Module 1: Metacognition (John Flavell)  Is the awareness of specific strategies so that can keep

your attention focused on the topic or task at hand.

Metacognition- Consists of both Metacognition Knowledge and metacognitive
2. Meta- Memory
experiences or regulation.
 your awareness of memory strategies that work best for
 “Thinking about thinking” or “learning how to learn.” you.
 Refers to higher-order thinking which involves active awareness and
control over the cognitive processes engaged in learning.
All three variables interact with each other as you learn and apply metacognition.
Metacognitive Knowledge- refers to acquired knowledge about cognitive
processes, the knowledge that can be used to control cognitive processes. To practice metacognition, you must practice the following:

Person Variable knowing the limits of one’s own learning and memory capacities.
knowing what learning tasks one can realistically accomplish within a
- Includes how one views himself as a learner and thinker.
certain amount of time.
1. Knowledge of persona variable
Knowing which learning strategies are effective and which are not.
 refers to knowledge about how human beings learn and
Planning an approach to a learning task that is likely to be successful.
process information, as well as individual knowledge of
Using effective learning strategies to process and learn new material.
one’s own learning processes.
Monitoring one’s own knowledge and comprehension.; knowing when
- Example: knowing what the best time is for studying and that you work
the information has been successfully learned and when is not.
better in a quiet environment.
Using effective strategies for retrieval of previously stored information.
Task Variables Knowledge is said to be metacognitive if it’s keenly used in a purposeful
manner to ensure that the goal is met.
- Knowledge about the nature of the task as well as the type of processing
demands that it will place upon the individual. If one is only aware of his/her cognitive strengths/ weaknesses and the nature of
- Knowing what exactly needs to be accomplished, gauging its difficulty, the task but does not use this guide or oversee his/her own learning, then there is
and knowing the kind of effort it will demand from you. no metacognition that is applied.
- Example: you may be aware that it takes more time for you to read and
comprehend a book in educational philosophy than reading novels.
Hutt believes that metacognition includes the ability to ask and answer the
Strategy Variables
following questions:
- Involves awareness of the strategy you are using to learn a topic and
 What do I know about this subject, topic, or issue?
evaluating whether this strategy is effective.
 Do I know what I need to know?
- It is a trial and error within yourself as a learner in which or what is the
 Do I know where I can go to get some information or knowledge?
best strategy for you in studying.
 How much time do I need to learn this?
- Meta-attention and Meta-memory are related in the strategy variable.
 What are some strategies and tactics that I can use to learn this?
1. Meta-attention
 Did I understand what I just heard, read, or saw?
  How will I know if I am learning an appropriate rate? Q-uestion; read the guide questions provided or think of your own
 How can I spot an error if I make one? questions about the topic.
 How should I revise my plan if it is not working to my
R-ead; check out subheadings as you read. Pay attention to words that
expectations/satisfaction?
are printed in bold or italicized. Find out the meaning of the words that
Metacognitive Strategies to facilitate learning. are not clear to you.

Researchers Fang and Cox showed that metacognitive awareness was evident in R-ecite; work on answering the questions you had earlier.
preschoolers as young as Eight years old. Children already have the capacity to be
R-eview; pinpoint topics you may need to go back and read to understand
more aware and reflective of their own learning. However, not many have been
better.
taught and encouraged to apply metacognition
R-eflect; think about what you read. Is everything clear to you? What are
Metacognition involves knowledge and skills which you and your students can
the main points you learned? How is this relevant to you?
learn and master.
3. Have students Make predictions about the information to be presented
Teaching strategies to develop metacognition:
next based on what they have read.
1. Have students Monitor Their own learning and thinking. 4. Have students relate ideas to existing knowledge structures (it is
2. Teach study or learning strategies. important to have relevant knowledge structures learned.)
5. Have students develop questions; ask questions of themselves, about
TLQR- This can be taught to younger students (primary grades)
what is going on around them (have you asked a good question today?)
T-Tune in; it is important for the learner himself to be aware that he is 6. Help students to know when asking for help.
paying attention, and that he is ready to learn 7. Show students how to Transfer knowledge, attitudes, values, and skills to
other situations or tasks.
Q-uestion; The learner is given questions or he thinks of questions about
what he will soon learn. Two types of learners: Novice and Expert learners.

L-isten; The learner then intentionally exerts effort to listen. He becomes Module 2: Learner-Centered Psychological Principles (LCP)
aware if he Is momentarily detracted and goes back to listen again.
- Were put together by the American Psychological Association.
R-emember; the learner uses ways or strategies to remember what was - The principles consider both internal or physiological factors and external
Learned. environment or contextual factors.
- Intend to holistically deal with learners in the context of real-world
PQR4- this usually is for Older students (intermediate- onwards) this learning situations.
strategy is used to study a unit or chapter. - The 14 principles are divided into those referring to:
P-review; scan the whole chapter before delving into each paragraph. 1. Cognitive and metacognitive
Check out objectives. Look for outlines or advance organizers that will 2. Motivational and effective
give you an idea about the important topics and ideas in the chapter first. 3. Developmental and social
(however, do not just rely on summaries. Read the whole chapter!) 4. Individual differences factors influencing learners and learning.
 - Finally, principles are intended to apply to all learners – from children to 7. Motivational and emotional influences on learning.
teachers, to administrators to parents and to community members  What and how much is learned is influenced by the learner’s motivation.
involved in our educational system. Motivation to learn in turn, is influenced by individual’s emotional
states, beliefs, interests and goals, and habits of thinking.
Cognitive and Metacognitive Factors
8. Intrinsic motivation to learn.
1. Nature of the learning process  The learner’s creativity, higher order thinking, and natural curiosity all
 The learning of a complex subject matter is most effective when it is an contribute to motivation to learn. Intrinsic motivation is stimulated by
intentional process of constructing meaning from information and tasks of optimal novelty and difficulty, relevant to personal interests,
experiences. and providing for personal choice and control.
 There are different types of learning processes. 9. Effects of motivation on effort.
i.e; habit formation in motor learning and learning  Acquisition of complex knowledge and skills requires extended learner
involves generating knowledge or cognitive skills and effort and guided practice. Without learners’ motivation to learn, the
learning strategies. willingness to exert effort is unlikely without coercion.
 Learning in schools emphasizes the use of intentional
Developmental and social factors
processes that students can use to construct meaning
from information, experiences and their own thoughts 10. Developmental influences on learning.
and beliefs.  As individuals influences on learning, there are different opportunities
 Successful learners are active, goal directed, and self- and constraints for learning. Learning is most effective when differential
regulating and assume personal responsibility for development within and across physical, intellectual, emotional, and
contributing to their own learning. social domains is considered.
2. Goals of the learning process 11. Social influences on learning.
 The successful learner, overtime and with support and instructional  Learning is influenced by social interactions, intrapersonal relations, and
guidance, can create meaningful, coherent representations of communication with others.
knowledge.
Individual differences factors
3. Construction of Knowledge
 the successful learner can link new information with existing knowledge 12. Individual references in learning
in meaningful ways.  Learners have different strategies, approaches, and capabilities for
4. Strategic Thinking learning that are a function of pf prior experience and heredity.
 The successful learner can create and use a repertoire of thinking and 13. Learning diversity
reasoning strategies to achieve complex learning goals.  Learning is most effective when differences in learners’ linguistic
5. Thinking about thinking cultural and social backgrounds are considered.
 Higher order strategies for selecting and monitoring mental operations 14. Standards and assessment
facilitate creative and critical thinking.  Setting appropriately high and challenging standards and assessing the
6. Context learning learner as well as learning progress—including diagnostic process and
 Learning is influenced by environmental factors, including culture, outcome assessment—are integral parts of the learning process.
technology, and instructional practices.
 2. The superego represents our sense of morality and thoughts.
• The superego tells us all the things that we shouldn’t do, or the
Alexander and Murphy gave a summary of 14 principles and distilled them in
duties and obligations of society. The superego strives for
five areas:
perfection, and when we fail to live up to its demands, we feel
1. The knowledge base. guilty.
 One’s existing knowledge serves as the foundation of all 3. The Ego is based on the reality principle — the idea that we must delay
future learning. combination of old and new knowledge gratification of our basic motivations until the appropriate time with the
makes associations and filters new experiences. appropriate outlet. 
2. Strategic processing and control • The ego is the largely conscious controller or decision-maker of
 Learners can develop skills to reflect and regulate personality. The ego serves as the intermediary between the
their thoughts and behaviors to learn effectively. desires of the id and the constraints of society contained in the
(metacognition) superego.

3. Motivational and affect

 Factors such as intrinsic motivation (from within), • Freud believed that psychological disorders, and particularly the
reasons for wanting to learn, personal goals and experience of anxiety, occur when there is conflict or imbalance among
enjoyment of learning tasks all have a crucial role in the motivations of the id, ego, and superego.
the learning process.
• When the ego finds that the id is pressing too hard for immediate
4.Development and individual differences. pleasure, it attempts to correct for this problem, often by defense
mechanisms — unconscious psychological strategies used to cope with
 Learning is a unique journey for each person anxiety and maintain a positive self-image.
because each person, each learner has its own
unique combination of genetic and environmental 5 Psychosexual stages of development
factors that influence him.
1. Oral Stage ( birth to 18 months) 1. -the erogenous zone is the mouth.
5. Situation/context
• Child focused on oral pleasures ( sucking), too much or too little
 Learning happens in the context of a society as
satisfaction can lead to an oral fixation or oral personality.
well as within an individual.
Possible personalities:
Sigmund Freud’s three components of personality
Oral Receptive
1. The Id is driven by the pleasure principle — the desire for immediate
gratification of our sexual and aggressive urges. has a stronger tendency to smoke, drink alcohol or overeat.

• The id is why we smoke cigarettes, drink alcohol, view Oral Aggressive

pornography, tell mean jokes about people, and engage in other
fun or harmful behaviors, often at the cost of doing more
productive activities.
• with a tendency to bite his or her nails, or use curse words or even 5. Genital stage (puberty onwards) - the development begins at the
gossip, as a result, these person's may become too dependent on start of puberty when sexual urges are once
others, easily fooled, and lack of leadership traits. again awakened.

2. Anal Stage ( 18 months to 3 years) Freud's Personality Components

• the child's focus of pleasure is the anus. The child finds satisfaction in
· The id - plays a vital role in one's personality because as a baby, it
eliminating and retaining feces. Through societies expectations,
works so that the baby's essential needs are met. I'd operates on the
particularly the parents, the child needs on toilet training. And let us
pleasure principle.
remember that during this age the child's favorite word is "no!"
Therefore, a struggle might exist. • For example, if the baby is hungry, it's id wants food.
• In terms of personality: • Nothing matters to the id except the satisfaction of its own needs.
Anal Retentive Topographical Model
· Obsession with cleanliness • The Unconscious - Freud said that most what we go through in our lives,
emotions, beliefs, feelings, and impulses deep within are not available
Anal Expulsive
to us at a conscious level
· Where the person may become messy and disorganized
• he believed that most of what influenced us is our unconscious. The
3. Phallic Stage ( ages 3to 6) Oedipus and Electra Complex were both buried down into unconscious
• the pleasure of erogenous zone is the genitals. During this age, children
• The Conscious
interested in what makes boys and girls different. Freud's studies led
him to believe that during this stage, boys develop unconscious sexual • Freud also said that all of what we are aware of is stored in our
desire for their mothers, boys then see their father as a rival for his conscious mind. Our conscious mind only comprises a very small part of
mother's affection. who we are so that, in our everyday life, we are only aware of a very
• Boys may fear that their father will punish them for these feeling, thus, small part of what makes up our personality ; most of what we are is
the Castration Anxiety, these feelings comprised what Freud called hidden and out of reach.
Oedipus Complex. In Greek mythology Oedipus unintentionally killed his
father and married his mother Jocasta. • The Subconscious
• Psychoanalysts also believe that girls may also have a similar • Preconscious or Subconscious. This is the part of us that we can reach if
experience, developing unconscious sexual attraction towards their prompted, but it is not in our active conscious. It's right below the
father. This is what referred to as Electra Complex surface, but still " hidden" somewhat unless we search for it.
4. Latency Stage (age 6 to puberty) Information such as our "telephone number, some childhood memories,
• during this stage the sexual urges remain repressed. Children's focused or the name of your best childhood friend is stored in the Preconscious.
is the acquisition of physical and academic skills. Boys usually related Erik Erickson’s 8 Psychosocial stages
with boys and girls with girls during this stage.
• Erikson's "psychosocial” term is derived from the two source words - • Erikson's theory was largely influenced by Sigmund Freud. But Erikson
namely psychological (or the root, "psycho” relating to the mind, brain, extended the theory and incorporated cultural and social aspects into
personality, etc) and social (external relationships and environment), Freud's biological and sexually - oriented theory.
both at the heart of Erikson's theory, occasionally you'll see the term
•
extended to biopsychosocial, in which " bio " refers to life, as in
biological.
Jean Piaget’s 4 Stages of Cognitive Development • Example: two different glass of water but same amount of juice. The
child will now choose the taller glass thinking that it has more volume.
• Stage 1. Sensory-motor Stage
• Animism.
• The first stage corresponds from birth to infancy. This is the stage
when a child who is initially reflexive in grasping, sucking, and reaching • This is the tendency of children to attribute human like traits or
becomes more organized in his movement and activity. characteristics to inanimate objects

• Object permanence. • Example: When at night, the child is asked, where the sun she will reply,
"Mr. Sun is asleep."
• This is the ability of the child to know that an object still exists even
when out of sight. This ability is attained in the sensory motor stage. • Transductive reasoning.

• Stage 2. Pre - Operational Stage. • This refers to the pre – operational child's type of reasoning that is
neither inductive nor deductive
• The preoperational stage covers from about two to seven years old,
roughly corresponding to the preschool years. Intelligence at this stage • For example, since her mommy comes home everyday around six o'clock
is intuitive in nature. At this stage, the child can now make mental in the evening. when asked why it is already night, the child will say,
representations and is able to pretend, the child is now ever closer to because my mom is already home
the use of symbols
• Stage 3. Concrete - Operational Stage.
• Symbolic Function.
This stage is characterized by the ability of the child to think
• This is the ability to represent objects and events. A symbol is a logically but only in terms of concrete objects. This covers approximately the
thing that represents something else. ages between  8-11 years or the elementary school years. The concrete
operational stage is marked by the following:
• Example: A drawing of a sun smiling.
• Decentering.
• Egocentrism.
This refers to the ability of the child to perceive the different
• This is the tendency of the child to only see his point of view and to
features of objects and situations. No longer is the child focused or limited
assume that everyone also has his same point of view. The child cannot
to one aspect or dimension. This allows the child to be more logical when
take the perspective of others
dealing with concrete objects and situations.
• Example: a three year-old girl who cannot understand why her cousins
• Reversibility.
call her daddy “uncle" and not daddy.
During the stage of concrete operations, the child can now follow
• Centration.
that certain operations can be done in reverse.
• This refers to the tendency of the child to only focus on one aspect
For example, they can already comprehend the commutative property of
of a thing or event and exclude other aspects.
addition, and that subtraction is the reverse addition. They can also
understand that a ball of clay shaped into a dinosaur can again be rolled similar situation or problem. The individual in the formal operations stage
back into a ball of clay. can make an analogy.

• Conservation. • Deductive Reasoning.

This is the ability to know that certain properties of objects like This is the ability to think logically by applying a general rule to a
number. mass, volume, or area do not change even if there is a change in particular instance or situation.
appearance.
For example, all countries near the north pole have cold temperatures.
Example: Because of the development of the child's ability of decentering Greenland is near the North pole. Therefore, Greenland has cold
and also reversibility temperature.
the concrete operational child can now judge rightly that the amount of
Lawrence Kohlberg’s 3 Levels and 6 Sub-levels of moral development
water in a taller hut narrower container is still the same as when the water
was in the shorter but wider glass. The children progress to attain • Stage 1 (Pre-Conventional)
conservation abilities gradually being a pre - conserver. a transitional
thinker and then a conserver. Obedience and punishment orientation (How can I avoid punishment?)

• Seriation. Self-interest orientation (What’s in it for me? aiming at a reward)

This refers to the ability to order or arrange things in a series based • Stage 2 (Conventional)
on one dimension such as weight. volume or size. Interpersonal accord and conformity (Social norms, good boy – good girl
• Stage 4. Formal Operational Stage. attitude)

In the final stage of formal operations covering ages between 12 Authority and social-order maintaining orientation (Law and order morality)
and 15 years, thinking becomes more logical. They can now solve abstract • Stage 3 (Post-Conventional)
problems and can hypothesize. This stage is characterized by the following:
Social contract orientation (Justice and the spirit of the law)
• Hypothetical Reasoning.
Universal ethical principles (Principled conscience)
This is the ability to come up with different hypothesis about a
problem and to gather and weigh data in order to make a final decision or
judgment.

This can be done in the absence of concrete objects. The individuals can now
deal with "What if" questions.

• Analogical reasoning.

This is the ability to perceive the relationship in one instance and

then use that relationship to narrow down possible answers in another
Lev Vygotsky
Zone of
proximal
development
 • Zone of Proximal Development

When a child attempts to perform a skill alone, she may not be

immediately proficient at it. So. alone she may perform at a certain level of
competency.

We refer to this as the zone of actual development. However,

with the guidance of a More Knowledgeable Other (MKO), competent adult or a
more advanced peer, the child can perform at a higher level of competency.

The difference between what the child can accomplish alone and
what she can accomplish with the guidance of another is what Vygotsky
referred to as zone of proximal development.

• Scaffolding

The support or assistance that lets the child accomplish a task he

cannot accomplish independently.

Scaffolding is not about doing the task for the child while he
watches. is not about doing shortcuts for the child. Unzipping the lunch bag,
opening the food container, and putting straw in the child's tetra pack juice for
him is not scaffolding.

Scaffolding should involve the judicious assistance given by the

adult or peer so that the child can move from the zone of actual to the zone of
proximal development.

When the adult unzips the zipper an inch or two, and then holds the
lunch bag still so that the child can continue to unzip the lunch bag is scaffolding

As learners become more proficient, able to complete tasks on their

own that they could not initially do without assistance, the guidance can be
withdrawn. This is called scaffold and fade - away technique. Scaffolding, when
done appropriately can make a learner confident and eventually he can
accomplish the task without any need for assistance.
Urie Bronfenbrener’s Bio Ecological systems

Module 4: Individual Differences

Factors that Bring about Student Diversity

1. Socioeconomic status The millionaires’ lifestyle differs from that of the

middle income or lower income group.

2. Thinking/ learning style Some of you learn better by seeing something;

others by just listening; and still others by manipulating something. (You
will learn more of these in Module 5).

3. Exceptionalities In class there maybe one who has difficulty in spoken

language comprehension or in seeing, hearing, etc. We will have more
on these in Module 6.

How Student Diversity Enriches the Learning Environment

1. Students’ self-awareness is enhanced by diversity. Exposing students to

others with diverse backgrounds and experiences also serves to help
students focus on their awareness of themselves. When they see how
others are different, students are given reference points or comparative
perspectives which sharpen assessment of their own attitudes, values
and behaviors.

2. Student diversity contributes to cognitive development. The

opportunity to gain access to the perspectives of peers and to learn
from other students, rather than the instructor only, may be especially
important for promoting the cognitive development of learners.

“The classroom is peculiarly the ‘marketplace of ideas.’ The depth and

breadth of student learning are enhanced by exposure to others from
diverse backgrounds. Student diversity in the classroom brings about
different points of view and varied approaches to the learning process.

-Supreme Court Justice, William J. Brennan

over 100 years ago: “The more affects we allow to speak about one thing, the 6. Vary the examples you use to illustrate concepts in order to provide
more eyes, different eyes we can use to observe one thing, the more complete multiple contexts that are relevant to students from diverse
will our concept of this thing, our objectivity, be.” backgrounds.

German philosopher, Nietzsche, 7. Adapt to the students’ diverse backgrounds and learning styles by
allowing them personal choice and decision-making opportunities
3. Student diversity prepares learners for their role as responsible members of
concerning what they will learn and how they will learn it.
society
8. Diversify your methods of assessing and evaluating student learning.
Suzanne Morse stresses one competency that has strong implications for
instructional strategies that capitalize on diversity: “The capacity to imagine 9. Purposely, form small-discussion groups of students from diverse
situations or problem from all perspectives and to appreciate all aspects of backgrounds. You can form groups of students with different learning
diversity Furthermore, she argues: “The classroom can provide more than just styles, different cultural background, etc.
theory given by the teacher in a lecture. With student diversity the classroom
Module 5: Learning styles and multiple intelligences.
becomes a ‘public place’ where community can practice.
LEARNING STYLES
4. Student diversity can promote harmony.
• relate to a person's preferred method of information processing.
When student diversity is integrated into the classroom teaching and learning
• considered to be bipolar dimensions.
process, can become a vehicle for promoting harmonious race relation Through
A. Hilliard describes "learning style" as the sum of the patterns of how
student-centered teaching strategies, diverse student can be encouraged to
individuals develop habitual ways of responding to experience.
interact and collaborate with one another o learning tasks that emphasize unity
of effort while capitalizing their diversity, of backgrounds. Sensory Preferences
Some Tips on Student Diversity Individuals usually favor one or two types of sensory input and
retain dominance in one of the following types.
1. Encourage learners to share their personal history and experience
Visual Learners
2. Integrate learning experiences and activities which promote students’
multicultural and cross-cultural awareness. - They are the people who prefer to learn if they can see the teacher
talking and understand the lesson well.
3. Aside from highlighting diversity, identify patterns of unity the
- Visual learners prefer to take notes during lectures or discussiobs to
transcend group differences.
better understand the material.
4. Communicate high expectations to students from all subgroups. - Ri Charde further breaks down Visual learners into:
1. Visual-iconic
5. Use varied instructional methods to accommodate student diversity in
 Those who prefer this form of input are more interested
learning styles.
in visual imagery in order to solidify learning
 Have a “picture memory” a.k.a iconic imagery.
2. Visual-symbolic
  Those who prefer this form of input feel comfortable -responds to word mearning
with abstract symbolism such as math formulae or
-Sequential
written word.
 They tend to be good abstract thinkers, who do not -Process information linearly
require practical means of learning.
-respond to logic
Auditory Learners
-plans ahead
They learn best through verbal lecture, discussions, talking through and
listening to what others have to say. Right brain (global) Simultaneous hemispheric style

1. The listeners 1. Visual

- The more common type. They most like do well in school and out of 2. Responds to tone of voice
school, they remember things said to them and make the information 3. Random
their own. 4. Process information in varied orders
2. The Talkers 5. Impulsive
- The one who prefer to talk and discuss. They tend to whisper comments 6. Recalls people’s faces
to themselves in a class setting when the instructor is not asking 7. Gestures when speaking
questions. 8. Less punctual

Tactile/Kinesthetic learners Module 6: Learners with exceptionalities

They benefit from hands-on approach, actively exploring the DISABILITY

physical world around them. They tend to prefer “learning by doing”. Have • is a measurable impairment or limitation that interferes with a person’s
good motor memory and coordination. ability, for example, to walk, lift, hear, or learn.
Globa-Analytic Continuum LEARNING DISABILITIES
1. Global thinkers • difficulties in specific cognitive process.
- Lean towards non-linear thought and tend to see the while patterns
rather than particle elements. They are the “ forest seers” who give ATTENTION-DEFICIT HYPERACTIVITY DISORDER (ADHD)
attention only to the overall structure and sometimes ignore details. • difficulty in focusing and maintaining attention and recurrent
2. Analytic Thinkers hyperactive and impulsive behavior.
- Tend toward the linear, step by step process of learning. They are the
“tree seers” which means they tend to see finite elements of patterns SPEECH AND COMMUNICATION DISORDER
rather that the whole.
• difficulty in spoken language.
Left brain (Analytic)
AUTISM
-verbal
• manifested by different levels of impaired social interaction and
communication, repetitive behaviors and limited Interest.

MENTAL RETARDATION

• refers to significant sub-average intelligence and deficits in adaptive

behavior.

EMOTIONAL/CONDUCT DISORDERS

• this involves the presence of emotional states.

PHYSICAL DISABILITIES AND HEALTH IMPAIRMENTS

• involves medical conditions like limited of strength, reduce mental

alertness and little muscle control.

SEVERE AND MULTIPLE DISABILITIES

• refers of two or more different types of disabilities.

VISUAL IMPAIRMENTS

• malfunction of the eyes that prevent normal vision even with corrective
lenses.

HEARING IMPAIRMENTS

• malfunction of the ear that hinders perception of sounds.

GIFTEDNESS

• high level of cognitive development.