct simple shear test diagram

Fig. 3.45  Deformation behavior of earth building materials: lateral expansion and shear distor-
tion, according to [38, 78]

A comparison of the static E moduli, which were determined at the same time as
the dynamic E moduli, led to the following result: It appears that a considerate
solidification took place during the dynamic load application in all specimens. The
dynamic E modulus at the highest load level (near the ultimate stress) was higher
than the corresponding static E moduli by a factor of 1.75–1.80 in all specimens.
Shear Modulus: The so-called direct simple shear test is used to describe the
shear modulus G as the quotient of the shear stress τzx and the shear distortion γzx
(Fig. 3.45)

G = t zx / g zx .

The shear displacement diagram is used to compare the applied displacement dis-
tances s to the measured shear stresses τ. For clay-rich soils and pure clays of at
least stiff consistency and under normal stresses σ, the ultimate limit state τBr (=
shear strength βs) is attained after only short displacement distances and, after loos-
ening the specimen, falls to a low degree of residual shear strength or residual
strength. In soft pure clays, the ultimate limit state is attained after greater displace-
ment distances.

Lab and Calculation Values

Elastic Material Behavior

Table 3.28 [42] lists E moduli for the elastic material behavior of some of the main
building materials.
For rammed earth, Dierks and Ziegert [27] specify a time-dependent function of
creep to describe the elasto-plastic material behavior as follows:

e k ( t ) = 0.0654 ln ( t ) + 0.62 for t > 0.25d

d = number of days after load application.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 217

Table 3.28  E moduli of selected building materials

No. Building material E modulus [N/mm2] Comment
1 Glass 50,000–85,000
2 Masonry 500–15,000
3 Standard concrete 15,000–60,000
4 Steel 200,000–210,000
5 Wood, along the grain 7000–18,000
Wood, across the grain 300–1500
6 Rammed earth 550–960 [27, 60]; after 10 load cycles of up
to 1/3 of the failure load
700–7000 [14]; declaration without load range
300 × βD NZS 4297 [50]
500 [80]
7 Earth blocks according ≥750 Stress diagram Fig. 3.43
to DIN 18945 and Sect. 3.5.7

According to this function, a permanent load of 0.4 N/mm2 after 200 days of use
would result in a creep deformation of εk∞ < 0.1 %. This means that due to its opti-
mized grain composition and low shrinkage deformation (<0.1 %) the rammed
earth used in this test is comparable to concrete.

Viscous Material Behavior

According to the Lehmbau Regeln [22], slump a = 140 mm for mortar prisms is used
to determine the linear degree of shrinkage (Sect. 3.5.6, Fig. 3.40).

3.6.2.2  Strength Parameters

Depending on the type of stress a building element is subjected to, different strength
types can be divided into compressive strength, tensile strength, flexural strength,
buckling strength, shear strength, and torsional strength. In an actual stress situa-
tion, different stress types are likely to overlap in the building element.
In terms of strength parameters in earth building, testing has so far been largely
limited to compressive strength. In most cases, it is sufficient to know the values for
compressive strength because the test methods “automatically” measure the strength
properties across the axis of the load application.
To test the compressive strength of earth building materials, methods common to
concrete and masonry construction have been adopted or modified. As the applica-
tions of earth building materials become more diversified, the need for testing and
regulation of other stress types in earth building increases. New standardized testing
procedures need to be developed or the methods used in concrete or masonry con-
struction must be appropriately modified.
Structural strength parameters are typically determined using short-term tests
which means that it takes approx. 1 min to achieve the maximum load.
For dynamic stresses (wind, earthquakes), a dynamic portion, in addition to
structural strength, needs to be taken into account.
218 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Dry Compressive Strength

The compressive strength βD of an earth building material is generally expressed as

the stress which leads to the failure of the building material caused by a force
F ­acting vertically on the loaded cross section A

b D = max. F / A ëé N / mm 2 ùû .

According to the Lehmbau Regeln [22], the compressive strength needs to be veri-
fied for dimensioning load-bearing earth building elements. For the earth block and
earth mortar product groups according to DIN 18945–47, the dry compressive
strength is a characteristic property and must be declared accordingly.

Rammed Earth and Cob

Safety Concept. When producing rammed earth specimens in a laboratory setting,
the compaction conditions are different from those of the actual building element on
site. This results in higher dry bulk densities as well as higher compressive strengths.
Furthermore, the tested strength reflects the short-term strength which is higher in
terms of numbers compared to the creep strength of the actual building element.
This is caused by the comparatively fast load application until failure load is reached
during the test.
For the mathematical verification of the compressive strengths within the load-­
bearing wall construction, only a fraction of the compressive strength determined in
the laboratory is used (Sect. 4.2.3.1).
Distinctions are generally made between:
–– The arithmetic mean of a minimum of three individual tests
–– The characteristic value taken under consideration of a specific fractile of the
statistical distribution of the individual test results
–– The design or calculation value including a safety factor
In the Lehmbau Regeln [22], this “global” margin of safety between the dry
compressive strength βD, which is material specific and is determined in the labora-
tory, and the permissible compressive stress σp, which is proven mathematically for
the earth building element, is defined as approx. seven times the permissible com-
pressive stress. The characteristic values determined for a compressive strength test
are assigned to a strength class which is used to derive the permissible compressive
stress in walls as a calculation value according to Table 3.29.

Table 3.29  Compressive strength classes and permissible compressive stresses for rammed earth
and cob
Compressive strength class βD [N/mm2] 1a 2 3 4
Permissible compressive stresses in walls σp [N/mm2] 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
a
For cob only
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 219

before test failure pattern after ultimate load

break patterns of cylindrical specimens

∆h ∆h
∆h

ho

specimen before test brittle break plastic break plastic flow

(small ∆h) (great ∆h)

Fig. 3.46  Testing the dry compressive strength of rammed earth [43]

The smallest value of the three single values which need to be determined per
test should not be lower than the value βD = 2.0  N/mm2. Accordingly, the minimum
value for the calculated compressive stress in walls is set at σp = 0.3  N/mm2. On the
other hand, the maximum value for strength class 4 is limited to a compressive
stress in walls of σp = 0.5  N/mm2.
For pillar-like walls, the permissive stresses up to 1.5 times the minimum cross
section of the wall must be reduced by a factor of 0.8.

Test Methods. According to the Lehmbau Regeln [22], the dry compressive strength
βD for rammed earth and cob is determined using a minimum of three specimens per
test. The specimens are made in the laboratory with the aid of steel cube molds with
an edge length of 20 cm. The direction of the applied load during testing must be
identical to the direction of the applied compaction work during the production of
the specimens. When the specimens are installed in the test apparatus, their bedding
sides are leveled using a cement mortar layer no thicker than 5 mm. Load is applied
to the dry specimen in a press until failure occurs (Fig. 3.46). After the ultimate load
has been reached, the specimen exhibits a failure pattern which is typical for
unconfined lateral expansion: instead of compressing, the soil is displaced at a 45°
angle to the longitudinal axis which is a shear stress break as shown by the remainder
of the specimen in the illustration. This failure pattern is typical for brittle materials
which have much lower shear strength than compressive strength.
220 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

In order to be able to determine the dry compressive strength in a laboratory

s­ etting, the specimen needs to achieve the prevailing equilibrium moisture content
of the building element in its finished state. The specimens are dried under standard
atmospheric conditions (+20 °C, 65 % RH) until a constant weight has been reached.
This process should not be artificially accelerated which means that drying times of
at least 6 weeks need to be scheduled.
With an increase in water content in wet specimens, a brittle break turns into a
plastic break and finally into plastic flow. The “wet” state corresponds to situations
when earth building elements are exposed to water damage.
There are no uniform regulations on an international scale concerning the test
methods for determining the dry compressive strength of rammed earth.

Lab and Calculation Values. At the Bauhaus University in Weimar, Germany,

research was conducted on the strength development of rammed earth while drying
[26, 43]. A total of 105 cube specimens with an edge length of 20 cm each were made
using manual compaction. In the subsequent tests, three different mixes (rammed
earth, rammed earth with straw fibers, loess soil as construction soil for rammed earth
and rammed earth with straw fiber mixes) were used to compare the attained cube
compressive strengths. Different moisture contents at the time of installation w
(w < wpr, wpr, w > wpr) and different drying times t (t = 7, 14, 28, 45, 90 d) were included
(Fig. 3.47). Overall, values in the range of βD = 0.90–3.89  N/mm2 were attained. The
dry compressive strength βD was determined as a continuous test run along with the
dry bulk density ρd (Sect. 3.6.1.3).
Dierks and Ziegert [27] established cube compressive strengths of βD = 2.4–
3.5 N/mm2 for cubes with an edge length of 20 cm and ρd = 2.24  g/cm3. Samples
with flax fiber aggregates attained the highest value.
The cube compressive strengths of rammed earth samples with edge lengths of
10 cm (5.6 N/mm2) and 15 cm (2.9 N/mm2) determined by Fischer et al. [44] are not
directly comparable. In these tests, the specimens with a moisture content of w–wpr
(Sect. 3.6.1.4) had the highest strengths.
The strengths βD = 2.6–4.2  N/mm2 specified by Minke [45] refer to cylindrical
specimens with a diameter of 7.6 cm and a height of 10 cm and can therefore not be
directly compared. Maniatidis and Walker [46] achieved similar results with an aver-
age value of βD = 2.46 N/mm2 for cylindrical specimens with a diameter of 10 cm and
a height of 20 cm. The specimens were made with w = wpr and dried for about 4
weeks under standard atmospheric conditions until a constant weight was achieved.
Ziegert [47] conducted oedometer consolidation tests on 15, 20, and 30 cm test
cubes made of cob. The specimens were cut out of three different existing wall
structures and planed. The scale of the average compressive strengths of the cubes
was found in the range of βD = 0.63–1.12  N/mm2. The tendency of rammed earth
samples to experience a decrease in uniaxial compressive strength with an increase
in specimen size could not be confirmed for the tested cob samples. It appears that
local discontinuity within the soil structure or mechanical influences during the pro-
duction of the specimens played a more important role.
The Lehmbau Regeln [22] continue to include “empirical values” for the dry
compressive strength of earth building materials as shown in Table 3.30.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 221

Table 3.30  Dry compressive strength of earth building materials, empirical values
Dry bulk density Dry compressive
Building material ρd [kg/dm3] strength βD [N/mm2]
Rammed earth with mineral aggregate 2.0–2.2 3–5
Rammed earth with plant fiber aggregate 1.7–2.0 2–3
Cob 1.4–1.7 1
Earth blocks 1.6–2.2 2–4

Table 3.31  Permissible compressive stresses in walls and specimen dimensions for determining
the dry compressive strength of rammed earth, specifications in different national regulations
Specimen
Country Source σp [N/mm2] dimensions [mm] Comment
Australia [70] 0.7 Cylinder/prism Unstabilized (cement-stabilized
d = 150; h = 110 5.2), margin of safety using
h = 150; l = 150; coefficient of variation
w = 1.3  h
[49] 1.0 Shape factors Curing time 28 days, unstabilized
(cement-stabilized 2.5)
New Zealand [50] 0.5 h/d = 0.4–5 with Curing time 28 days air-dried,
shape factors unstabilized, smallest single
value of a series of a minimum
of 5 individual tests must be
βD > 1.3  N/mm2 at h/d = 1
USA [71] 2.07a Cube Five samples per test, one of the
h = l = w = 102 samples is allowed to be below
the value βD = 2.07  N/mm2, but
must reach at least 1.725 N/mm2
Switzerland [72] 0.3–0.5 Cube Unstabilized; βD = 2–4  N/mm2
h = l = w = 200 (0.5 N/mm2 for light clay)
India [73] 1.4 Cylinder Cement-stabilized (moist 0.7)
d = 100; h = 200
a
Unclear if σp or βD

Very little information can be found in the different national earth building regu-
lations concerning permissible compressive stresses in walls σp (Table 3.31).

Influencing Variables. Influencing variables for the dry compressive strength of

earth building materials are: grain distribution and quality; quantity and quality of
the clay minerals (binding agents) and the resulting cohesive strength; drying
conditions; quality of soil preparation; amount of mixing water; compaction work;
aggregates and additives.
In experiments conducted at the Bauhaus University in Weimar, Germany [26, 43]
(Fig. 3.47), the influence of the moisture content at time of installation w on the
attained compressive strength of the cubes manifested itself in the following man-
ner: after 90 days of drying under standard atmospheric conditions all mixes with
w > wpr attained higher strengths than those with w ≤ wpr. The maximum value
achieved was 3.89 N/mm2 at ρd = 1.92  g/cm3 in the “loess soil” series, w > wpr. The
222 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

4.0 (II)
Compressive strength [N/mm2]

3.5
3.0 (IV)
2.5 (VI)
(III)
2.0 (V)
(I)
1.5
1.0 (VII)
0.5

0
7 14 28 45 90 Drying time [d]

(I) loess soil, natural, w ~ wpr

(II) loess soil, natural, w > wpr
(III) rammed earth with coarse aggregate, w ~ wpr
(IV) rammed earth with coarse aggregate, w > wpr
(V) rammed earth with coarse aggregate+ straw fibers, w ~ wpr
(VI) rammed earth with coarse aggregate+ straw fibers, w > wpr
(VII) rammed earth with coarse aggregate+ straw fibers, w < wpr

Fig. 3.47  Testing the dry compressive strength of rammed earth [26, 43]

lowest value achieved was 0.90 N/mm2 at ρd = 1.53 g/cm3 in the “rammed earth with
straw fibers” series, w < wpr. There was no clear evidence that the straw fibers
increased the strength.
This suggests that the Proctor test (Sect. 3.6.1.4) is only of limited use as a crite-
rion for producing rammed earth structures. Based on the tests, working on the
“wet” side of the Proctor curve would result in higher strengths but also lead to
more shrinkage deformations. It would also considerably prolong the drying times
until the equilibrium moisture content is reached. Therefore, the mixes used in the
field are more likely to be “dry” mixes with a moisture content of w < wpr. However,
in order to achieve sufficient strength within the building element, the static com-
paction work applied in the Proctor test must be modified when installing rammed
earth (Sect. 3.2.2.1).
Rischanek [48] has proven that a prolonged aging time of the construction soil
(Sect. 3.1.1.3) results in a considerably higher dry compressive strength, an effect
which was already known in traditional earth building practice in China and Central
Asia.
Specimen dimensions used for testing the dry compressive strength vary consid-
erably in literature sources and different national standards (Table 3.31). Specimen
shapes range from cylinders to prisms and cubes. There are no conversion factors
for different specimen sizes used for determining the uniaxial compressive strength
of rammed earth or other earth building materials (with the exception of [49] and
[50]). A decrease in specimen dimensions leads to an increase in dry compressive
strength under the condition that the material properties, the compaction work, and
the specimen shapes remain unchanged. (Example: In [46], cylindrical specimens
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 223

2
I clay-rich soil Gotha
[N/mm ] II clay-rich soil Lützensömmern V
10
6 III Friedland powdered clay (25 m-%) +
Freyburg sand 9
IV bentonite / Bulg. (25 m-%) + Freyburg sand
Compressive strength of cube

I
5 V kaolin / OKA (20 m-%) + Freyburg sand 8 II
III
7
4 IV
6

3 III 5
I 4
2 V 3
II
IV 2
1
1

0 2 4 6 8 [M-%] 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 [M-%]
Lime content Cement content

Fig. 3.48  Dry compressive strength of stabilized rammed earth specimens [51]

with a height of 60 cm and a diameter of 30 cm achieved a dry compressive strength
value (βD = 1.9  N/mm2) which was 23 % lower than for specimens with a diameter
of 10 cm. For prism-shaped specimens of the same height and with cross-sectional
areas A = 30 and 10 cm2, the smaller specimen achieved a βD value which was
approximately 50 % higher.)
The same can be observed in compact (e.g., cubical) specimens compared to
prisms and cylinders.
Research activities are, to a large extent, dedicated to the role additives and aggre-
gates play in increasing the dry compressive strength and weather resistance of
rammed earth. In this context, work conducted at the HAB Weimar, Germany [51],
tested the effects of the binders lime and cement. The compressive strength was deter-
mined with the help of four 200 mm sample cubes per binder. The results essentially
verified the links which have already been established in the literature (Fig. 3.48).
The addition of lime is primarily suitable for very rich or highly cohesive soils.
The cation exchange which occurs on the surface of the clay colloids causes an
extensive change in the affinity for water as an immediate reaction. The structure of
the soil becomes crumbly and loose, and its natural moisture content decreases by
1–2 % in relation to how much lime is added. This change results in an effective
compactability of the rich soil. An additional long-term effect, due to the very slow
hydraulic reaction between the lime and the clay minerals, is an increase in strength
as long as optimal compaction is achieved. Hydrated lime and quick lime are suit-
able lime types.
The addition of cement is suitable for lean soils with a small clay mineral portion
or less expansive clay minerals. The cement forms a water-insoluble, rigid cement
gel in the soil which envelopes the mineral particles, binds them together, and solid-
ifies into a rigid and continuous matrix. A second, water-soluble strength matrix is
formed by the clay minerals within the soil. The strength of the soil–cement-mix is
determined by the question if both strength matrices can develop freely or if mutual
interferences occur. Such interferences, for example, can be caused by a high clay
mineral content. The shrinkage reaction of the stabilized soil caused by the clay
224 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

fraction is reduced by the rigid cement matrix. With an increase in cement, the
cement matrix dominates resulting in “soil cement.”
Heavy earth building materials (rammed earth with gravel as a coarse aggre-
gate, ρd = 2.0–2.4  g/cm3) possess an increased dry compressive strength. With val-
ues of βD = 3.0–5.0  N/mm2, it can be in the range of fired bricks of the lower
compressive strength classes which is sufficient for one- and two-story residential
construction.
The addition of ground pottery shards (in traditional African earth building) or
crushed fired bricks results in an increase in strength of rammed earth building ele-
ments through the development of pozzolanic effects.
Small additions of fiber material increase the transverse tensile strength and, with
it, the dry compressive strength of rammed earth. If the fiber content is increased
further, determining the point of failure becomes less clear: the voids between the
fibers form “crush spaces” and the fibers themselves act as tensile reinforcement.
Long-term changes in the relative humidity over the lifetime of the structure
also affect the dry compressive strength of rammed earth. Using core samples of
archaeological findings of rammed loess soil, Utz/Micoulitsch [52] have shown
that with an increase in the relative humidity from 30 to 98 % the equilibrium mois-
ture content (Sect. 5.1.2.4) rises from 2 to 6 % while the dry compressive strength
decreases by approx. 30 %. Under the same test conditions the flexural strength
even drops by approx. 70 %. Dierks and Ziegert [27] have observed similar reduc-
tions in dry compressive strength under comparable test conditions: an increase in
the permanent relative humidity from 65 to 88 % results in a rise of the equilibrium
moisture content from 0.7 to 1.3 % and a corresponding decrease in dry compres-
sive strength by 35 %.
It should be noted that the abovementioned results were obtained under artificial
test conditions making it almost impossible to directly apply them to real life situa-
tions. However, the tendencies described above highlight the importance of care-
fully considering all possible stresses during the design phase if a building,
particularly for load-bearing earth building structures.

Earth Mortars
The testing of earth mortars according to DIN 18946-47 does not only consist of dry
compressive strength tests but also the testing of additional strength types which are
determined by the specific demands placed on the individual products. According to
the specific requirements placed on earth mortars, this “combined” strength testing
series is grouped into strength classes according to Tables 3.8 and 3.10.

Test Methods. The determination of the dry compressive strength βD of earth

mortars according to the Lehmbau Regeln [22] and DIN 18946-47 is based on
DIN EN 1015-11 and DIN EN 998-1,2. These standards specify that dry
compressive strength and flexural strength can be determined with the help of a
continuous test series.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 225

For the tests, 160 × 40 × 40 mm specimen prisms are prepared at the required
working consistency of the earth mortar. The specimens are dried until a constant
weight is achieved and conditioned under standard atmospheric conditions. The
consistency is checked using the flow table test according to DIN EN 1015-3 by
measuring the diameter of a fresh mortar sample (Sect. 3.6.2.1).
The dry compressive strength can also be tested with the help of the mortar
prisms which were used in the flexural strength test and were broken in half
(Sect. 3.6.2.2). The 16 mm × 16 mm load application plate is placed on the end face
of the demolded mortar prism at a distance of 16 mm from the edge. A load is
applied at a predefined speed until failure occurs. The final result is the smallest
value of a minimum of three tests.
Lab and Calculation Values: Minke [53] specifies dry compressive strengths in the
range of βD = 1.00–3.04  N/mm2 tested in 14 commercially available earth plaster
mortars. The flexural strengths, which were determined at the same time, are in the
range of βf = 0.18–0.69  N/mm2 and amount to approximately 1/10 of the dry com-
pressive strength.
Dettmering and Kollmann [54] provide an overview of the scale of compressive
strengths of plaster mortars which are used in restoration and preservation work.
The compressive strength of lime plasters is classified as “low” at βD = 1–1.5  N/
mm2. “Rigid” cement plasters are around βD = 10–30  N/mm2. There is no informa-
tion about earth plasters.
For this reason, the German Association for Building with Earth (DVL) initiated
dry compressive strength and adhesive strength tests (Sect. 3.6.2.2) for five different
commercially available earth plaster mortars. The results range from βD = 0.7–1.8 N/
mm2 [55].
A plaster mortar’s tendency to develop cracks is typically also assessed by the
quotient of compressive and flexural strengths [54]: in general, a flexural strength of
1/3 of the compressive strength is desirable. There is not enough reliable data to
apply this observation to earth plaster mortar.
The dry compressive strength of earth masonry mortar is based on the strength
of the earth blocks used in the specific construction project according to
Sect. 3.5.7.

Earth Blocks
Earth blocks according to DIN 18945 are grouped into compressive strength classes
(Table 3.16) based on the specific individual requirements they must meet.
Test Methods: The dry compressive strength βD test for earth blocks should be con-
ducted according to DIN 18945. The preparation of the specimens is the same as for
the E modulus test. The test needs to be carried out within 1 h of the specimens
being removed from the climate cabinet.
226 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

The test load is applied at a constant speed perpendicular to the bedding joint of
the earth block until failure occurs after 30–90 s. A test series consists of a mini-
mum of six specimens.
This test can be combined with the E modulus test. Here, the stress diagram
shown in Fig. 3.43 is followed by a subsequent unloading. The test is then carried
out until the failure load is attained.
There are no uniform regulations on an international scale for test methods of the
dry compressive strength of earth blocks. For cement-stabilized earth blocks the
“wet” compressive strength of hydrated specimens is determined as well, for exam-
ple, using a test method according to ARSO [40].

Tensile Strength

The tensile strength βT of a building material can generally be expressed as the ten-
sion determined in a tensile test as the quotient of the maximum amount of tensile
force F and the original cross section A

bT = max. F / A éë N / mm 2 ùû .

Based on their cohesive strength, earth building materials also possess tensile
strength. However, compared to their compressive strength, it is low and therefore
not included in calculations for load-bearing building elements.
Based on the different uses of earth building materials, tensile strengths for typi-
cal load conditions include:
–– Axial tensile strength in the form of cohesive strength according to Niemeyer
(Sect. 2.2.3.2)
–– Splitting tensile strength
–– Tensile adhesion strength
–– Flexural strength

Axial Tensile Strength

Terminology: The cohesive strength according to Niemeyer (Sect. 2.2.3.2) is com-
parable to the axial tensile strength βz of a moist construction soil (earth building
material) as a processing parameter for a predefined “standard” testing consistency
(Fig. 2.24).
The “dry” tensile strength was determined at the Bauhaus University in Weimar,
Germany, with the help of the same test apparatus which is used to determine the
cohesive strength [56].
Test Method: An apparatus for the determination of the cohesive strength according
to Niemeyer was used to load dry “figure-eight-shaped” specimens of 13 different
construction soils. The load was applied until brittle fractures occurred.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 227

Lab and Calculation Values: “Wet” Tensile Strength (Niemeyer). βTW = 50–360 g/cm2

or 0.005–0.036 N/mm2, higher for pure clays (Table 2.5). The corresponding moisture
content at the time of installation wN (test consistency) is near the plastic limit PL
according to Sect. 2.2.3.2 (wN = 1.19 PL—3.37 with rxy = +0.79; Table 2.7 [57]).

“Dry” Tensile Strength [56]. The tensile strength measured at the moment the brittle
fracture occurred increased to 21–67 times the specimens’ values at standard con-
sistency. The absolute ­values were the highest for rich and very rich soils:

Lean soils <0.4 N/mm2

Semi-rich soils 0.4–0.6 N/mm2
Rich soils 0.6–0.9 N/mm2
Very rich soils >0.9 N/mm2

The relative values of dry and wet tensile strengths were considerably higher for
lean and semi-rich soils than for rich and very rich soils.

Influencing Variables. The practical significance of “wet” tensile strength lies in the
preparation of earth building materials: it is needed to turn the mix of construction
soil, water, and aggregates and additives which improve the soil’s properties, into a
workable, homogeneous mass suitable for shaping. Tensile strength values provide
information about the processing qualities of construction soils. Here, p­ rocessing
refers to changing the shape of a mix exhibiting viscous behavior (Sect. 3.6.2.1).
Strong cohesion, well-graded grain sizes, angular grain shapes, and a rough grain
surface of the mineral components have proven to increase strength. The tensile
strength increases as the earth building material dries.

Splitting Tensile Strength

Terminology: For the indirect determination of the tensile strength of materials with
brittle fracture tendencies, such as solid rock, firm pure clays, marl as well as some
clay-rich soils, the splitting tensile strength test (also known as the Brazilian Test)
can be used with the help of cylindrical specimens. The splitting tensile strength of
concrete is tested according to DIN EN 12390-6.
A practical application of the splitting tensile strength, in terms of a field test, is
the shock resistance of earth blocks (earth block drop test). According to earth
building standards and recommendations in New Zealand and Australia [49, 50],
this test should be carried out as a quality control measure during construction.

Test Method. For the splitting tensile strength test, a cylindrical specimen with
h/d ~ 1 is mounted in a rigid test frame between fixed plates. Two opposing parallel
lines of the specimen’s surface (fiber board strips) are then loaded with a constant
load increase of 0.05 N/mm2 per second until failure occurs (Fig. 3.49).
228 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Test
specimen

Fig. 3.49  Splitting tensile strength: test setup, according to [40, 78]

diagonal must be
perpendicular to w condition:
surface w ≤ l ≤ 2w, if l > 2w earth block must be split

break pattern after test:

l 1. the earth block should not break into two nearly identical
halves
2. the earth block should not break into more than 10 pieces
3. if a corner breaks off, its diagonal should not be longer
then 1/5 of the diagonal of the entire block
drop height 900

Fig. 3.50  Splitting tensile strength: test setup, according to [49, 50]

In order to determine the shock resistance of earth blocks, a dry earth block is
dropped from a height of 900 mm onto a solid, flat surface and the resulting failure
pattern is assessed. Before the earth block is dropped, it is turned in such a manner
that the diagonal of the block’s bedding side is perpendicular to the impact surface
and the lowest edge of the block is at a height of 900 mm [49]. For testing the shock
resistance of earth blocks, the permissible and impermissible failure patterns after
impact are described in Fig. 3.50. The test should be carried out on 5 in every 2500
earth blocks.
Figure 3.51 [40] shows a test method for earth blocks with a rectangular cross
section which was developed for determining the splitting tensile strength accord-
ing to ARSO. Two plastic or hardwood strips with a 1 cm2 cross section are mounted
in a press together with the test earth block. Both strips are positioned vertically
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 229

Fig. 3.51  Splitting tensile strength test of earth blocks according to ARSO [40]

above one another and loaded with a constant speed of 0.02 mm/s until failure
occurs. The test is repeated on each half block obtained from the initial break so that
every full block provides three test results.

Lab and Calculation Values. The splitting tensile strength for cylindrical specimens
is determined by using the equation
βST = 2•maxF/π•d•h (or w•h for rectangular cross sections)
d—cylinder diameter
h—height
maxF—stress along the surface line, ultimate load.
According to DIN EN 12390-6, the following applies to concrete and can serve
as a guide for comparing the splitting tensile strength βST with the axial tensile
strength βAT

b ST = 1.2 b AT .

No corresponding values for earth building materials have been found to date.
230 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

possible failure patterns according to DIN 18555-6 (diagram)

test plate

adhesive layer
earth plaster

substrate
a) adhesive surface b) mortar failure c) substrate failure d) adhesive layer
substrate /mortar failure (cohesion failure) (cohesion failure) failure
(adhesion failure)

adhesion failure (a) after testing [55]

Fig. 3.52  Adhesive strength test of earth plasters

Tensile Adhesion Strength

Terminology: The tensile adhesion strength βTA indicates the amount of tensile stress
acting perpendicular to the adhesive surface required to break the bond between
mortar and plaster substrate. The test shows if the adhesion of the top coat to the
base coat or the entire plaster system to the substrate is sufficient.
Furthermore, failure can occur in masonry systems if the adhesive strength
between the earth block and the masonry mortar in the bedding joint is exceeded.
Failure can also be caused by the block tensile strength if the adhesive strength of
the bedding joint mortar is high and the tensile strength of the earth blocks in the
direction of the block height is low.
Test Methods: The tensile adhesion strength βTA of earth plaster mortars is tested
according to DIN 18947 on the basis of DIN EN 1015-12 (Fig. 3.52 [58]). The earth
plaster is prepared to test consistency, applied to the substrate (a horizontal concrete
slab) and the plaster surface is worked. The test surfaces are then stored for a
­minimum of 14 days making sure the final 7 days are under standard atmospheric
conditions ((23 ± 2) °C/(50 ± 5) % RH).
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 231

Next, a minimum of five specimens with a diameter of d = 50 mm (also 70 mm)

are cut out of the test surface by drilling core holes through the earth plaster to a
depth of approx. 3 mm into the substrate.
After the contact surfaces have been cleaned with a brush and loose particles and
dust have been removed with compressed air, test plates are attached to the dry earth
plaster using a suitable glue. After the glue has hardened, the tensile strength of the
earth plaster samples is determined using suitable devices (such as from Dynatest or
the HP 850). The duration of the test should not exceed 60 s.
The test can result in four different failure patterns (Fig. 3.52) [DIN 18555-6]):
–– Adhesive failure in the contact surface mortar/substrate
–– Cohesion failure in the mortar
–– Cohesion failure in the substrate
–– Failure in the adhesive layer

Lab and Calculation Values: Minke (Boenkendorf) [45] specifies the criterion of
βTA ≥ 0.05  N/mm2 as a general requirement placed on “earth plaster on an earthen
substrate.” Riechers and Hildebrand [59] consider a general value of βTA = 0.08  N/
mm2 for plasters as “sufficient for general applications.”
Dettmering and Kollmann [54] provide numerical values for the tensile adhesive
strength βTA of standard plasters used in restoration and conservation projects in the
range of 0.1–0.5 N/mm2, for gypsum and cement plasters 0.4–0.9 and 1.0–2.0 N/
mm2. There are no corresponding values for earth plasters.
For this reason, the DVL initiated adhesive strength tests for five different com-
mercially available earth plasters [55]. The numerical values of the tests were in the
range of βTA = 0.03–0.12  N/mm2. Smooth concrete was used as the substrate (which
is unfavorable in terms of the expected result). The specimens were obtained from
a single-layer earth plaster through “core drilling” or by using a “cutter” according
to DIN EN 1015-12. The earth plaster was applied at standard working consistency.
The resulting failure patterns were “cohesion failure” and “adhesion failure” as well
as transitional types (Fig. 3.52).
These systematically conducted tests are the first to prove that the test method
described in DIN EN 1015-12 can also be applied to earth plasters. Based on these
tests, numerical values have been specified for the tensile adhesive strength classes
of earth plaster mortar in DIN 18947 (Table 3.10).
Influencing Variables: The cohesive strength and composition of the plaster mortar,
the consistency as well as the properties of the plaster surface and the substrate exert
a particular influence on the tensile adhesive strength of earth plaster mortar.

Flexural Strength
Terminology: Flexural strength βF is activated in earth building materials when loads
are applied perpendicular to the plane causing the building element to act as a panel.
It indicates how much load must be applied in order to break a building material
when bending. Typical stress situations resulting in flexural tension are found in
232 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

F
steel roller supports
d = 10 ± 0,5

specimen dimensions
40 160 x 40 x 40

30 100 ± 0,5 30

160

Fig. 3.53  Flexural strength test of earth plaster according to DIN EN 1015-11

earth plasters but also through a dynamic stress placed on earth building materials,
for example, during earthquakes. Other examples include non-load-bearing build-
ing elements as well as those which do not experience a significant degree of super-
imposed load (infill, wall linings, and self-supporting walls).

Test Methods: The specimens used for determining the flexural strength of earth
mortars are produced in the same manner as for the dry compressive strength test
according to DIN 18947. Both tests can also be combined in a test series.
A specimen is placed on two steel rollers (d = 10 mm) which are 100 mm apart.
A third roller is used to apply a load in the center until breakage occurs (Fig. 3.53,
DIN EN 1015-11).
Dierks and Ziegert [60] used 600 × 150 × 150 rectangular-shaped rammed earth
specimens to determine the flexural strength based on DIN 1048-5. In order to
achieve a “diaphragm action” the specimens were “placed on their sides” (turned
90° around their longitudinal axis) so the ramming joints became vertical and thus
parallel to the direction of loading.
According to NZS 4298 [50], the flexural strength of earth blocks is determined
using a field test following the procedure described in Fig. 3.54. The test block is
supported as a “beam” along the edges of its wide faces in a linear fashion. The load
is applied by stacking “earth” blocks on top until the failure load has been reached.
A linear stacking load is applied to the test earth block in the center and to one wide
face. The test must be carried out on 5 out of every 5000 earth blocks as a quality
control measure during construction if the blocks did not pass the “drop test”
(Fig. 3.50).
Jagadish et al. [61] determine the flexural strength of stabilized earth block
masonry with the help of the test shown in Fig. 3.55. In the test, lime-cement mortar
or stabilized earth masonry mortar was used. The illustration shows two possible
ways of applying the horizontal force: via pull rope (a) or via press (b) using a speci-
men which has already been broken.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 233

superimposed
load, stack of
earth blocks

20 20 x 20 wooden
support slats in a sand
bed

test earth block

firm surface (concrete)

supporting block (brick)

l
x l/2

Fig. 3.54  Flexural strength test of earth blocks according to NZS 4298 [50]

Lab and Calculation Values: The average values of the flexural strength of rammed
earth samples according to [60] were in the range of βF = 0.36–0.63  N/mm2. As
expected, the values for the samples containing fiber aggregates were considerably
higher.
NZS 4297,-8 [50] requires the following values for the flexural strength of earth
blocks:
βF > 0.25 N/mm2 as the minimum value of five individual tests according to Fig. 3.54
βF,C = 0.1  N/mm2 as the calculation value for planning
The values of the flexural strength for stabilized earth block masonry (Fig. 3.55
[61]) were in the range of βF = 0.031–0.414  N/mm2.
For standard plasters used in renovation and restoration work, Dettmering and
Kollmann [54] specify numerical values for the flexural strength βF in the range of
0.2–1.0 N/mm2, and for gypsum and cement plasters 1.0–2.0 and 2.0–7.0 N/mm2.
There are no corresponding values for earth plasters. Hardened earth mortar [35]
requires a flexural strength of βF ≥ 0.4  N/mm2 after a setting time of 28 days.
Numerical values for the flexural strength classes for earth plaster mortar are
specified in DIN 18947 (Table 3.10).
234 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

a mounting frame for pulling device

earth block
masonry specimen pull rope

mounting frame load

concrete base

masonry base

application of the horizontal force via pull rope

b

application of the horizontal force via press, specimen is already broken

Fig. 3.55  Flexural strength test of stabilized earth block masonry, according to [61]

Shear Strength and Friction Coefficient

Terminology
The activation of the shear strength βS in an earth building element correlates to the
stresses within the element during the transfer of horizontal loads. Failure occurs
along horizontal surfaces which are typically predefined by processing.
The shear strength βS of an earth building material is generally expressed as the
stress which leads to failure of the building material caused by a shear stress F act-
ing on the loaded cross section A
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 235

ßs = max. F / A éë N / mm 2 ùû .

In soil mechanics, the stress application is formulated on the basis of the Mohr/
Coulomb general failure criterion:

t = ßAS + m × s D .

Influencing parameters are the degree of the perpendicular acting compressive

stress σD, the roughness of the surfaces in the sliding plane, which is expressed with
the help of a material-independent friction coefficient μ, as well as the adhesive
shear strength ßAS, which is a result of the bond (= cohesion c) with its determining
factors (surface roughness, pore structure, moisture content) and the strength of the
earth building material.

Test Methods
In soil mechanics, the shear strength of clay soils and pure clays is determined by
the direct simple shear test shown in Fig. 3.45 as well as the triaxial test (Table 3.27).
In rammed earth or cob structures, individual blocks are clearly visible. Their
borders are defined by the horizontal ramming joints between the stacked rammed
earth or cob layers (caused by the specific technology used) and by their vertical
edges. The vertical “butt joints” (which in the case of cob are slightly slanted in the
opposing direction of the work) are staggered like those found in block masonry.
The edges of the individual blocks butt against each other (without “joint mortar”)
and are potential weak spots in actual structures.
Dierks and Ziegert [60] determined the shear strength of rammed earth with the
help of a 150 × 150 × 300 mm specimen which was loaded parallel to the ramming
joints. At first, the failure patterns showed slanted cracks perpendicular to the main
stresses at approx. 60 % of the applied failure load. This was followed by a sudden
vertical shear failure. This failure pattern seemed to indicate that the compaction
created an “interlocking” of the individual rammed earth layers resulting in a largely
isotropic behavior of the material in terms of shear strength.
The horizontal joints in earth block masonry form potential sliding planes.
Therefore, the adhesive shear strength of earth masonry mortar according to DIN
18946 needs to be determined on the basis of DIN EN 1052-3. In the test, sand-lime
bricks are used as masonry. They are first stored under standard atmospheric condi-
tions ((23 ± 2) °C, (50 ± 5) % RH) until a constant weight is reached. The constant
weight has been reached when the results of two consecutive weightings at 24 h
intervals differ by no more than 0.2 mass in % based on the smaller value. The sand-­
lime bricks should not be prewetted before they are laid.
To prepare the specimens, three blocks (which have been prepared under stan-
dard atmospheric conditions) are laid and joined on top of each other using the earth
masonry mortar to be tested. They are then stored for 2 weeks, ensuring the second
week is under standard atmospheric conditions. The test is conducted using the
236 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.56  Adhesive shear strength test of earth masonry mortar according to DIN 18946 [62]

Fig. 3.57  Earth bock masonry under shear stress: possible failure patterns [63]

setup shown in Fig. 3.56 (Fontana [62]): First, the shaft is used to load and unload
the specimens perpendicular to the bedding joint with load increments of 0.05, 0.10,
and 0.20 N/mm2. Next, the test load for determining the adhesive shear strength is
applied to the specimens via the central load application plate. Failure should occur
at 20–60 s after load application.
For cement-stabilized earth block masonry, Venkatarama Reddy and Uday Vyas
[63] examined the impact of the adhesive shear strength on the degree of compres-
sive stress acting perpendicular to the surface. Based on the principle of the direct
simple shear test shown in Fig. 3.45, two earth blocks (with 5 and 14 % cement
added) were laid on top of each and joined other using a lime-cement mortar. The
lower block was fixed in place in a steel box to restrict movement. Shear force was
applied to the upper block via a steel frame which encased the block. The bedding
sides of the connected earth blocks formed the potential sliding planes with varying
degrees of roughness.
Figure  3.57 shows the three resulting failure patterns. A fourth pattern was a
partial break along the mortar joint and in the earth block. These failure patterns are
similar to those found in the adhesive strength test of earth plasters in Fig. 3.52.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 237

mortar joint
mortar
joint

earth
block earth block

Emasonry / Emortar> 1 Emasonry / Emortarl< 1

Fig. 3.58  Earth block masonry under compressive stress: stress state in earth block/mortar joint [63]

Lab and Calculation Values

Using the test setup according to DIN 18946 shown in Fig. 3.56, Fontana [62] deter-
mined the adhesive shear strength of earth masonry mortars for the first time.
Depending on the earth masonry mortar used and the pretreatment of the blocks
(wet or dry), the values were in the range of 0.042–0.135 N/mm2 which is above the
minimum values required by DIN 18946 (Table 3.10).
The test setup described in [60] resulted in shear strength values in the range of
ßS = 0.55–0.89  N/mm2. It was also proven that concrete and rammed earth are simi-
lar in terms of material behavior: for the concrete and rammed earth samples tested
in [60], the ratio between shear strength and compressive strength ßD and between
shear strength and flexural strength ßF is:
Concrete: ßS ~ 0.23 ßD; ßS ~ 1.6 ßF
Rammed earth: ßS ~ 0.27–0.33 ßD; ßS ~ 1.41–1.52 ßF.
In NZS 4297,-8 [50], the following calculations are applied for shear strength:
ßS,C = 0.09  N/mm2.

Influencing Variables
The strength properties of earth block masonry are affected by the ratio between the
E moduli of the earth blocks EB and the masonry mortar EM (Fig. 3.58 [63]).
At a ratio of EB/EM > 1, the mortar in the horizontal joint, which is less stiff,
shows a stronger tendency to “deform transversely” than the block. However, the
bond with the earth block confines this deformation causing further tensile stresses
within the earth block due to the confined transverse deformations in the mortar.
The higher the difference in stress between block and mortar, the lower the
­compressive strength of the masonry structure. For sandy (earth) mortars with a
dense structure, the mortar’s influence on the compressive strength of the masonry
238 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

structure can be expressed by the compressive strength of the mortar with sufficient
precision. Earth masonry mortars with lightweight aggregates, on the other hand,
can exhibit a higher potential for transverse deformation. This would further reduce
the compressive strength within the masonry structure.
According to [63], the adhesive strength between block and mortar in the hori-
zontal joint only substantially affects the masonry’s compressive strength if the
masonry mortar is stiffer than the earth block (EB/EM < 1). For this situation, the
following relationship has been determined for the ratio between shear strength (βS)
and compressive strength (βD):

b D = 1.457 + 5.01 b S ( rxy = 0.89 ) .

The fracture mechanism of stiff mortar to soft block depends on the adhesive
strength in the joint between mortar and block. A high degree of strength means that
the horizontal compressive forces within the masonry structure increase as long as
the shear strength in the horizontal joint shows resistance. Once the tensile strength
along the surface of the mortar and block joint fails, the horizontal compressive
forces applied by the shear forces disappear and vertical cleavage cracking develops
as the typical failure pattern.
Friction coefficients μ are also important in load-bearing earth construction
where horizontal loads in earth building elements are transferred vertically and have
to overcome joints made of different materials, such as the transfer of wind loads via
roof structures in copings. Friction coefficients for individual material combinations
are specified in [60]:
Wood (rough)/earth mortar: μG = 0.30–0.54
Wood (planed)/earth mortar: μG = 0.26–0.53
Fired bricks/earth mortar: μG = 0.37–0.56
Concrete/rammed earth: μG = 0.41–0.64

Wear Resistance

Surfaces made of earth building materials are subject to various types of mechanical
wear during their lifetime:
–– Surface abrasion (plasters, wall surfaces, floors)
–– Scratches/cracks (plasters, wall surfaces, floors)
–– Impacts (corners of wall openings, wall surfaces)
–– Grooves/nicks (floors)
These different types of wear typically appear together making them rather com-
plex. It is therefore important to simulate the actual wear conditions as accurately as
possible during testing. The development of reproducible and standardized test
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 239

Fig. 3.59  Determining the

abrasion of earth plaster,
manually operated brush

methods for determining wear resistance has only recently begun. Accordingly, few
tests with conclusive results have been conducted.
Nevertheless, the application of earth building materials, particularly earth
­mortars, should be carefully considered in the planning stages of areas where a high
degree of mechanical wear is to be expected. This includes parts of buildings which
are highly frequented by the public.

Abrasion Resistance
Terminology: A predefined testing method is used to determine the abrasion dust
quantity (in g) of building element surfaces made of earth building materials. This
quantity serves as a measure of the mechanical strength against surface abrasion.

Test Methods: For determining abrasion resistance, Minke [53] developed a test
which is based on the Böhme grinding wheel standardized in DIN 52108. In this
test, the earth plaster surface receives final compression using a wooden or plastic
float. Next, a hard, rotating brush with a diameter of 7 cm is pressed against the
earthen surface using a weight with an applied pressure of 2 kg. After 20 brush
rotations, the abrasion dust quantity is weighed. This test can also be carried out
using a manually operated testing device (Fig. 3.59 [64]).
The abrasion test of earth plaster mortars has been included in DIN 18947 as a
mandatory test. Proof of abrasion strength in earth plaster mortars is also a require-
ment for obtaining the quality seal from the organization natureplus e.V. [35].
240 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Lab and Calculation Values: Using the method described above, the abrasion dust
quantities of 15 commercially available earth plasters containing different aggregates
and additives were established in [53] to provide a standard of comparison for
abrasion resistance. For the tests, the mortars were prepared at a 140 mm slump
consistency according to DIN EN 1015-3 (Fig. 3.40) and applied to a substrate. The
abrasion dust amounts ranged from 0.1 to 7.0 g.
The DVL commissioned tests based on the same procedure to determine the
abrasion resistance of five additional commercially available earth plasters which
resulted in abrasion dust quantities of 0.3–6.7 g [55]. The tested earth plasters
exhibited fluctuations of more than one decimal power in terms of their abrasion
resistance.
DIN 18947 and the technical information sheets 01 and 06 [34, 65] (published by
the DVL) specify permissible abrasion dust quantities for earth plaster mortars and
clay thin-layer finishes (Table 3.10).

Influencing Variables: The resistance of an earth building element to surface

abrasion is influenced by the degree of the grinding force, the strength and
smoothness of the surface and the properties of the construction soil (cohesive
strength, grain distribution, grain shape, and angularity) and its aggregates.
Earth plasters are often prepared as lean mixes in order to minimize shrinkage
cracks. This also decreases the cohesive strength which is needed to bind sand
grains at the surface of the plaster. This results in an undesirable “dusting” of the
plaster even when only lightly touched.

Edge Strength
Terminology: The edge strength is a measurement of the stability of protruding
edges of door and wall openings made of earth building materials which are exposed
to mechanical stresses in the finished building.

Test Methods: Minke [53] developed a test method for determining the edge
strength of earth plaster mortar, earth panels, and earth blocks. In this test, a
weight is dropped from a predetermined height (125 mm for earth mortar) onto
the edge of a specimen which has been mounted at a 60° angle. The lower part
of the drop weight consists of a steel ball which hits the specimen 10 mm from
the edge. The test determines the weight at which a chipping failure of the
specimen occurs.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 241

In connection with this test, it is important to point out that it is common practice
to use plaster profiles and corner guards to protect edges and corners prone to shocks.

Impact Resistance
Terminology: To test the impact resistance of a building material or building element
its resistance to impact and shock stresses is measured. The more energy the building
material absorbs, the stronger it is.

Test Methods: Based on the testing of hardened concrete according to DIN 1048-2,
Dierks and Ziegert [60] conducted tests using rebound hammers to determine the
compressive strength of rammed earth walls.
This test only measures the resistance on the surface of the building element.
However, for assessing the strength properties of a building element, it is important
to determine the condition of the entire cross section.

Scratch Resistance

Terminology: A specific test method is used to determine the scratching effect of

pointy or sharp-­edged objects on the surface of earth building elements as a measure
of their mechanical stability when facing such stresses.

Test Methods: Depending on the function of a building element and the demands
placed on it in terms of use, testing the mechanical strength of surfaces made of
earth building materials might require a finer differentiation of the strength criteria
than can be determined using the test method described here. One example is testing
the remains of earth building structures as part of archaeological digs. Here, it is of
particular importance to stabilize the very frail surfaces made of earth building
materials, typically with the aid of chemical stabilization.
In this context, UTZ [52] has developed a qualitative test for determining the
scratch resistance of archaeological earth building elements. First, cylindrical core
samples with a length of 5 cm were taken from the building element which needed
to be stabilized. Then, a nail loaded with a predetermined weight and mounted in a
pulling device was pulled across the specimen at a speed of 0.025 m/s. The results
compared the qualitative differences of the scratch patterns in untreated and stabi-
lized samples at different degrees of relative humidity.
242 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

3.6.3  Building Physics Parameters

3.6.3.1  Hygric Parameters

Earth building materials and elements are not waterproof. Until recently, there were
no parameters or suitable test methods for determining the water resistance of earth
building materials. In connection with the development of DIN 18945, related
research was conducted from 2009 to 2011 at Germany’s Federal Institute for
Material Testing (BAM). This research focused on the experimental simulation of
possible moisture stresses on earth building materials and elements, in particular
earth blocks and earth mortar as well as entire building elements made from them.

Capillary Water Absorption

Terminology
In general, the experimental determination of the capillary water absorption (absorp-
tive capacity) of building materials and building elements is conducted according to
DIN EN ISO 15148:

mw = A × Ö t

Here, A is the water absorption coefficient, a material parameter subject to the
­building material structure, porosity, bulk density, temperature, and initial moisture
content. It is expressed as a function of the absorbed mass of water mw [kg/m2] per
unit of area and of time (t).

Test Methods
Dip Test: A qualitative assessment of the resistance of earth building materials to
water (“suspension capability”), instead of water absorption, can be conducted
using the following test according to DIN 18952-2 (withdrawn) (Fig. 3.60): The
bottom of a specimen with the dimensions 220 × 40 × 25 mm (prism, degree of
shrinkage test for construction soil, Table 3.26) is lowered 50 mm into a container
of water and its appearance is visually evaluated after 45 and 60 min. A complete
separation of the bottom part of the specimen after 45 min is a sign of a soil with low
water resistance. A specimen which holds its shape for more than 60 min indicates
that the soil is difficult to suspend, has good water resistance and is therefore suit-
able as an earth building material.
The dip test for earth blocks according to DIN 18945 is based on the principle of
the “suspension test” according to DIN 18952-2: with the help of a mounting device,
the end of a test earth block is lowered 10 cm deep into a water bath where it remains
for 10 min. The material loss is determined by filtering out the residue which is left
in the water (Fig. 3.61) [66]. It is then dried at 40 °C, conditioned under normal
atmospheric conditions and weighed. A test consists of a series of three earth blocks.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 243

specimen
lowered 5 cm
into water

container
with
water

Fig. 3.60  Suspension test of earth building materials according to DIN 18952-2

Fig. 3.61  Dip test of earth blocks of different usage classes [66]

The material loss is determined by the ratio of the mass of the filtered material
from the three earth blocks to their initial mass. After the dip test, the earth blocks
are evaluated based on DIN 18945 in terms of their respective usage classes accord-
ing to Table 3.17. According to the table, the mass loss of earth blocks of usage class
I should not exceed 5 %. Earth blocks of usage class II should not exceed 15 %.
244 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Fig. 3.62  Contact test of earth blocks, earth blocks before and after the test [66]

The dip test for usage classes I and II should not cause cracks or permanent swelling
deformations.

Contact Test: The contact test according to DIN 18945 determines the behavior of
earth blocks subjected to short contact with water during the application of plaster
or masonry mortar.
An absorbent (cellulose) cloth, the size of the long narrow side of an earth block,
is placed on the block’s surface and moistened with an amount of water which cor-
responds to the average amount of water contained in a 15 mm thick mortar layer
(0.5 g/cm2 of block surface). The specimens are then stored for 24 h in a closed
container placed on a rack above water. Finally, they are exposed to normal atmo-
spheric conditions for 2 days. Afterwards the surface of the earth blocks is assessed.
Earth blocks of usage classes I and II should not exhibit cracks or permanent swell-
ing deformations (Table 3.17).
Figure 3.62 [66] shows an earth block before and after the contact test. The earth
block does not conform to the requirements for usage classes I and II.

Suction Test: The suction test according to DIN 18945 determines the behavior of
earth blocks when exposed to a temporary excess supply of water. Such stresses
include those on exterior timber-frame walls during driving rains (Sect. 5.2.1.2) with
water entering and collecting between the frame construction and the earthen infill.
For this test, three earth block halves are first conditioned under standard atmo-
spheric conditions ((23 ± 2) °C, (50 ± 5) % RH) until a constant weight is reached.
Next, fired bricks which support capillary action (or other porous blocks) are placed
closely together in a shallow pan forming a continuous plane. The pan is then filled
with water, stopping 1–5 mm below the upper edge of the fired brick layer. The
water which is later absorbed by the halved earth blocks during the test needs to be
continuously refilled up to this original level. Sponge cloths are laid on top of the
fired brick layer upon which the earth blocks are placed bedside down. The condi-
tion of the specimens is visually assessed after 30 min, 3 h, and 24 h. Swelling
should not cause any visual cracking on the top and sides of the specimens within
the time periods listed in Table 3.17. Swelling itself is not a criterion for failure.
Figure 3.63 [66] shows spalling in earth blocks after the suction test.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 245

Fig. 3.63  Earth blocks after suction test, spalling [66]

Lab and Calculation Values

Lustig-Rössler [67] examined the “suspension capability” according to DIN
18952-2 using three earth samples (lean soil, pure clay, earth mortar). Complete
separation of the immersed sections occurred in all specimens after 2 h (lean soil,
pure clay) and 2.5 h (pure clay). This indicates their suitability as earth building
materials.
For light clays with different bulk densities and different aggregates and addi-
tives as well as for soils and clay-rich soils, Minke specifies values of capillary
water absorption as a function of the suction time which has been determined using
the modified test setup described in [45].

Influencing Variables
The ability to absorb water within a specific time differs greatly from soil to soil:
lean soils can only absorb a relatively small amount of water but in a short period of
time. Rich soils and pure clays, on the other hand, have a high water absorption
capacity due to their comparatively high portion of clay minerals. However, the
absorption takes much longer because of their increased swelling potential (DIN
18132, Sect. 2.2.3.3, Fig. 2.19). The intensity of the swelling process is influenced
by the quality of the clay minerals (Sect. 2.2.3.4) which can additionally interfere
with water absorption.
Applied to the mechanism of moisture transport in earth building materials and
building elements (Sect. 5.1.2.1), this indicates that, due to the relatively small
pores in rich soils and pure clays, moisture transport caused by capillary action
reaches further than in leaner soils. However, as a result of the increased swelling
246 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

deformations found in rich soils and pure clays, the moisture transport is effectively
shorter within the reference time period because the swelling clay minerals inhibit
a further advancement of the moisture ([68], Sect. 5.2.1.2).
Other influences on this mechanism are exerted by the bulk density, with its cor-
responding pore structure, as well as possible aggregates and additives contained
within the earth building materials used.

Frost Test

Terminology
Moisture-penetrated earth blocks are not frost resistant. Freezing water inside the
pores expands by approx. 10 % which can result in deformations destroying the
structure of the earth blocks. Because of their very limited resistance to moisture,
the German Federal Institute for Material Testing (BAM) developed its own method
for testing the behavior of earth blocks during freeze–thaw cycles.

Test Methods
For this test, three full earth blocks are prepared under standard atmospheric condi-
tions and set up on their long and narrow sides. An absorbent (cellulose) cloth, the
size of the long and narrow side of an earth block, is placed on the block’s surface
and evenly moistened with 0.5 g of water/cm2 of block surface. The specimens are
stored in a closed container at 23 °C for 24 h and then placed in a freeze–thaw cabi-
net at a temperature of at least −15 °C. A sensor is used to test the temperature in the
center of the block. The timing sequence for a freeze–thaw cycle in the freeze–thaw
cabinet is as follows:
–– The conditioned specimen is placed in the climate cabinet
–– Cooling phase of 6 h
–– Freezing phase (temperature −15 °C or lower) of 34 h
–– Thawing phase of 8 h
–– The specimen is stored in a closed container under standard atmospheric condi-
tions and moistened via cloth for 24 h every two cycles
In addition to the requirements of the dip, contact, and suction tests, earth blocks
of the usage class I also need to be exposed to the number of freeze–thaw cycles
given in Table 3.17. The blocks may be used in their respective usage class if they
do not show any cracking or swelling deformations within the minimum number of
required cycles.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 247

Water Vapor Sorption

Terminology
Water in a gaseous state is called water vapor and is part of the surrounding air. In
adjacent building elements, water vapor is subject to the various mechanisms of
moisture transfer (Sect. 5.1.2.1). The balancing process between the humidity in the
air and the humidity in the material of adjacent building elements is referred to as
sorption. Water sorption can be plotted as a sorption isotherm (Sect. 5.1.2.5).

Test Methods
Water vapor sorption of earth plaster mortars is determined by installing 15 mm
thick specimens into a steel-plated mold which is sealed on five sides. This ensures
that the sorption of water vapor only takes place on the sixth, unsealed side. The test
surface is 1000 cm2. Thin-layer earth plasters are applied on top of an earth base
coat in order to attain the required test thickness of 15 mm. The specimens are con-
ditioned under standard atmospheric conditions ((23 ± 2) °C/(50 ± 5)% RH) until a
constant weight is reached.
For the test, the air humidity is raised to (80 ± 5) % RH while maintaining a con-
stant temperature. The increase in weight of the specimens is measured after 0.5 h,
1 h, 3 h, 6 h, and 12 h. The measured amounts of adsorbed humidity are expressed
as g/m2. The mean value of at least three single tests is determined and no value
must differ more than 20 % from the mean value. Earth plaster mortars adsorbing
more than 60 g of humidity after 12 h are classified as highly active in relation to
their adsorption potential.
This test was included in DIN 18947 as voluntary test.

Lab and Calculation Values

According to DIN 18947, A.2 (for information purposes), water vapor sorption for
earth plaster mortar is divided and designated into classes WS I–III (Table 3.32).

Table 3.32  Water vapor adsorption classes for earth plaster mortar
Water vapor adsorption [g/m2] after × [h]
No. Water vapor adsorption class 0.5 1 3 6 12
1 WS I ≥3.5 ≥7.0 ≥13.5 ≥20.0 ≥35.0
2 WS II ≥5.0 ≥10.0 ≥20.0 ≥30.0 ≥47.5
3 WS III ≥6.0 ≥13.0 ≥26.5 ≥40.0 ≥60.0
248 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

3.6.3.2  Thermal Parameters

Thermal Conductivity

Terminology
Thermal conductivity λ, also known as the coefficient of thermal conductivity is
defined as the quantity of heat conducted through 1 m2 of a 1 m thick layer of a
material in 1 s at a constant temperature difference of 1 K between both surfaces.
The unit is expressed as W/mK.

Test Methods
Thermal conductivity λ is tested according to DIN 52612-3 using the guarded hot
plate method. In this test, a flat, homogeneous specimen of the earth building mate-
rial is placed in a testing apparatus between a heating plate and a cooling plate. The
specimen is thermally insulated along its edges. The thermal conductivity of the
specimen is determined by measuring the heat flow from the heating to the cooling
plate and the temperature differences between the plates in a steady state.

Lab and Calculation Values

The Lehmbau Regeln [22] list calculation values for thermal conductivity λ of
earth building materials (Table 3.33). They are based on a compilation by Volhard
[69] listing the most unfavorable values taken from earlier standards, bibliographi-
cal references, and individual test results. They have now been included in DIN
4108-4.
For comparison purposes: The thermal conductivity of conventional building
materials is between 0.02 (polyurethane) and 200 W/mK (aluminum).

Influencing Variables
Thermal conductivity λ is one of the most important starting values for thermal
calculations (Sect. 5.1.1.3). In the practical building process, the dry bulk density ρd,
the moisture content w, and the temperature largely determine the thermal conduc-
tivity of the earth building material. Thermal conductivity λ decreases with an
increase in porosity, in other words, a decrease in dry bulk density. Thermal conduc-
tivity λ increases with a rise in moisture content of the building material. Water
conducts heat much better than air. Metals are also good thermal conductors while
many mineral building materials, including earth, conduct heat poorly. Materials
with λ < 0.15 W/mK are considered to be insulation materials.
3.6  Parameters and Tests for Earth Building Materials 249

Table 3.33  Coefficients of thermal conductivity λ of earth building materials

Dry bulk density Coefficient of thermal Earth building materials (according
No. ρd [kg/dm3] conductivity λ [W/mK] to Tables 3.3 and 3.22)
1 2.2 1.40 Rammed earth, earthen loose fill
2 2.0 1.10 Rammed earth, earthen loose fill
3 1.8 0.91 Rammed earth, earthen loose fill,
earth mortar, clay panels
4 1.6 0.73 Cob, straw clay, clay mixed with fiber,
earthen loose fill, earth mortar, earth
blocks, clay panels
5 1.4 0.59 Cob, straw clay, clay mixed with fiber,
earthen loose fill, earth mortar, earth
blocks, clay panels
6 1.2 0.47 Light clay, earthen loose fill, earth
mortar, earth blocks, clay panels
7 1.0 0.35 Light clay, earthen loose fill, earth
mortar, earth blocks, clay panels
8 0.9 0.30 Light clay, earthen loose fill, earth
mortar, earth blocks, clay panels
9 0.8 0.25 Light clay, earthen loose fill, earth
mortar, earth blocks, clay panels
10 0.7 0.21 Light clay, earthen loose fill, earth
mortar, earth blocks, clay panels
11 0.6 0.17 Light clay, earthen loose fill, earth
mortar, earth blocks, clay panels
12 0.5 0.14 Light clay, earthen loose fill, clay panels
13 0.4 0.12 Light clay, earthen loose fill, clay panels
14 0.3 0.10 Light clay, earthen loose fill, clay panels

Specific Heat Capacity

Terminology
The specific heat capacity cp is defined as the quantity of heat Ws which is required
to change the temperature of 1 kg of material by 1 K. The unit is expressed as Ws/
kgK or kJ/kgK.
In addition, the volumetric heat capacity S = cp ∙ ρ [Ws/m3K] is given as a volume-­
specific value.

Lab and Calculation Values

The Lehmbau Regeln [22] list calculation values for the specific heat capacity cp of
earth building materials (Table 3.34).
For comparison purposes: The specific heat capacity cp of inorganic building
materials and air is approx. 1.0 kJ/kgK, of wood 2.1 kJ/kgK, of water 4.2 kJ/kgK, of
aluminum 0.8, and other metals 0.4 kJ/kgK (DIN 4108-4, Table 7).
250 3  Earth Building Materials-Production, Requirements, and Testing

Table 3.34  Specific heat capacity cp of earth building materials

Aggregates, mineral [kJ/kgK] Aggregates, organic [kJ/kgK]
Dry bulk density Sand, gravel, lightweight Fine
No. ρd [kg/dm3] aggregates Straw fibers Wood chips
1 ≥1.6 1.0 1.0 1.0 1.0
2 1.4 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1
3 1.2 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.2
4 1.0 1.0 1.1 1.1 1.3
5 0.8 1.0 1.1 1.2 1.4
6 0.6 1.0 1.1 1.3 1.5
7 0.4 – 1.2 1.4 -

Influencing variables
In light clays, the value cp rises with an increase in the percentage of organic fiber
aggregates.

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