Internal combustion

engine (Meng 5161)

Prepared By: Yonathan M. (MSc in Automotive

Engineering)
 Chapter one
introduction

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 INTRODUCTION
❖ The purpose of internal combustion engines is the production of
mechanical power from the chemical energy contained in the fuel.
❖ In internal combustion engines, this energy is released by burning
or oxidizing the fuel inside the engine (usually called a Heat
Engine).
❖ The actual working fluids are the fuel-air mixture before
combustion and the burned products after combustion.
❖ The work transfers which provide the desired power output occur
directly between these working fluids and the mechanical
components of the engine.

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 …Cont
❖ The internal combustion engines which are the subject of
this course are spark-ignition engines (sometimes called
Otto engines, or gasoline or petrol engines, though other
fuels can be used) and compression-ignition or diesel
engines.
❖ Because of their simplicity, strength and high
power/weight ratio, these two types of engine have found
wide application in transportation (land, sea, and air) and
power generation.

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 Historical Background of IC Engine
❖The early engines developed for commercial use burned coal-gas
air mixtures at atmospheric pressure; there was no compression
before combustion.
❖J. J. E. Lenoir (1822-1900) developed the first marketable engine
of this type. Gas and air were drawn into the cylinder during the
first half of the piston stroke.
❖The charge was then ignited with a spark, the pressure
increased, and the burned gases then delivered power to the
piston for the second half of the stroke.
❖The cycle was completed with an exhaust stroke. Efficiency was
at best about 5 percent.

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 …Cont
❖ A more successful development an atmospheric engine
introduced in 1867 by Nicolaus A. Otto (1832-1891) and Eugen
Langen (1833-1895) used the pressure rise resulting from
combustion of the fuel-air charge early in the outward stroke to
accelerate a free piston and rack assembly so its momentum would
generate a vacuum in the cylinder.
❖Atmospheric pressure then pushed the piston inward, with the
rack engaged through a roller clutch to the output shaft, obtained
thermal efficiencies of up to 11 percent.

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 …Cont

❖ To overcome this engine's shortcomings of low thermal

efficiency and excessive weight, Otto proposed an engine
cycle with four piston strokes:
an intake stroke, then a compression stroke before ignition,
an expansion or power stroke where work was delivered to
the crankshaft, and finally an exhaust stroke.
❖This was the breakthrough that effectively founded the
internal combustion engine industry.

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 …Cont
❖ In 1884, an unpublished French patent issued in 1862 to
Alphonse Beau de Rochas (1815-1893) was found which
described the principles of the four-stroke cycle.
❖This chance discovery cast doubt on the validity of Otto's own
patent for this concept, and in Germany it was declared
invalid.
❖Beau de Rochas also outlined the conditions under which
maximum efficiency in an internal combustion engine could
be achieved.

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 …Cont
These were:
1. The largest possible cylinder volume with the minimum boundary
surface
2. The greatest possible working speed
3. The greatest possible expansion ratio
4. The greatest possible pressure at the beginning of expansion
❖The first two conditions hold heat losses from the charge to a
minimum.
❖The third condition recognizes that the greater the expansion
of the post combustion gases, the greater the work extracted.

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 …Cont
❖ The fourth condition recognizes that higher initial pressures
make greater expansion possible, and give higher pressures
throughout the process, both resulting in greater work
transfer.
❖ Although Beau de Rochas' unpublished writings predate
Otto's developments, he never reduced these ideas to practice.
❖Thus Otto, in the broader sense, was the inventor of the
modern internal combustion engine as we know it today.

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 …Cont

❖ Further developments followed fast once the full impact of

what Otto had achieved became apparent.
❖ By the 1880s several engineers (e.g., Dugald Clerk, 1854-1913,;
and James Robson, 1833-1913, in England and Karl Benz, 1844-
1929, in Germany) had successfully developed two-stroke
internal combustion engines.
❖ Where the exhaust and intake processes occur during the end
of the power stroke and the beginning of the compression
stroke.

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 …Cont
❖ James Atkinson (1846-1914) in England made an engine with a
longer expansion than compression stroke, which had a high
efficiency for the times but mechanical weaknesses.
❖ In 1892, the German engineer Rudolf Diesel (1858-1913)
outlined in his patent a new form of internal combustion
engine.
❖ His concept of initiating combustion by injecting a liquid fuel
into air heated solely by compression permitted a doubling of
efficiency over other internal combustion engines.

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 BASICS OF INTERNAL COMBUSTION
ENGINES (IC-ENGINES)
DESCRIPTION:
❖ An Engine is a mechanical machine used to convert the
chemical energy of the fuel into heat energy and then to
mechanical energy. It is usually called a Heat Engine.

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 14

Classification of Heat Engine

BY: Yonathan M.
12/11/2022
 Classification of Heat Engine
❖ Basically there are two types of heat engines external and
internal combustion engines:
a. External combustion engines: combustion (burning of a
fuel) is taking place outside of the engine.
E.g. Steam engines
b. Internal combustion engines(IC): combustion is taking place
within the engine itself.
E.g. Spark Ignition (SI) and Compression Ignition (CI)
engines

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 Engine Components
A Block J Intake Manifold
B Camshaft K Oil Pan
C Combustion L Piston
Chamber
D Connecting rod M Piston Ring
E Crankcase N Pushrod
F Crankshaft O Spark plug
G Cylinder P Valve
H Exhaust Manifold Q Water Jacket
I Cylinder Head

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 …Cont
A. Block: Body of engine containing the cylinders, made of cast iron or
aluminum.
B. Camshaft: Rotating shaft used to push open valves at the proper time in
the engine cycle, either directly or through mechanical or hydraulic linkage
(push rods, rocker arms, tappets).
C. Combustion Chamber : The end of the cylinder between the head and the
piston face where combustion occurs.
D. Connecting Rod: Rod connecting the piston with the rotating crankshaft,
usually made of steel or alloy forging in most engines but may be aluminum
in some small engines.
E. Crankcase: Part of the engine block surrounding the rotating crankshaft. In
many engines, the oil pan makes up part of the crankcase housing.
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 …Cont
F. Crankshaft: Rotating shaft through which engine work output is supplied
to external systems.
G. Cylinder: The circular cylinders in the engine block in which the pistons
reciprocate back and forth.
H. Exhaust Manifold: Piping system which carries exhaust gases away from
the engine cylinders, usually made of cast iron.
I. Cylinder Head: The piece which closes the end of the cylinders, usually
containing part of the clearance volume of the combustion chamber.
J. Intake Manifold: Piping system which delivers incoming air to the
cylinders, usually made of cast metal, plastic, or composite material.
K. Oil Pan: Oil reservoir usually bolted to the bottom of the engine block,
making up part of the crankcase. Acts as the oil sump for most engines.

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 …Cont
L. Piston: The cylindrical-shaped mass that reciprocates back and forth in the
cylinder, transmitting the pressure forces in the combustion chamber to the
rotating crankshaft.
M. Piston Rings: Metal rings that fit into circumferential grooves around the
piston and form a sliding surface against the cylinder walls.
N. Push Rod: Mechanical linkage between the camshaft and valves on
overhead valve engines with the camshaft in the crankcase.
O. Spark Plug: Electrical device used to initiate combustion in an SI engine by
creating a high-voltage discharge across an electrode gap.
P. Valve: Used to allow flow into and out of the cylinder at the proper time in
the cycle.
Q. Water Jacket: System of liquid flow passages surrounding the cylinders,
usually constructed as part of the engine block and head.
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 IC Engine Classification
❖ There are many different types of internal combustion engines. They are
classified by:
1. Basic Design
2. Arrangement (Position) and Number of Cylinders of Reciprocating Engines
3. Arrangement of valves and valve trains
4. Types of cooling
5. Types of fuel burned
6. Method of ignition
7. Valve location
8. Number of strokes per cycle (two or four)
9. Air Intake Process
10. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines
11. Fuel Used
12. Application

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 1. Basic Design
a) Reciprocating. Engine has one or more cylinders in which
pistons reciprocate back and forth.
oThe combustion chamber is located in the closed end of
each cylinder. Power is delivered to a rotating output
crankshaft by mechanical linkage with the pistons.
b) Rotary. Engine is made of a block (stator) built around a large
non-concentric rotor and crankshaft.
o The combustion chambers are built into the non rotating
block

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 2. Arrangement (Position) and Number of
Cylinders of Reciprocating Engines
(a) Single Cylinder. Engine has one cylinder and piston connected to
the crankshaft.
(b) In-Line. Cylinders are positioned in a straight line, one behind the
other along the length of the crankshaft.
oThey can consist of 2 to 11 cylinders or possibly more.
oIn-line four-cylinder engines are very common for automobile and other
applications.
oIn-line six and eight cylinders are historically common automobile
engines.
oIn-line engines are sometimes called straight (e.g., straight six or straight
eight).

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 …Cont
(c) V Engine. Two banks of cylinders are at an angle with each other along
a single crankshaft. The angle between the banks of cylinders can be
anywhere from 15° to 120°, with 60°-90° being common. V engines have
even numbers of cylinders from 2 to 20 or more. V6s and V8s are
common automobile engines, with V12s and V16s (historic) found in
some luxury and high-performance vehicles.
(d) Opposed Cylinder Engine. Two banks of cylinders are opposite each
other on a single crankshaft (a V engine with a 180°V). These are
common on small aircraft and some automobiles with an even number of
cylinders from two to eight or more. These engines are often called flat
engines (e.g., flat four).

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 …Cont
(e) W Engine. Same as a V-engine except with three banks of cylinders are
on the same crankshaft. Not common, but some have been developed for
racing automobiles, both modern and historic. Usually 12 cylinders with about
a 60° angle between each bank.
(f) Opposed Piston Engine. Two pistons in each cylinder with the
combustion chamber are in the center between the pistons.
A single-combustion process causes two power strokes at the same time, with
each piston being pushed away from the center and delivering power to a
separate crankshaft at each end of the cylinder.
Engine output is either on two rotating crankshafts or on one crankshaft
incorporating complex mechanical linkage.

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 …Cont
(g) Radial Engine.
o Engine with pistons positioned in a circular plane around the central crankshaft.
oThe connecting rods of the pistons are connected to a master rod which, in turn,
is connected to the crankshaft.
oA bank of cylinders on a radial engine always has an odd number of cylinders
ranging from 3 to 13 or more.
oOperating on a four-stroke cycle, every other cylinder fires and has a power
stroke as the crankshaft rotates, giving a smooth operation.
oMany medium- and large-size propeller-driven aircraft use radial engines.
oFor large aircraft, two or more banks of cylinders are mounted together, one
behind the other on a single crankshaft, making one powerful, smooth engine.
oVery large ship engines exist with up to 54 cylinders, six banks of 9 cylinders
each.

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 Reciprocating Engines
Number of Cylinders of
2. Arrangement (Position) and
In-Line V Engine
Single Cylinder

W Engine
Opposed Cylinder Engine

Opposed Piston Engine

Radial Engine
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 3. Arrangement of valves and valve trains
❖ There are several different arrangements of valve and valve trains.
Differences that affect engine classification include:
I. Location of cam shaft
o There are two basic locations for the engine camshaft: in the
block and in the cylinder head. Both locations are common.
A cam-in-block engine uses push rods to transfer motion to the
rocker arms and valves. The term overhead valve (OHV) is
sometimes used when referring to a cam in- block engine.
An Overhead cam (OHC) engine, the camshaft is located in the top
of the cylinder. Pushrods are not needed to operate the rockers and
valves.
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 …Cont
II. Types of camshaft drive
o Camshafts are driven by timing gears, sprockets and timing chain,
or sprockets and toothed timing belt.
III. Types of valve train
o Most automotive engines use one of two basic types of valve
train.
o These are overhead camshaft and camshaft in block or
overhead valve.
o In each type, the rotating cam lobe actuates the valve train to
open the valve.

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 …Cont
IV. Number of valve per cylinder
o Some engines have more than two valves per cylinder.
o Some have three, four, five, or even six valves in each cylinder.
o The purpose of added valves is to allow the engine to breathe
more freely.
o The added valves allow more air-fuel mixture to inter and the
burned gases to exit more freely.

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 4. Types of Cooling
❖ There are two types cooling systems:
a) The liquid cooling system: surrounds the cylinder with coolant
(water and antifreeze solution). The coolant carries combustion heat out
of the cylinder head and engine block to prevent engine damage. The
liquid cooling system is the most common.
b) An air cooling system: circulates air over cooling fins on the
cylinders. This removes heat from the cylinders to prevent overheating.
Air-cooled engines are seldom used in passenger cars. They can be found
on motorcycles, lawnmowers, and a few high-performance cars. With
strict exhaust emission regulations, manufacturers have partially phased
out air-cooled engines.

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 5. Fuel type
❖ An engine is also classified by the type of fuel it burns. A gasoline engine burns
gasoline. A diesel engine burns diesel fuel. These are the most common types of
fuel for vehicles.
❖ Liquefied petroleum gas (LPG), gasohol (10% alcohol, 90% gasoline), and pure
alcohol can also be used to power an engine.
6. Ignition type
❖Two basic methods are used to ignite the fuel in an engine combustion chamber:
spark ignition (spark plug) and compression ignition (compressed air).
❑A spark ignition engine (SI Engine) uses an electric arc at the spark plug
to ignite the fuel. The arc produces enough heat to start the fuel burning. Gasoline
engines use spark ignition.
❑A compression ignition (CI Engines) engine squeezes the air in the
combustion chamber until it is hot enough to ignite the fuel. A diesel engine is a
compression ignition engine. No spark plugs are used.

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 7. Valve Location
❖ Another engine classification can be made by comparing the location of the
valves.
a. An L-head engine has both the intake and exhaust valves in the
block. Also called a flat head engine, its cylinder head simply forms a cover
over the cylinders and valves.
o The camshaft is in the block and pushes upward to open the valves. Some
four-stroke lawnmower engines are L-head types.
o Automotive engines are no longer L-head types.
b. An I-head engine has both valves in the cylinder head. Another
name for this design is the overhead valve (OHV) engine.
o Other valve configurations have been used in the past.

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 8. Number of strokes per cycle

❖ Piston engines operate on either two-stroke cycle or the

four- stroke cycle. Automotive engines are four-stroke
cycle engines.
❖ Four separate piston strokes (up- and down-movements)
are needed to produce one cycle (complete series of
events).
❖A two-stroke engine requires only one revolution of
the crankshaft for a complete power producing cycle.

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 9. Air Intake Process
a) Naturally Aspirated. No intake air pressure-boost
system.
b) Supercharged. Intake air pressure increased with the
compressor driven off of the engine crankshaft.
c) Turbocharged. Intake air pressure increased with the
turbine-compressor driven by the engine exhaust gases.
d) Crankcase Compressed. Two-stroke cycle engine
which uses the crankcase as the intake air compressor.

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 10. Method of Fuel Input for SI Engines
a) Carbureted.
b) Multipoint Port Fuel Injection. One or more injectors at each
cylinder intake.
c) Throttle Body Fuel Injection. Injectors upstream in intake
manifold.

11. Applications
(a) Automobile, Truck, Bus. (b) Locomotive. (c) Stationary. (d) Marine.
(e) Aircraft. (f) Small Portable, Chain Saw, Model Airplane

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 12. Fuel Used
(a) Gasoline. (b) Diesel Oil or Fuel Oil. (c) Gas,
Natural Gas, Methane. (d) LPG. (e) Alcohol-Ethyl,
Methyl.
(f) Dual Fuel. There are a number of engines that use a combination of
two or more fuels.
o Some, usually large, CI engines use a combination of methane and diesel
fuel.
o These are attractive in developing third-world countries because of the high
cost of diesel fuel.
oCombined gasoline-alcohol fuels are becoming more common as an
alternative to straight gasoline automobile engine fuel.
(g) Gasohol. Common fuel consisting of 90% gasoline and 10% alcohol.
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 Engine Terminologies
❖Top-Dead-Center (TDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the
furthest point away from the crankshaft.
❖ Bottom-Dead-Center (BDC): Position of the piston when it stops at the
point closest to the crankshaft.
❖Bore: Diameter of the cylinder or diameter of the piston face, which is the
same minus a very small clearance.
❖Stroke: Movement distance of the piston from one extreme position to the
other: TDC to BDC or BDC to TDC.
❖ Clearance Volume: Minimum volume in the combustion chamber with
piston at TDC.
❖ Displacement or Displacement Volume: Volume displaced by the
piston as it travels through one stroke. Displacement can be given for one
cylinder or for the entire engine (one cylinder times number of cylinders). Some
literature calls this swept volume.
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Cont….

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 BASIC ENGINE CYCLES
❖ Most internal combustion engines, both spark ignition and compression
ignition, operate on either a four-stroke cycle or a two-stroke cycle.
❖ These basic cycles are fairly standard for all engines, with only slight
variations found in individual designs.

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 1. Four-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
A. First Stroke: Intake Stroke or Induction: The piston travels from
TDC to BDC with the intake valve open and exhaust valve
closed.
o This creates an increasing volume in the combustion
chamber, which in turn creates a vacuum.
o The resulting pressure differential through the intake
system from atmospheric pressure on the outside to the
vacuum on the inside causes air to be pushed into the
cylinder.
o As the air passes through the intake system, fuel is added to
it in the desired amount by means of fuel injectors or a
carburetor.

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Cont….
B. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke: When the piston
reaches BDC, the intake valve closes and the piston travels
back to TDC with all valves closed.
oThis compresses the air-fuel mixture, raising both the
pressure and temperature in the cylinder.
oThe finite time required to close the intake valve means
that actual compression doesn't start until sometime
aBDC.
oNear the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is
fired and combustion is initiated.

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Cont….
Combustion: Combustion of the air-fuel mixture occurs in a very
short but finite length of time with the piston near TDC (i.e., nearly
constant-volume combustion).
oIt starts near the end of the compression stroke slightly bTDC and
lasts into the power stroke slightly aTDC.
oCombustion changes the composition of the gas mixture to that of
exhaust products and increases the temperature in the cylinder to
a very high peak value.
oThis, in turn, raises the pressure in the cylinder to a very high peak
value.

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Cont….
C. Third Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke: With
all valves closed, the high pressure created by the
combustion process pushes the piston away from TDC.
oThis is the stroke which produces the work output of the
engine cycle.
o As the piston travels from TDC to BDC, cylinder volume is
increased, causing pressure and temperature to drop.

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Cont….
Exhaust Blow down: Late in the power stroke, the exhaust valve is opened
and exhaust blow down occurs.
o Pressure and temperature in the cylinder are still high relative to the
surroundings at this point, and a pressure differential is created through the
exhaust system which is open to atmospheric pressure.
oThis pressure differential causes much of the hot exhaust gas to be pushed
out of the cylinder and through the exhaust system when the piston is near
BDC.
oThis exhaust gas carries away a high amount of enthalpy, which lowers the
cycle thermal efficiency.
oOpening the exhaust valve before BDC reduces the work obtained during the
power stroke but is required because of the finite time needed for exhaust
blow down.

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Cont….
D. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke: By the time the piston reaches BDC, exhaust
blow down is complete, but the cylinder is still full of exhaust gases at approximately
atmospheric pressure.
o With the exhaust valve remaining open, the piston now travels from BDC to TDC in
the exhaust stroke.
oThis pushes most of the remaining exhaust gases out of the cylinder into the
exhaust system at about atmospheric pressure, leaving only that trapped in the
clearance volume when the piston reaches TDC.
oNear the end of the exhaust stroke bTDC, the intake valve starts to open, so that it
is fully open by TDC when the new intake stroke starts the next cycle.
oNear TDC the exhaust valve starts to close and finally is fully closed sometime
aTDC.
oThis period when both the intake valve and exhaust valve are open is called valve
overlap

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 Four-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
1. First Stroke: Intake Stroke: The same as the intake stroke in an SI engine with
one major difference: no fuel is added to the incoming air.
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke: The same as in an SI engine except that
only air is compressed and compression is to higher pressures and temperature.
Late in the compression stroke fuel is injected directly into the combustion
chamber, where it mixes with the very hot air. This causes the fuel to evaporate
and self-ignite, causing combustion to start.
Combustion: Combustion is fully developed by TDC and continues at about constant
pressure until fuel injection is complete and the piston has started towards BDC.
3. Third Stroke: Power Stroke: The power stroke continues as combustion ends
and the piston travels towards BDC.
Exhaust Blow down: Same as with an SI engine.
4. Fourth Stroke: Exhaust Stroke: is same as with an SI engine.

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 Two-Stroke SI Engine Cycle
Combustion: With the piston at TDC combustion occurs very quickly, raising the
temperature and pressure to peak values, almost at constant volume.

1. First Stroke: Expansion Stroke or Power Stroke: Very high pressure created by
the combustion process forces the piston down in the power stroke.
• The expanding volume of the combustion chamber causes pressure and
temperature to decrease as the piston travels towards BDC.
Exhaust Blow down: At about 75° bBDC, the exhaust valve opens and blow down
occurs.
• The exhaust valve may be a poppet valve in the cylinder head, or it may be a slot in
the side of the cylinder which is uncovered as the piston approaches BDC.
• After blow down the cylinder remains filled with exhaust gas at lower pressure.

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Cont…
Intake and Scavenging: When blow down is nearly complete, at
about 50° bBDC, the intake slot on the side of the cylinder is uncovered
and intake air-fuel enters under pressure.
• Fuel is added to the air with either a carburetor or fuel injection.
• This incoming mixture pushes much of the remaining exhaust gases
out the open exhaust valve and fills the cylinder with a combustible
air-fuel mixture, a process called scavenging.
• The piston passes BDC and very quickly covers the intake port and
then the exhaust port (or the exhaust valve closes).

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Cont…
• The higher pressure at which the air enters the cylinder is established
in one of two ways.
• Large two stroke cycle engines generally have a supercharger, while
small engines will intake the air through the crankcase.
• On these engines the crankcase is designed to serve as a compressor
in addition to serving its normal function.
2. Second Stroke: Compression Stroke: With all valves (or ports) closed,
the piston travels towards TDC and compresses the air-fuel mixture to a
higher pressure and temperature.
Near the end of the compression stroke, the spark plug is fired; by the
time the piston gets to TDC, combustion occurs and the next engine
cycle begins.

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Cont…

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 Two-Stroke CI Engine Cycle
oThe two-stroke cycle for a CI engine is similar to that of the SI engine, except
for two changes.
oNo fuel is added to the incoming air, so that compression is done on air only.
oInstead of a spark plug, a fuel injector is located in the cylinder.
oNear the end of the compression stroke, fuel is injected into the hot
compressed air and combustion is initiated by self-ignition.
oIt should be noted that all two-stroke CI engines require a supercharger to
enable them to function.
oA two- stroke CI engine cannot function at all unless some means of forcing
air into the cylinder is provided.

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The general description of strokes for gasoline and diesel
engines

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 The Rotary Engine
❖ The rotary engine (originally conceived and developed by Dr. Felix
Wankel) is sometimes called a Wankel engine, or Wankel rotary
engine.
❖A rotary engine is an internal combustion engine, like the engine in
your car, but it works in a completely different way than the
conventional piston engine.
❖In a piston engine, the same volume of space (the cylinder)
alternately does four different jobs -- intake, compression,
combustion and exhaust.

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Cont…
❖ A rotary engine does these same four jobs, but each one
happens in its own part of the housing.
❖ It's kind of like having a dedicated cylinder for each of the four
jobs, with the piston moving continually from one to the next.

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Rotor
❖The rotor has three convex faces, each of which acts like a
piston.
❖ Each face of the rotor has a pocket in it, which increases the
displacement of the engine, allowing more space for air/fuel
mixture.
❖ At the apex of each face is a metal blade that forms a seal to
the outside of the combustion chamber.
❖There are also metal rings on each side of the rotor that seal
to the sides of the combustion chamber.

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Cont…
❖The rotor has a set of internal gear teeth cut into the center of one side.
❖ These teeth mate with a gear that is fixed to the housing.
❖This gear mating determines the path and direction the rotor takes through
the housing.

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Housing
❖The housing is roughly oval in shape (it's actually an).
❖ The shape of the combustion chamber is designed so that the three tips of the
rotor will always stay in contact with the wall of the chamber, forming three sealed
volumes of gas.
❖Each part of the housing is dedicated to one part of the combustion process. The
four sections are:
▪ Intake
▪ Compression
▪ Combustion
▪ Exhaust
❖The intake and exhaust ports are located in the housing. There are no valves in
these ports.
❖ The exhaust port connects directly to the exhaust, and the intake port connects
directly to the throttle.
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