BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Business Research Methods (BA 7207)

UNIT – I: INTRODUCTION

Business Research – Definition and Significance – the research process – Types of Research –
Exploratory and causal Research – Theoretical and empirical Research – Cross –Sectional and
time – series Research – Research questions / Problems – Research objectives – Research
hypotheses – characteristics – Research in an evolutionary perspective – the role of theory in
research.

PART – A
1. What is business research?
Research provides the needed information that guides managers to make informed decisions to
successfully deal with problems. The information provided could be the result of a careful
analysis of data gathered firsthand or of data that are already available (in the company).

2. Define business research.

An organized, systematic, data based critical, objective, scientific inquiry or investigation into a
specific problem, undertaken with the purpose of finding answers or solutions to it.

3. What are the objectives of business research?

1. To gain familiarity with a phenomenon or to achieve new insights into it (studies with this
object in view are termed as exploratory or formulativeresearch studies);
2. To portray accurately the characteristics of a particular individual, situation or a group
(Studies with this object in view are known as descriptive research studies);
3. To determine the frequency with which something occurs or with which it is associated with
something else (studies with this object in view are known as diagnostic research studies);
4. To test a hypothesis of a causal relationship between variables (such studies are known as
hypothesis-testing research studies).

4. What is applied research?

Applied research aims at finding a solution for an immediate problem facing a society or an
industrial/business organization. Research aimed at certain conclusions (say, a solution) facing a
concrete social or business problem is an example of applied research. Research to identify
social, economic or political trends that may affect a particular institution or the marketing
research or evaluation research are examples of applied research.

5. Write importance or significance of business research.

 Research is very significant in collecting information on the economic and social structure of
the nation; which indicates what is happening in the economy and what changes are taking
place.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

 Research has its special significance in solving various operational and planning problems of
business and industry.
 It helps to people in business and industry that are responsible for taking business decisions.
 Many companies use the research in marketing to discover the changing trends in the market,
to measure the changing consumer behavior of the specific location. So research has become
the need for the business due to the tough competition in the market.

6. What is qualitative research?

Qualitative research is concerned with qualitative phenomenon, i.e., phenomena relating to or
involving quality or kind. For instance, when we are interested in investigating the reasons for
human behavior (i.e., why people think or do certain things), we quite often talk of „Motivation
Research‟, an important type of qualitative research. Attitude or opinion research i.e., research
designed to find out how people feel or what they think about a particular subject or institution is
also qualitative research.

7. What is quantitative research?

Quantitative research is based on the measurement of quantity or amount. It is applicable to
phenomena that can be expressed in terms of quantity.

8. Define descriptive research?

Descriptive study attempts to describe or define a subject oft by creating profile of group of
problems, people, or events through the collection of data and the tabulation of the frequencies
on research variable or their interaction of who, what, when, where or how much.
9. What is explanatory research?

Explanatory study attempts to explain an event, act, or characteristic measure by research.

10. What is exploratory research?

Exploratory research is undertaken to explore an area where little is known or to investigate the
possibilities of undertaking a particular research study (feasibility study/ pilot study).

11. What is causal research?

If the objective is to determine which variable might be causing certain behavior, i.e. whether
there is a cause and effect relationship between variables, causal research must be undertaken. In
other words causal research is undertaken to see if there is a cause and effect relationship
between variables.

12. What are the methods of causal research?

a. Experimentation or natural experimentation

b. Simulation

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

13. What is a theory?

Theory means a formal, logical explanation of some events that includes predictions of how
things relate to one another.

14. What is theoretical research?

Theoretical research is a research in which the goal is to prove or disprove a hypothesized truth.

15. Briefly explain empirical research.

Empirical research relies on experience or observation alone, often without due regard for system
and theory. It is data-based research, coming up with conclusions which are capable of being
verified by observation or experiment. In such a research it is necessary to get at facts firsthand,
at their source, and actively to go about doing certain things to stimulate the production of
desired information. In such a research, the researcher must first provide himself with a working
hypothesis or guess as to the probable results. He then works to get enough facts (data) to prove
or disprove his hypothesis. Evidence gathered through experiments or empirical studies is today
considered to be the most powerful support possible for a given hypothesis.

16. Define empirical research.

Empirical research can be defined as “research based on experimentation or
17. What are the objectives of empirical research?

 Move research beyond simple „reporting of observations‟

 Forster environments for enhanced understanding
 Combine rigorous research with thorough case study
 Relevance of theory is proved by ability to work in a real world environment.
 Capture contextual data and complexity.
 Learn from the collective experience of the field.
 Identify, explore, confirm and advance theoretical concepts
 Enhance educational design

18. What do you mean by literature review?

Literature review is a body of text that aims to review the critical points of current knowledge on
a particular topic.

19. What is cross-sectional research?

A cross-sectional research entails the collection of data on more than one case and at a single
point in time in order to collect a body of quantitative or quantifiable data in connection with two
or more variables (usually more than two), which are then examined to detect patterns of
association.

20. Describe a field study.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Field studies are ex-post-facto scientific inquiries that aim at finding the relations and inter-
relations among variables in a real setting. Such studies are done in life situations like
communities, schools, factories, organizations, and institutions.

21. What is time series study?

In a time series research design, data is collected from the sample or population at successive
intervals.

22. What is a research question or problem?

A research question is the choice hypothesis that best states the objectives of the research study.
It is a more specific management question, which must be answered. A research process that
answers this question provides the manager with the desired information necessary to make the
decision he or she is encountering.

23. What is a research hypothesis?

A hypothesis is a preliminary or tentative explanation or postulate by the researcher of what the
researcher considers the outcome of an investigation will be. It is an informed/educated guess.

24. Distinguish hypothesis from problem.

A problem is formulated in the form of a question; it serves as the basis or origin from which a
hypothesis is derived. A hypothesis is a suggested solution to a problem. A problem (question)
cannot be directly tested, whereas a hypothesis can be tested and verified.

25. Define a null hypothesis.

Null hypothesis is formulated only to test whether there are any relations between variables
related to the problem being studied. Usually the null hypothesis is formed as a negative
statement.

26. Explain working hypothesis.

Working hypothesis is usually formed in the process of verifying the relationship among
variables included in research.
27. Write the differences between theory and hypothesis.

a. Hypothesis is an educated guess. A prediction about the relationship between two or more
variables.
b. A prediction as to what you expect to find.
c. Hypotheses are more specific than theories.
d. Theories have many different hypotheses.
e. Results of a single research study will not prove or disprove a theory.
f. If the hypotheses offered by the theory are confirmed, the theory is supported (not proved).
g. If lots of studies reveal that many of the hypotheses generated by the theory are false, the
theory must be reevaluated.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

28. What is deductive reasoning?

Deductive reasoning is the logical process of deriving a conclusion about a specific instance
based on a known general premise or something known to be true.

29. What is inductive reasoning?

Inductive reasoning is the logical process of establishing a general proposition on the basis of
observation of particular facts.

Part B
1. Explain the research process.
a. Establishing the need for research
b. Defining the problem
c. Establishing research objectives
d. Determining research design
e. Identifying information types and sources
f. Determining methods of accessing data
g. Designing data collection forms
h. Determining sample plan and size
i. Collecting data
j. Analyzing data
k. Preparing and presenting the final research report.

2. Explain the role of research in management decision making.

 Throws light on risks and uncertainty

 Identify alternative course of action
 Helps in economic use of resources
 Helps in project identification
 Solves investment problems
 Solves pricing problems
 Solves allocation problems
 Solves decision making issues in HR
 Solves various operational and planning problems of business and industry

3. What is a research problem? How to formulate a research problem?

Formulating the research problem:

It is the first and most crucial step in the research process

- Main function is to decide what you want to find out about.
- The way you formulate a problem determines almost every step that follows.

Sources of research problems

Research in social sciences revolves around four Ps:

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

• People- a group of individuals

• Problems- examine the existence of certain issues or problems relating to their lives; to
ascertain attitude of a group of people towards an issue
• Programs- to evaluate the effectiveness of an intervention
• Phenomena- to establish the existence of regularity.
In practice most research studies are based upon at least a combination of two Ps.
Every research study has two aspects:
1. Study population-
• People: individuals, organizations, groups, communities ( they provide you with the information
or you collect information about them)
2. Subject area-
• Problems: issues, situations, associations, needs, profiles
• Program : content, structure, outcomes, attributes, satisfactions, consumers, Service providers,
etc.
• Phenomenon: cause-and-effect relationships, the study of a phenomenon itself
(Information that you need to collect to find answers to your research questions)
You can examine the professional field of your choice in the context of the four Ps in order to
identify anything that looks interesting.

Considerations in selecting a research problem:

These help to ensure that your study will remain manageable and that you will remain motivated.
1. Interest: a research endeavor is usually time consuming, and involves hard work and possibly
unforeseen problems. One should select topic of great interest to sustain the required motivation.
2. Magnitude: It is extremely important to select a topic that you can manage within the time
and resources at your disposal. Narrow the topic down to something manageable, specific and
clear.
3. Measurement of concepts: Make sure that you are clear about the indicators and
measurement of concepts (if used) in your study.
4. Level of expertise: Make sure that you have adequate level of expertise for the task you are
proposing since you need to do the work yourself.
5. Relevance: Ensure that your study adds to the existing body of knowledge, bridges current
gaps and is useful in policy formulation. This will help you to sustain interest in the study.
6. Availability of data: Before finalizing the topic, make sure that data are available.
7. Ethical issues: How ethical issues can affect the study population and how ethical problems
can be overcome should be thoroughly examined at the problem formulating stage.
Steps in formulation of a research problem:
Working through these steps presupposes a reasonable level of knowledge in the broad subject
area within which the study is to be undertaken. Without such knowledge it is difficult to clearly
and adequately „dissect‟ a subject area.
Step 1 Identify a broad field or subject area of interest to you.
Step 2 Dissect the broad area into sub areas.
Step 3 Select what is of most interest to you.
Step 4 Raise research questions.
Step 5 Formulate objectives.
Step 6 Assess your objectives.
Step 7 Double check.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

So far we have focused on the basis of your study, the research problem. But every study in
social sciences has a second element, the study population from whom the required information
to find answers to your research questions is obtained.
As you narrow the research problem, similarly you need to decide very specifically who
constitutes your study population, in order to select the appropriate respondents.

4. Explain the characteristics of research.

RESEARCH: Research means “Search for Knowledge”. It aim at discovering the truth. It is the
search for knowledge through objective and systematic method of finding solution to problems.
It is carried on both for discovering new facts and verification of old ones. Therefore, research is
a process of systematic and in-depth study or search of any particular topic, subject or area of
investigation backed by collection, computation, presentation and interpretation of relevant data.

CHARACTERISTICS OF RESEARCH:
The following are important characterizes of RESEACH:
1. Research is directed towards the solution of a problem.
2. Research is based upon observable experience
3. Research is a continuous process.
4. Research requires expertise.
5. Research is based on empirical evidence.
6. Research demands accurate observation and description.
7. Research is carefully recorded and reported.
8. Research involves the quest for answers to unsolved problems.
9. Research is recorded and reported
10. Research is the scientific and systematic search for pertinent information on a specific topic.
11. Research is a systematic and critical investigation into a phenomenon.
12. Research is not a mere compilation, but a purposive investigation.
13. Research is objective and logical.
14. Research adopts scientific method.

5. What are the essential features of good researcher?

QUALITIES OF A GOOD RESEARCHER
1. Good at formulating the research
2. Good at literature survey
3. Good at developing working hypothesis
4. Good at preparing the research design
5. Good at determining the sample design
6. Good at collecting the data
7. Good at execution of the project
8. Good at analysis of data
9. Good at hypothesis testing
10. Good at research interpretation; and
11. Good at preparation of thesis and reports

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

UNIT – II: RESEARCH DESIGN AND MEASUREMENT

Research design – Definition – types of research design – exploratory and causal research design
– Descriptive and experimental design – different types of experimental design – Validity of
findings – internal and external validity – Variables in Research – Measurement and scaling –
Different scales – Construction of instrument – Validity and Reliability of instrument.

1. What is a research design?

A research design is a plan, structure and strategy of investigation so conceived as to obtain
answers to research questions or problems. The plan is the complete scheme or program of the
research. It includes an outline of what the investigator will do from writing the hypotheses and
their operational implications to the final analysis of data.

2. Describe briefly exploratory research design.

Exploratory studies are those which aim at gaining familiarity with a phenomenon or which aim
at achieving insights into the phenomenon or studies which deal with formulation of a more
precise research problem or developing a hypothesis.

3. What are the methods of exploratory research?

a. Study of secondary sources of information;

b. Survey of individuals who are apt to have ideas on the general subject; and
c. Analysis of selected cases.

4. What is the aim of causal research design?

Causal designs are known as experimental designs and it analyses the cause – effect relationship
between the variables.
5. What are the limitations of causal research design?

i) Field experiment can involve many variables outside the control of the experiments,
resulting in unanticipated differences in conditions surrounding treatment groups.
ii) It may be difficult or expensive to gain the cooperation of people concered when setting
up the experiments.
iii) The experimenter may lack knowledge of experimental procedures, reducing the chance
of results that demonstrate causality.
iv) Experiments are notoriously expensive and time consuming.
v) The experimenter must be careful not to introduce bias into the experiment by saying or
doing something that may consciously or unconsciously affect the behavior of test
participants.

6. What is an experimental design?

Experimental design is a blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his
hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

dependent variables. It refers to the conceptual framework within which the experiment is
conducted.

7. What is after only design?

Design consists of applying the experimental variable to an experimental group and measuring
the dependent variable, after and only after the application of the experimental variable.

8. What is ex post facto design?

Study of problems with the help of adequate historical background.

9. Explain completely randomized design.

It is the simplest possible design and involves two principles, viz., the principle of replication
and the principle of randomization. The essential characteristic of this design is that subjects are
randomly assigned to the experimental treatment.

10. Define factorial designs.

Factorial designs are used in experiments where the effects of varying more than one factor are
to be determined.

11. Define internal and external validity in experimental design.

Internal validity asks did the experimental treatment make the difference in this specific instance
rather than other extraneous variables.
External validity asks to what populations, settings, treatment variables, and measurement
variables can this observe effect be generalized.
12. What is validity?

a) Validity is the extent to which a test measures what it claims to measure. It is vital for a test
to be valid in order for the results to be accurately applied and interpreted.
b) Validity is defined as the best available approximation to the truth of a given proposition,
inference, or conclusion.

13. Define operationalization.

Operationalisation is the act of translating a construct into its manifestation.

14. Define a variable.

A variable is defined as a characteristic that can be manupilated or observed, and can take on
different values, either quantitatively or qualitatively (e.g. family income, age, gender, heart
disease, blood pressure, etc.)

15. What are the different types of variables?

i) Descriptive variables are those that which will be reported on, without relating them to
anything in particular.
http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

ii) Numeric variables give a number, such as age.

iii) Discrete variables are numeric variables that come from a limited set of numbers. They
may result from, answering questions such as „how many‟, how often‟, etc.

16. Distinguish between dependent and independent variable.

An independent variable is one is manipulated by the researcher. It is like the knob on a dial that
the researcher turns. In graphs, it is put on the X-axis.
A dependent variable is one which changes as a result of the independent variable being
changed, and is put on the Y-axis in graphs.

17. What are extraneous variables?

Extraneous variables are additional variables which could provide alternative explanations or
cast doubt on conclusions.

18. What is an intervening variable?

An intervening variable links the independent and dependent variables when the relationship
between them cannot be established without the intervention of another variable.

19. What is measurement?

The determination of size in relation to some observed standard, e.g. metre, kilogram, second,
ampere, degree Kelvin, candela, mole, or some unit derived from these seven basic units.

20. What is nominal scale?

Nominal scale is defined as measurement of a variable which results in the classification of
phenomena into a set of consistent and non-overlapping attributes (yes, no, male, female, etc).

21. Define accuracy measurement.

Accuracy of measurement depends upon the extent to which it is free from systematic and
variable errors. Freedom from variable errors is known as the reliability of a measurement and
freedom from systematic errors is known as the validity of a measurement.

22. Why is level of measurement important?

First, knowing the level of measurement helps us to decide how to interpret the data from that
variable. When we know that a measure is nominal then we know that the numerical values are
just short codes for the longer names. Second, knowing the level of measurement helps us to
decide what statistical analysis is appropriate on the values that were assigned.

23. Define scaling.

Scaling is the science of determining measuring instruments for human judgment. One needs to
make use of appropriate scaling methods to aid in improving the accuracy of subjective
estimation and voting procedures. Scaling, as a science of measuring human judgment, is as
fundamental as collecting data on well-developed natural sciences.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

24. What is rating scale?

A rating scale typically requires that the respondent indicates his attitude towards an object in the
following manner.

25. What is itemized rating scale?

In this rating scale, the respondent is asked to choose from a limited number of categories instead
of placing a mark on the continuum.

26. What do you mean by rank order rating scale?

In this method the respondents are asked to rank the responses in the order of priority. This is
purely an ordinal scale that describes the most favored or disfavored item, but does not speak
about the distance between any of the items.

27. What is paired comparison rating scale?

In the paired comparison rating scale the respondent is asked to rate between the two items at a
time.

28. What is constant sum rating scale?

In this type of questioning, the respondents are asked to allocate a given number of points among
the items according to some criterion. Normally a hundred or two hundred point scale is used for
this.

29. Define the concept of scaling.

Scaling is the procedure of assigning numbers to various degrees of opinion, attitude and other
abstract concepts like leadership style, brand image, quality of management, commitment of
workers, etc. In this process, we try to elicit not only the opinion of the respondents, but also
measure the intensity of his opinion.

30. What is ordinal scale?

An ordinal scale contains categories that can be ordered by rank on a continuum. But this scale
also does not carry any implication of the distance between scale positions. The ranks only tell us
the differences in the ranks in the manner as „more‟ or „less‟. It does not tell how much more or
how much less.

31. Define an interval scale.

Interval scale allows the researcher to interpret not only the order of scale scores but also the
distances between them. Interval scales permit certain mathematical procedures previously
untenable at nominal and ordinal levels of measurements.

32. What is ratio scales?

The highest level of measurements and the one that subsumes interval, ordinal and nominal
scales is the ratio scale. A ratio scale includes an absolute zero. It provides usual intervals and

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

given a rank ordering and it can be used for simple labeling purposes. Because there is an
absolute zero, all of the arithmetical processes of addition, subtraction, multiplication and
division are possible.

33. What is thurstone scales?

One of the best known approaches to attitude scaling is Thurstone‟s method of „equal-appearing
intervals‟, which has been developed using consensus scale approach.

34. What is likert scales?

The Likert scale is one of the most widely used attitude scaling techniques. In this approach, the
respondent is asked to indicate his degree of agreement of disagreement with each of a series of
statements that are related to the object in question. Five categories are normally employed for
each item, although three and seven have sometimes been used.

35. What is Bogardus scale?

One of the earliest scales used in the measurement of attitudes is the Bogardus scale, which is
otherwise known as social distance scale. In this scale, an attempt is made to list a number of
relationships to which members of the group might be admitted. The attitudes are measured by
the closeness of relationship that each is willing to accept.

36. What is validity?

Validity is the ability of an instrument to measure what it is designed to measure. „Validity is
defined as the degree to which the researcher has measured what he has set out to measure‟.

37. What is construct validity?

Construct validity is a more sophisticated technique for establishing the validity of an instrument.
It is based upon statistical procedures. It is determined by ascertaining the contribution of each
construct to the total variance observed in a phenomenon.

38. Define reliability.

The concept of reliability in relation to a research instrument has a similar meaning: if a research
tool is consistent and stable, and, hence, predictable and accurate, it is said to be reliable.

39. What is split-half technique?

The split-half technique – this technique is designed to correlate half of the items with the other
half and is appropriate for instruments that are designed to measure attitudes towards an issue or
phenomenon.

40. Distinguish between exploratory and descriptive research design.

Descriptive/diagnostic
Exploratory/formulative
Flexible design (design must provide Rigid design ( design must make enough

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

opportunity for considering different provisions for protection against bias and
aspects of the problem must maximize reliability)

Non-probability sampling design Probability sampling

No pre-planned design for analysis Pre-planned design for analysis
Unstructured instruments for collection of Structured or well thought out instruments
data for collection of data
No fixed decisions about the operational Advanced decisions about operational
procedures procedures

Part B
1. Highlight the various CHARACTERISTICS of good research design.
A good questionnaire must have certain charactertics. A questionnaire must be:
1. Specific : The questionnaire should be concerned with specific topics
2. Short: The questionnaire should be short because very lengthy questionnaire often find their
way into the wastebasket.
3. Simple and clear: The questionnaire should be clear. As far as possible simple words should
be used.
4. Objective:
5. Presented in a good order
6. Attractive: A questionnaire must be attractive in appearance.
7. Arranged properly
8. As far as possible personal question should be avoided.
9. The questionnaire must be of convenient size and easy to handle.
10. The questions must be arranged in a logical order so that a natural and spontaneous reply
follows.
11. Instructions in regard to the filling up of the form must be given in the questionnaire itself.
12. The number of questions should he kept to the minimum. The no. of questions should be
limited to the object and scope of the investigation.

2. Explain the steps involved in designing a research

The steps in the design process interact and often occur simultaneously. For example, the design
of a measurement instrument is influenced by the type of analysis that will be conducted.
However, the type of analysis is also influenced by the specific characteristics of the
measurement instrument.
Step 1: Define the Research Problem
Problem definition is the most critical part of the research process. Research problem definition
involves specifying the information needed by management. Unless the problem is properly
defined, the information produced by the research process is unlikely to have any value. Coca-
Cola Company researchers utilized a very sound research design to collect information on taste
preferences. Unfortunately for Coca-Cola, taste preferences are only part of what drives the soft
drink purchase decision.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Research problem definition involves four interrelated steps: (1) management problem /
opportunity clarification, (2) situation analysis, (3) model development, and (4) specification of
information requirements.

The basis goal of problem clarification is to ensure that the decision maker‟s initial description of
the management decision is accurate and reflects the appropriate area of concern for research. If
the wrong management problem is translated into a research problem, the probability of
providing management with useful information is low.
Situation Analysis
The situation analysis focuses on the variables that have produced the stated management
problem or opportunity. The factors that have led to the problem/opportunity manifestations and
the factors that have led to management‟s concern should be isolated.

A situation analysis of the retail trade outflow problem revealed, among other things, that (1) the
local population had grown 25 percent over the previous five years, (2) buying power per capita
appeared to be growing at the national rate of 3 percent a year, and (3) local retail sales of
nongrocery items had increased approximately 20 percent over the past five years. Thus, the
local retailers sales are clearly not keeping pace with the potential in the area.
Step 2: Estimate the Value of the Information
A decision maker normally approaches a problem with some information. If the problem is, say,
whether a new product should be introduced, enough information will normally have been
accumulated through past experience with other decisions concerning the introduction of new
products and from various other sources to allow some preliminary judgments to be formed
about the desirability of introducing the product in question. There will rarely be sufficient
confidence in these judgments that additional information relevant to the decision would not be
accepted if it were available without cost or delay. There might be enough confidence, however,
that there would be an unwillingness to pay very much or wait very long for the added
information.
Step 3: Select the Data Collection Approach
There are three basic data collection approaches in marketing research: (1) secondary data, (2)
survey data, and (3) experimental data. Secondary data were collected for some purpose other
than helping to solve the current problem, whereas primary data are collected expressly to help
solve the problem at hand.
Step 4: Select the Measurement Technique
There are four basic measurement techniques used in marketing research: (1) questionnaires, (2)
attitude scales, (3) observation, and (4) depth interviews and projective techniques.

Primary Measurement Techniques

I. Questionnaire – a formalized instrument for asking information directly from a respondent
concerning behavior, demographic characteristics, level of knowledge, and/or attitudes, beliefs,
and feelings.
II. Attitude Scales – a formalized instrument for eliciting self-reports of beliefs and feelings
concerning an object(s).
A. Rating Scales – require the respondent to place the object being rated at some point along a
numerically valued continuum or in one of a numerically ordered series of categories.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

B. Composite Scales – require the respondents to express a degree of belief concerning various
attributes of the object such that the attitude can be inferred from the pattern of responses.

C. Perceptual maps – derive the components or characteristics an individual uses in comparing

similar objects and provide a score for each object on each characteristic.

D. Conjoint analysis – derive the value an individual assigns to various attributes of a product.

I. Observation – the direct examination of behavior, the results of behavior, or physiological

changes.

II. Projective Techniques and Depth Interview – designed to gather information that respondents
are either unable or unwilling to provide in response to direct questioning.

A. Projective Techniques – allow respondents to project or express their own feelings as a

characteristic of someone or something else.

B. Depth Interviews – allow individuals to express themselves without any fear of disapproval,
dispute, or advice from the interviewer.
Step 5: Select the Sample
Most marketing studies involve a sample or subgroup of the total population relevant to the
problem, rather than a census of the entire group.
Step 6: Select the Model of Analysis
It is imperative that the researcher select the analytic techniques prior to collecting the data. Once
the analytic techniques are selected, the researcher should generate fictional responses (dummy
data) to the measurement instrument. These dummy data are then analyzed by the analytic
techniques selected to ensure that the results of this analysis will provide the information
required by the problem at hand.
Step 7: Evaluate the Ethics of the Research
It is essential that marketing researchers restrict their research activities to practices that are
ethically sound. Ethically sound research considers the interests of the general public, the
respondents, the client and the research profession as well as those of the researcher.
Step 8: Estimate Time and Financial Requirements
The program evaluation review technique (PERT) coupled with the critical path method (CPM)
offers a useful aid for estimating the resources needed for a project and clarifying the planning
and control process. PERT involves dividing the total research project into its smallest
component activities, determining the sequence in which these activities must be performed, and
attaching a time estimate for each activity. These activities and time estimates are presented in
the form of a flow chart that allow a visual inspection of the overall process. The time estimates
allow one to determine the critical path through the chart – that series of activities whose delay
will hold up the completion of the project.
Step 9: Prepare the Research Proposal
The research design process provides the researcher with a blueprint, or guide, for conducting
and controlling the research project. The blueprint is written in the form of a research proposal.
A written research proposal should precede any research project.
3. What is a research design? Discuss various research designs.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

 A major issue in research is the preparation of the research design of the research project
 Decisions regarding what, where, when, how much, by what means, concerning an
enquiry or a research study constitute a research design
Definition: “A research design is the arrangement of conditions for collection and
analysis of data in a manner that aims to combine relevance to the research purpose with
economy in procedure”

Research design must contain:

• A clear statement of the research problem

• Procedures and techniques to be used for gathering information
• The population to be studied
• Methods to be used in processing and analysing data

Types of Research designs

1. Exploratory

The following 3 methods are used:

a. The survey concerning literature
• The most simple and useful method of formulating the research problem or
developing a hypothesis
• Hypotheses stated by earlier workers may be reviewed and their usefulness
evaluated as a basis for further research
• Use the bibliographical survey of studies already done in one‟s area of interest for
formulating the problem
• an attempt must be made to apply concepts and theories

b. The experience survey

• Is the survey of people who have had practical experience with the problem
• The object is to obtain insight into relationships between variables and new ideas
relating to the research problem

c. The analysis of “insight-stimulating” examples

• The method consist of the intensive study of selected instances of the
phenomenon in which one is interested
• For this purpose, existing records may be examined; unstructured interview with
experts may be conducted; etc.

2. Descriptive and diagnostic

• Descriptive studies are those which are concerned with describing the characteristics of a
particular individual or a group
• Studies concerned with specific predictions, with narration of facts and characteristics
concerning individual, group or situation are examples of descriptive research studies

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

• Diagnostic studies determine the frequency with which something occurs or its
association with something else.
• Studies about whether certain variables are associated, are examples of diagnostic studies

3. Experimental

Three important principles of experimental designs

a. Principle of replication
• The experiment should be repeated more than once to ensure that each treatment is
applied in many experimental units instead of one
• By doing so the statistical accuracy is increased

b. Principle of randomization
• Provides protection against the effect of extraneous factors in an experiment.
• That is, we design the experiment in such a way that the variations caused by extraneous
factors can all be combined under the general heading of “chance”.

c. Principle of local control

Here the extraneous factor, the known source of variability, is made to vary deliberately
over as wider a range as necessary and these needs to be done in such a way that the
variability it causes can be measured and hence eliminated from the experimental error.

4. Write in brief about experimental research design.

Experimental Research - An attempt by the researcher to maintain control over all factors that
may affect the result of an experiment. In doing this, the researcher attempts to determine or
predict what may occur.
Experimental Design - A blueprint of the procedure that enables the researcher to test his
hypothesis by reaching valid conclusions about relationships between independent and
dependent variables. It refers to the conceptual framework within which the experiment is
conducted.
Steps involved in conducting an experimental study
Identify and define the problem.
Formulate hypotheses and deduce their consequences.
Construct an experimental design that represents all the elements, conditions, and relations of
the consequences.
1. Select sample of subjects.
2. Group or pair subjects.
3. Identify and control non experimental factors.
4. Select or construct, and validate instruments to measure outcomes.
5. Conduct pilot study.
6. Determine place, time, and duration of the experiment.
Conduct the experiment.
Compile raw data and reduce to usable form.
Apply an appropriate test of significance.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Essentials of Experimental Research

Manipulation of an independent variable.
An attempt is made to hold all other variables except the dependent variable constant -
control.
Effect is observed of the manipulation of the independent variable on the dependent variable -
observation.
Experimental control attempts to predict events that will occur in the experimental setting by
neutralizing the effects of other factors.
Methods of Experimental Control
Physical Control
Gives all subjects equal exposure to the independent variable.
Controls non experimental variables that affect the dependent variable.
Selective Control - Manipulate indirectly by selecting in or out variables that cannot be
controlled.
Statistical Control - Variables not conducive to physical or selective manipulation may be
controlled by statistical techniques (example: covariance).

5. What is scaling? Describe the various scaling techniques used in business

research.
Scaling Techniques for Measuring Data Gathered from Respondents

The term scaling is applied to the attempts to measure the attitude objectively. Attitude is a
resultant of number of external and internal factors. Depending upon the attitude to be measured,
appropriate scales are designed. Scaling is a technique used for measuring qualitative responses
of respondents such as those related to their feelings, perception, likes, dislikes, interests and
preferences.

Types of Scales

Most frequently used Scales

1. Nominal Scale
2. Ordinal Scale
3. Interval Scale
4. Ratio Scale

Four types of scales are generally used for Marketing Research.

1. Nominal Scale

This is a very simple scale. It consists of assignment of facts/choices to various alternative

categories which are usually exhaustive as well mutually exclusive. These scales are just
numerical and are the least restrictive of all the scales. Instances of Nominal Scale are - credit

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

card numbers, bank account numbers, employee id numbers etc. It is simple and widely used
when relationship between two variables is to be studied. In a Nominal Scale numbers are no
more than labels and are used specifically to identify different categories of responses. Following
example illustrates -

What is your gender?

[ ]Male
[ ] Female

Another example is - a survey of retail stores done on two dimensions - way of

maintaining stocks and daily turnover.

How do you stock items at present?

[ ] By product category
[ ] At a centralized store
[ ] Department wise
[ ] Single warehouse

Daily turnover of consumer is?

[ ] Between 100 – 200
[ ] Between 200 – 300
[ ] Above 300

A two way classification can be made as follows

Daily/Stock
Product Department Centralized Single
Turnover
Category wise Store Warehouse
Method

100 – 200

200 – 300

Above 300

Mode is frequently used for response category.

2. Ordinal Scale

Ordinal scales are the simplest attitude measuring scale used in Marketing Research. It is more
powerful than a nominal scale in that the numbers possess the property of rank order. The
ranking of certain product attributes/benefits as deemed important by the respondents is obtained
through the scale.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Example 1: Rank the following attributes (1 - 5), on their importance in a microwave

oven.

1. Company Name
2. Functions
3. Price
4. Comfort
5. Design

The most important attribute is ranked 1 by the respondents and the least important is ranked 5.
Instead of numbers, letters or symbols too can be used to rate in a ordinal scale. Such scale
makes no attempt to measure the degree of favourability of different rankings.

Example 2 - If there are 4 different types of fertilizers and if they are ordered on the basis of
quality as Grade A, Grade B, Grade C, Grade D is again an Ordinal Scale.

Example 3 - If there are 5 different brands of Talcom Powder and if a respondent ranks them
based on say, “Freshness” into Rank 1 having maximum Freshness Rank 2 the second maximum
Freshness, and so on, an Ordinal Scale results.

Median and mode are meaningful for ordinal scale.

3. Interval Scale

Herein the distance between the various categories unlike in Nominal, or numbers unlike in
Ordinal, are equal in case of Interval Scales. The Interval Scales are also termed as Rating
Scales. An Interval Scale has an arbitrary Zero point with further numbers placed at equal
intervals. A very good example of Interval Scale is a Thermometer.

Illustration 1 - How do you rate your present refrigerator for the following qualities.

Company Less Well

12345
Name Known Known

Functions Few 1 2 3 4 5 Many

Price Low 1 2 3 4 5 High

Design Poor 1 2 3 4 5 Good

Very
Overall Very
Dis- 12345
Satisfaction Satisfied
Satisfied

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Such a scale permits the researcher to say that position 5 on the scale is above position 4 and also
the distance from 5 to 4 is same as distance from 4 to 3. Such a scale however does not permit
conclusion that position 4 is twice as strong as position 2 because no zero position has been
established. The data obtained from the Interval Scale can be used to calculate the Mean scores
of each attributes over all respondents. The Standard Deviation (a measure of dispersion) can
also be calculated.

4. Ratio Scale

Ratio Scales are not widely used in Marketing Research unless a base item is made available for
comparison. In the above example of Interval scale, a score of 4 in one quality does not
necessarily mean that the respondent is twice more satisfied than the respondent who marks 2 on
the scale. A Ratio scale has a natural zero point and further numbers are placed at equally
appearing intervals. For example scales for measuring physical quantities like - length, weight,
etc.

The ratio scales are very common in physical scenarios. Quantified responses forming a ratio
scale analytically are the most versatile. Ratiscale possess all he characteristics of an internal
scale, and the ratios of the numbers on these scales have meaningful interpretations. Data on
certain demographic or descriptive attributes, if they are obtained through open-ended questions,
will have ratio-scale properties. Consider the following questions :

Q 1) What is your annual income before taxes? ______ $

Q 2) How far is the Theater from your home ? ______ miles

Answers to these questions have a natural, unambiguous starting point, namely zero. Since
starting point is not chosen arbitrarily, computing and interpreting ratio makes sense. For
example we can say that a respondent with an annual income of $ 40,000 earns twice as much as
one with an annual income of $ 20,000.

6) Write in brief about the scale construction techniques.

1. Graphic Rating Scale

2. Itemized Rating Scales
a. Likert Scale
b. Semantic Differential Scale
c. Stapel‟s Scale
d. Multi Dimensional Scaling
e. Thurston Scales
f. Guttman Scales/Scalogram Analysis
g. The Q Sort technique

1. Graphic Rating Scale

The respondents rate the objects by placing a mark at the appropriate position on a line that runs
from one extreme of the criterion variable to another. Example

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

0 1 5 7
(poor (bad (neither good(good
quality) quality) nor bad) quality)

BRAND 1

This is also known as continuous rating scale. The customer can occupy any position.
Here one attribute is taken ex-quality of any brand of ice cream.

poor good

BRAND 2

This line can be vertical or horizontal and scale points may be provided. No other indication is
there on the continuous scale. A range is provided. To quantify the responses to question that
“indicate your overall opinion about ice-ream Brand 2 by placing a tick mark at appropriate
position on the line”, we measure the physical distance between the left extreme position and the
response position on the line.; the greater the distance, the more favourable is the response or
attitude towards the brand.

Its limitation is that coding and analysis will require substantial amount of time, since we first
have to measure the physical distances on the scale for each respondent.

2. Itemized Rating Scales

These scales are different from continuous rating scales. They have a number of brief
descriptions associated with each category. They are widely used in Marketing Research. They
essentially take the form of the multiple category questions. The most common are - Likert,
Sementic, Staple and Multiple Dimension. Others are - Thurston and Guttman.

a. Likert Scale

It was developed RensisLikert. Here the respondents are asked to indicate a degree of agreement
and disagreement with each of a series of statement. Each scale item has 5 response categories
ranging from strongly agree and strongly disagree.

5 4 3 2 1
Strongly agree Agree Indifferent Disagree Strongly disagree

Each statement is assigned a numerical score ranging from 1 to 5. It can also be scaled as -2 to
+2.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

-2 -1 0 1 2

For example quality of Mother Diary ice-cream is poor then Not Good is a negative statement
and Strongly Agree with this means the quality is not good.

Each degree of agreement is given a numerical score and the respondents total score is computed
by summing these scores. This total score of respondent reveals the particular opinion of a
person.

Likert Scale are of ordinal type, they enable one to rank attitudes, but not to measure the
difference between attitudes. They take about the same amount of efforts to create as Thurston
scale and are considered more discriminating and reliable because of the larger range of
responses typically given in Likert scale.

A typical Likert scale has 20 - 30 statements. While designing a good Likert Scale, first a large
pool of statements relevant to the measurement of attitude has to be generated and then from the
pool statements, the statements which are vague and non-discriminating have to be eliminated.

Thus, likert scale is a five point scale ranging from ‟strongly agreement‟ to ‟strongly
disagreement‟. No judging gap is involved in this method.

b. Semantic Differential Scale

This is a seven point scale and the end points of the scale are associated with bipolar labels.

1 7
Unpleasant 2 3 4 5 6 Pleasant
Submissive Dominant

Suppose we want to know personality of a particular person. We have options-

1. Unpleasant/Submissive
2. Pleasant/Dominant

Bi-polar means two opposite streams. Individual can score between 1 to 7 or -3 to 3. On the basis
of these responses profiles are made. We can analyse for two or three products and by joining
these profiles we get profile analysis. It could take any shape depending on the number of
variables.

Profile Analysis

---------------/---------------
----------/--------------------
--------/----------------------

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
 BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Mean and median are used for comparison. This scale helps to determine overall similarities and
differences among objects.

When Semantic Differential Scale is used to develop an image profile, it provides a good basis
for comparing images of two or more items. The big advantage of this scale is its simplicity,
while producing results compared with those of the more complex scaling methods. The method
is easy and fast to administer, but it is also sensitive to small differences in attitude, highly
versatile, reliable and generally valid.

c. Stapel’s Scale

It was developed by Jan Stapel. This scale has some distinctive features:-

i. Each item has only one word/phrase indicating the dimension it represents.
ii. Each item has ten response categories.
iii. Each item has an even number of categories.
iv. The response categories have numerical labels but no verbal labels.

For example, in the following items, suppose for quality of ice cream, we ask respondents to
rank from +5 to -5. Select a plus number for words which best describe the ice cream accurately.
Select a minus number for words you think do not describe the ice cream quality accurately.
Thus, we can select any number from +5,for words we think are very accurate, to -5,for words
we think are very inaccurate. This scale is usually presented vertically.

+5
+4
+3
+2
+1
High Quality
-1
-2
-3
-4
-5

This is a unipolar rating scale.

d. Multi Dimensional Scaling

It consists of a group of analytical techniques which are used to study consumer attitudes related
to perceptions and preferences. It is used to study-

The major attributes of a given class of products perceivedby the consumers in considering the
product and by which they compare the different ranks.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

a. To study which brand competes most directly with each other.

b. To find out whether the consumers would like a new brand with a combination of
characteristics not found in the market.
c. What would be the consumers ideal combination of product attributes.
d. What sales and advertising messages are compatible with consumers brand perceptions.

It is a computer based technique. The respondents are asked to place the various brands into
different groups like similar, very similar, not similar, and so on. A goodness of fit is traded off
on a large number of attributes. Then a lack of fit index is calculated by computer program. The
purpose is to find a reasonably small number of dimensions which will eliminate most of the
stress. After the configuration for the consumer‟s preference has been developed, the next step is
to determine the preference with regards to the product under study. These techniques attempt to
identify the product attributes that are important to consumers and to measure their relative
importance.

This scaling involves a unrealistic assumption that a consumer who compares different brands
would perceive the differences on the basis of only one attribute. For example, what are the
attributes for joining M.Com course. The responses may be -to do PG, to go into teaching line,to
get knowledge, appearing in the NET. There are a number of attributes, you can not base
decision on one attribute only. Therefore, when the consumers are choosing between brands,
they base their decision on various attributes. In practice, the perceptions of the consumers
involve different attributes and any one consumer perceives each brand as a composite of a
number of different attributes. This is a shortcoming of this scale.

Whenever we choose from a number of alternatives, go for multi- dimensional scaling. There are
many possible uses of such scaling like in market segmentation, product life cycle, vendor
evaluations and advertising media selection.

The limitation of this scale is that it is difficult to clearly define the concept of similarities and
preferences. Further the distances between the items are seen as different

e. Thurston Scales

These are also known as equal appearing interval scales. They are used to measure the attitude
towards a given concept or construct. For this purpose a large number of statements are collected
that relate to the concept or construct being measured. The judges rate these statements along an
11 category scale in which each category expresses a different degree of favorableness towards
the concept. The items are then ranked according to the mean or median ratings assigned by the
judges and are used to construct questionnaire of twenty to thirty items that are chosen more or
less evenly across the range of ratings. The statements are worded in such a way so that a person
can agree or disagree with them. The scale is then administered to assemble of respondents
whose scores are determined by computing the mean or median value of the items agreed with.
A person who disagrees with all the items has a score of zero. So, the advantage of this scale is
that it is an interval measurement scale. But it is the time consuming method and labour
intensive. They are commonly used in psychology and education research.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

f. Guttman Scales/Scalogram Analysis

It is based on the idea that items can be arranged along a continuem in such a way that a person
who agrees with an item or finds an item acceptable will also agree with or find acceptable all
other items expressing a less extreme position. For example - Children should not be allowed to
watch indecent programmes or government should ban these programmes or they are not
allowed to air on the television. They all are related to one aspect.

In this scale each score represents a unique set of responses and therefore the total score of every
individual is obtained. This scale takes a lot of time and effort in development.

They are very commonly used in political science, anthropology, public opinion, research and
psychology.

g. The Q Sort technique

It is used to discriminate among large number of objects quickly. It uses a rank order procedure
and the objects are sorted into piles based on similarity with respect to some criteria. The number
of objects to be sorted should be between 60-140 approximately. For example, here we are
taking nine brands. On the basis of taste we classify the brands into tasty, moderate and non
tasty.

We can classify on the basis of price also-Low, medium, high. Then we can attain the perception
of people that whether they prefer low priced brand, high or moderate. We can classify sixty
brands or pile it into three piles. So the number of objects is to be placed in three piles-low,
medium or high.

Thus, the Q-sort technique is an attempt to classify subjects in terms of their similarity to
attribute under study.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

UNIT – III: DATA COLLECTION

Types of data – Primary Vs Secondary data – Methods of primary data collection – Survey Vs
Observation – Experiments – Construction of questionnaire and instrument – Validation of
questionnaire – Sampling plan – Sample size – determinants optimal sample size – sampling
techniques – Probability Vs Non–probability sampling methods.

1. What is primary data?

Primary data are information collected or generated by the researcher for the purposes of the
project immediately at hand.

2. Define secondary data.

Secondary data is data which has been collected by individuals or agencies for purposes other
than those of their particular research study. These secondary data source may also be termed as
paper source. These secondary sources could include previous research reports, newspaper,
magazine and journal content, government and NGO statistics.

3. What are the sources of secondary data?

i) Government Publications
ii) Technical Reports
iii) Scholarly Journals
iv) Literature Review Articles
v) Trade Journals
vi) Syndicate
vii) Reference books
viii) International publications

4. Compare the advantages and disadvantages of secondary data.

ADVANTAGES DISADVANTAGES
i) Low cost i) Lack of consistency of
ii) Speed perspective
iii) Often the only resource, for ii) Biases and inaccuracies cannot
example historical documents be checked.
iv) Only way to examine large- iii) Published statistics often raise
scale trends more questions than they answer
v) Saves time (for example, what does church
vi) Wide range of availability attendance tells us about
vii) Servers as a source of religious belief?)
comparative data. iv) The concern over whether any
data can be totally separated
from the context of its collection

5. What are the methods of primary data collection?

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

i) Observation
ii) Questionnaire
iii) Interview
iv) Focus groups
v) Projective techniques
vi) Omnibus studies
vii) Surveys
viii) Panel data

6. What is a questionnaire?
A questionnaire is a tool or device for securing answers to the set of questions by the respondent
who fills in the form of questionnaire himself. It is a systematic compilation of questions that re
submitted to a sampling of population from which data/information is desired.

7. What are surveys?

A survey is a research technique in which data are systematically collected directly from the
people being studied by the questionnaire. Surveys are a form of questioning that is more rigid
than interviews and that involve larger groups of people.

8. What is panel data?

A panel is a group of study units (households, retail stores, organizations) that exist over time
and from which data is collected on a regular interval of time.

9. What is validity of questionnaire?

Validity of questionnaire refers to whether the questionnaire or survey measures what is intends
to measure.

10. What is sample?

Statistical sampling may be defined as a process of selecting a segment of the universe to obtain
information of ascertainable reliability about the population.

11. Define a sampling plan.

A sampling plan is the blueprint or frame work needed to ensure that the raw data collected are
representative of the defined target population.

12. What is simple random sampling?

In this sampling each unit of the universe has been known and has equal chance of being
selected. The tools used for selection are lots or random numbers.

13. Define a stratified random sampling.

Stratified random sampling (STRS) requires the separation of the defined target population into
different groups, called strata, and the selecting of samples from each stratum.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

14. Define proportional stratified sampling.

In this type of sampling procedure the number of objects or sampling units chosen from each
group is proportional to the number in the population.

15. What do you mean by disproportional stratified sampling?

In stratified sampling, when the sample size in each group is not proportional to the respective
group sizes, it is known as disproportional stratified sampling. When multiple groups are
compared and their respective group sizes are small, a proportional stratified sampling will not
yield a sample size large enough for meaningful comparisons, and disproportional stratified
sampling is used.

16. What is cluster sampling?

In this sampling the various units comprising the population are grouped in clusters and the
sample selection is made in such a way that each cluster has an equal chance of being drawn. It
applies to different units of study such as products, people and geographical areas.

17. Define area sampling.

A popular form of cluster sampling is area sampling. In area sampling, the clusters are formed by
geographic designations. Examples include cities, sub divisions and blocks.

18. Compare stratified sampling with cluster sampling.

Stratified sampling Cluster sampling

a. Homogeneity within group a. Homogeneity between groups
b. Homogeneity between groups b. Homogeneity within group
c. All groups are included c. Random selection of groups
d. Sampling efficiency improved by d. Sampling efficiency improved by
increasing accuracy at a faster rate decreasing cost at a faster rate than
than cost. accuracy.

19. What is convenience sampling?

Convenience sampling (or accidental sampling) is a method in which samples are drawn at the
convenience of the researcher or interviewer. The assumptions are that the target population is
homogeneous and the individuals interviewed are similar to the overall defined target population
with regard to the characteristics being studied.

20. Define the term quota sampling.

The quota sampling method involves the selection of prospective participants according to pre-
specified quota regarding either demographic characteristics (e.g. age, race, gender, income),
specific attitudes (e.g.satisfied/dissatisfied, liking/disliking, great/marginal/no quality), or
specific behaviours (e.g. regular/occasional/rare customer, product user/non user).

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

21. What are the factors that play a role in determining appropriate sample sizes?

i) The variability of the population characteristics under consideration: The greater the
variability of the characteristic, the larger the size of the sample necessary.
ii) The level of confidence desired in the estimate: The higher the level of confidence
desires, the larger the sample size needed.
iii) The degree of precision desired in estimating the population characteristic: The more
precise the required sample results, the larger the necessary sample size.

22. What is sampling error?

Sampling error is any type of bias that is attributable to mistakes made in either the selection
process of prospective sampling units or determining the sample size. Sampling error is the
difference between a measure obtained from a sample representing the population and the true
measure that can be obtained only from the entire population.

PART B
1. Explain in detail about the data collection methods.

I. Primary Data: It is one which is collected by the investigator himself for the purpose of a
specific inquiry or study. It is original in character and is conducted through surveys.
The following are the methods of primary data collection.

a. Observation method:
 Mainly used in behavioral sciences
 The data is collected by way of researcher‟s own direct observation without asking from
the respondent.
 Ex: in a study relating to consumer behavior, the investigator instead of asking the brand
of wrist watch used by the
 Advantages:
 It reduces the subjective bias
 Data relates to what is happening in the present
 Willingness of the respondents is not needed to collect data
 Suitable to collect data from the respondents who are not capable of giving
verbal reports of their feelings
 Disadvantages:
 It is an expensive method
 Limited information can collect
 Unforeseen factors may interfere
Types of observation:
i. In case the observation is characterized by a careful definition of the units to be observed,
the style of recording the observed information, standardized conditions of observation
and selection of pertinent data of observation, then the observation is called as
structured observation. It is mostly used in descriptive studies. When observation is to

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

take place without these characteristics to be thought of in advance, the same is termed as
unstructured observation. It is mostly used in exploratory studies.
ii. If the researcher observes by making himself as a member of group to know what the
members of the experience, the observation is called as the participant observation.
When the researcher observes in such a manner that his presence may be unknown to the
people he is observing is known as non-participative observation.
iii. If the observation takes place in the natural setting, it may be termed as uncontrolled
observation, but when observation takes place according to definite pre-arranged plans,
involving experimental procedure, the same is then termed as controlled observation.

b. Interview method: The interview method of collecting data involves presentation of

oral-verbal stimuli and reply in terms of oral-verbal responses. This method can be
used through personal interviews and, if possible, through telephone interviews.
i) Personal interviews: this method requires a person known as the interviewer asking
questions generally in a face-to-face contact to the other person or persons. It may in
the form of direct personal investigation or indirect oral investigation. It is suitable for
intensive investigations.
Structured interviews involve the use of a set of predetermined questions and of
highly standardized techniques of recording.
Unstructured interviews are characterized by a flexibility of approach to questioning.
There are three types of unstructured interview viz. focused interview, clinical
interview and non-directive approach.

Merits of interview method:

1. More information
2. Greater opportunity and flexibility to restructure the questions as per the need.
3. Records verbal answers to various questions
4. Personal information can also be obtained.
5. Non-response generally remains very low.
6. The interview can have control over which person will answer the questions.
7. Misinterpretations concerning questions can be avoided.

2. Distinguish the primary and secondary data with suitable examples

Description Primary data Secondary data

source Original source Secondary source
Methods of data collection Observation method, Published data of government
questionnaire method agencies, trade journals etc.
Statistical process Not done Done
Collected by User Some other agency
Use of data For specific purpose data are Data are taken from other
complied sources and used for decision
making
Terms and definitions of units incorporated Excluded
Copy of the schedule Necessary Not necessary
Description of sample Needed Not needed

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

selection
Time more Less
Cost Expensive Cheaper
efforts More Less
Accuracy More accurate Less accurate
Training to personnel Experts/trained required Less trained personnel

3. Write advantages and disadvantages of a questionnaire.

Advantages:
b. Low cost even when the universe is large and is widely spread geographically.
c. It is free from the bias of the interviewer; answers are in respondents‟ own words.
d. Respondents have adequate time to give well thought out answers.
e. Respondents, who are not easily approachable, can be reached conveniently.
f. Large samples can be made use of and thus the results can be made more dependable and
reliable.
Disadvantages:
a. Low rate or return of the duly filled in questionnaires; bias due to no-response is
often indeterminate
b. It can be used only when respondents are educated and cooperating.
c. The control over questionnaire may be lost once it is sent.
d. There is inbuilt inflexibility because of the difficulty of amending the approach
once questionnaire have been dispatched.
e. There is also the possibility of ambiguous replies or omission of replies altogether
to certain question; interpretation of omissions is difficult.
f. It is difficult to know whether willing respondents are truly representative.
g. This method is likely to be the slowest of all.
h.

5. Explain the case study method of data collection. What are the characteristics of
case study method?
The case study method is a popular form of qualitative analysis and involves a careful and
complete observation of a social unit, be that unit a person, a family, an institution, a cultural
group or even the entire community.
Characteristics:
a. A single of person, a group, a social institution, a district or a community may be taken
to study comprehensively.
b. Here the selected units studies intensively
c. Complete of social unit covering all facts
d. Approach happens to be qualitative and not quantitative
e. Efforts made to know the multi inter-relationship of causal factors.
Advantages:

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

a. Enables to understand fully the behavior pattern of the concerned unit.

b. Can obtain real and enlightened record
c. Can trace out the natural history of the social unit
d. Enhances the experience of the researcher
e. Makes possible the study of social changes
Disadvantages:
a. Information gathered are not comparable
b. Danger of false generalization
c. Consumes more time and money
d. Can be used only in a limited sphere
e. Based on assumption which may not be realistic at times

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

UNIT – IV: DATA PREPARATION AND ANALYSIS

Data Preparation – editing – Coding –Data entry – Validity of data – Qualitative Vs Quantitative
data analyses – Bivariate and Multivariate statistical techniques – Factor analysis – Discriminant
analysis – cluster analysis – multiple regression and correlation – multidimensional scaling –
Application of statistical software for data analysis.

1. What is editing of data?

Editing may be broadly defined to be a procedure, which uses available information and
assumptions to substitute inconsistent values in a data set. In other words, editing is the process
of examining the data collected through various methods to detect errors and omissions and
correct them for further analysis.

2. What is field editing and in-house editing?

Field editing is a preliminary editing by a field supervisor on the interview to catch technical
omissions, check legibility of hand writing and clarify responses that are logically inconsistent.
In-house editing is a rigorous editing job of data collection performed by a centralized office
staff. The researcher normally has centralized office staff to perform editing and coding. The
researcher must setup a centralized office with all facilities for editing and coding purposes by
which coordination can be accomplished.

3. What is coding of data?

Coding refers to the process by which data are categorised into groups and numerals or other
symbols or both are assigned to each item depending on the class it falls in.

4. What is data entry?

The process of transforming data from a research project, such as answers to a survey
questionnaire, to computers is referred to as data entry.

5. What do you mean by validity of data?

Data validity is the correctness and reasonableness of data. Reasonableness of data means that,
for example, account numbers falling within a range, numeric data being all digits, dates having
a valid month, day and year, and spelling of proper names. Data validity errors are probably the
most common and most difficult to detect (data-related) errors.

6. Define qualitative research.

Qualitative research, broadly defined, “any kind of research that produces findings not arrived at
by means of statistical procedures or other means of quantification” and instead, the kind of
research that produces findings arrived from real-world settings where the “phenomenon of
interest unfold naturally”.

7. What is content analysis?

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Qualitative data analysis is a very personal process with few rigid rules and procedures. For this
purpose, the researcher needs to go through a process called content analysis. Content analysis
means analysis of the contents of an interview in order to identify the main themes that emerge
from the responses given by the respondents.

8. What is a quantitative research?

Quantitative research employs experimental methods and quantitative measures to test
hypothetical generalizations and they also emphasize the measurement and analysis of causal
relationships between variables.

9. What is bivariate analysis?

In bivariate analysis, the hypothesis of “association” and causality are tested. In its simplest
form, association simply refers to the extent to which it becomes easier to know/predict a value
for the Dependent Variable (DV) if we know a case‟s value on the Independent Variable (IV).

10. What is correlation analysis?

Correlation is a statistical technique used for measuring the relationship or interdependence of
two or more variables. Correlation coefficient (r) is a measure of how well a linear equation
describes the relation between two variables X and Y measured on the same object or organism.

11. What is regression analysis?

Regression analysis is used to assess the relationship between one dependent variable (DV) and
several independent variables (IVs).

12. What is multiple regression analysis?

It is a statistical technique which analyzes the linear relationship between a dependent variable
and multiple independent variables by estimating coefficient for the equation for a straight line.

13. What is the purpose of a scatter diagram?

The Scatter Diagram is a tool for determining the potential correlation between two different sets
of variables, i.e. how one variable changes with the other variable.

14. Distinguish between parametric and non-parametric statistics.

Parametric statistics are statistics where the population is assumed to fit any parameterized
distribution (most typically the normal distribution).
Parametric inferential statistical methods are mathematical procedures for statistical hypothesis
testing which assume that the distributions of the variables being assessed belong to known
parameterized families of probability distributions. In that case we speak of parametric model.
Non-parametric statistics is a branch of statistics concerned with non-parametric statistical
models and non-parametric inference, including non-parametric statistical tests.
Nonparametric methods are often referred to as distribution free methods as they do not rely on
assumptions that the data are drawn from a given probability distribution.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

15. What is discriminant analysis?

It is a technique for analyzing research data when the criterion or dependent variable is
categorical and the predictor or independent variables are intervals.

16. Define conjoint analysis.

It is multivariate technique that estimates the utility of the levels of various attributes or features
of an object, as well as the relative importance of the attributes themselves.

17. What is factor analysis?

Factor analysis is a name given to a class of techniques whose purpose is data reduction and
summarization. The data from research are vast and factor analysis helps in reducing the number
of variables. Factor analysis is an explorative technique.

18. Define factor loading.

Factor loading produces factor loadings for each combination extracted factors and the observed
variables. Factor loadings are similar to correlation coefficients between the factors and the
variables. Thus higher the factor loading, the more likely it is that the factor underlines that
variable. Factor loadings help in identifying which variables are associated with the particular
factors.

19. Define communalities.

Communality gives the variance accounted for a particular variable by all the factors.
Mathematically, it is the sum of squared loadings for a variable across all the factors. The higher
the value of communality for a particular variable after extraction, higher is its amount of
variance explained by the extracted factors.

20. Define ‘eigenvalue’ and ‘scree plot’.

Eigenvalue is the measure of amount of total variance in the data explained by a factor. Factor
analysis initially considers the number of factors to be same as the total number of variables.
Looking at the eigenvalue, one can determine if the factor explains sufficient amount of variance
to be considered as a meaningful that the factor explains less variance a single variable, and
therefore should not be considered to be a meaningful factor.
Scree plot is a graphical presentation of eigenvalues of all of the factors initially considered for
extraction.

21. What is cluster analysis?

Cluster analysis is a technique used to segment a market. It is used to classify a person or object
into a small number or mutually exclusive and exhaustive groups, or clusters, so that the degree
of association is strong between members of the same cluster and weak between members of
different clusters.
22. What is Multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) or perceptual map?

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Multi-dimensional scaling (MDS) or perceptual map or positioning map is used for measuring
human perception and preferences. It is spatial representation of relationships. It helps in the
identification of attributes and the positioning of different products or brands on the basis of
these attributes.

23. What is SPSS?

Originally developed as a programming language for conducting statistical analysis, SPSS has
grown into a complex and powerful application with both a graphical and a syntactical interface
and provides dozens of functions for managing, analyzing, and presenting data. Its statistical
capabilities alone range from simple percentages to complex analyses of variance, multiple
regressions, and general linear models.

24. List out the statistical software for data analysis.

SPSS, Minitab, SAS, STATA, S-PLUS, MATLAB

PART – B

1. Write brief about the multivariate analysis.

It is defined as “all statistical methods which simultaneously analyze more than two
variables on a sample of observations”. Usually the following analyses are involved
when we make a reference of multivariate analysis.

a. Multiple regression analysis

b. Multiple discriminant analysis
c. Multivariate analysis of variance
d. Canonical analysis
e. Inferential analysis

2. What are the important statistical measures used to summarize the research data

a. Measures of central tendency or statistical average

i. Mean
ii. Median
iii. Mode
iv. Geometric mean
v. Harmonic mean

b. Measures of dispersion

i. Range
ii. Mean deviation
iii. Standard deviation

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

c. Measures of asymmetry (skewness)

d. Measures of relationship and

i. In case of bivariate population

a. cross tabulation
b. Charles spearman‟s coefficient or correlation
c. Karl pearson‟s coefficient of correlation

ii. In case of multivariate population

a. Coefficient of multiple correlation

b. Coefficient of partial correlation

e. Other measures

i. Index numbers
ii. Time series analysis
3. Write brief about regression analysis.

Regression analysis is probably the most widely applied technique amongst the analytical models
of association used in business research. Regression analysis attempts to study the relationship
between a dependent variable and a set of independent variables (one or more). For example, in
demand analysis, demand is versely related to price for normal commodities. We may write D =
A - BP, where D is, the demand which is the dependent variable, P is the unit price of the
commodity, an independent variable. This is an example of a simple linear regression equation.

The multiple linear regressions model is the prototype of single criterion/ multiple predictor
association model where we would like to study the combined influence of several independent
variables upon one dependent variable. In the above example if P is the consumer price index,
and Q is the index of industrial production, we may be able to study demand as a function of two
independent variables P and Q and write D = A - BP + C Q as a multiple linear regression model.

The objectives of the business researchers in using Regression Analysis are :

a. To study a general underlying pattern connecting the dependent variable and

independent variables by establishing a functional relationship between the two.
In this equation the degree of relationship is derived which is a matter of interest
to the researcher in his study.
b. To use the well-established regression equation for problems involving prediction
and forecasting.
c. To study how much of the variation in the dependent variable is explained by the
set of independent variables. This would enable him to remove certain unwanted
variables from the system. For example, if 95% of variation in demand in a study
could be explained by price and consumer rating index, the researcher may drop
other factors like industrial production, extent of imports, substitution effect etc.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

which may contribute only 5% of variation in demand provided all the causal
variables are linearly independent.

4. Write brief about the discriminant analysis.

Discriminant analysis is a useful tool for situations where the total sample is to be divided into
two or more mutually exclusive and collectively exhaustive groups on the basis of a set of
predictor variables. For example, a problem involving classifying sales people into successful
and unsuccessful; classifying customers into owners or and non-owners of video tape recorder,
are examples of discriminant analysis.
Objectives of two group discriminant analysis:
a. Finding linear composites of the predictor variables that enable the analyst to
separate the groups by maximising among groups relative to with in-groups
variation.
b. Establishing procedures for assigning new individuals, whose profiles but not
group identity are known, to one of the two groups.
c. Testing whether significant differences exist between the mean predictor variable
profiles of the two groups.
d. Determining which variables account most for intergroup differences in mean
profiles.

5. Write brief about the factor analysis.

Factor analysis is a generic name given to a class of techniques whose purpose is data reduction
and summarisation. Very often market researchers are overwhelmed by the plethora of data.
Factor analysis comes to their rescue in reducing the number of variables. Factor analysis does
not entail partitioning the data matrix into criterion and predictor subsets; rather interest is
centred on relationships involving the whole set of variables. In factor analysis :
a. The analyst is interested in examining the "strength" of the overall association
among variables in the sense that he would like to account for this association in
terms of a smaller set of linear composites of the original variables that preserve
most of the information in the full data set. Often his interest will emphasize
description of the data rather than statistical inference.
b. No attempt is made to divide the variables into criterion versus prediction sets.
c. The models are primarily based on linear relationships.

Factor analysis is a "search" technique. The researcher-decision maker does not typically have a
clear priori structure of the number of factors to be identified. Cut off points with respect to
stopping rules for the analyses are often ad hoc as the output becomes available. Even where the
procedures and rules are stipulated in advance, the results are more descriptive than inferential.

6. What are the methods used to process the data collected?

The data collected from the field has to be processed and analysed as laid down in the research
plan. The processing of data primarily mean editing, coding, classification and the tabulation of
the data collected so that they are amenable to analysis

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

The editing of data is a process of examining the raw data to detect errors and omissions and to
correct them, if possible, so as to ensure completeness, consistency, accuracy and homogeneity.
This will facilitate coding and tabulation of data. In fact, the editing involves a careful scrutiny of
the completed questionnaires.
The editing can be done at two stages: field editing and central editing.
Coding is the process of assigning some symbols (either) alphabetical or numerals or (both)to
the answers so that the responses can be recorded into a limited number of classes or categories.
The classes should be appropriate to the research problem being studied. They must be
exhaustive and must be mutually exclusive so that the answer can be placed in one and only one
cell in a given category. Further, every class must be defined in terms of only one concept.
In most research studies, voluminous raw data collected through a survey need to be reduced into
homogeneous groups for any meaningful analysis. This necessitates classification of data, which
in simple terms is the process of arranging data in groups or classes on, the basis of some
characteristics. Classification helps in making comparisons and drawing meaningful conclusions.
Classification can either be according to attributes or according to numerical characteristics.
The tabulation is used for summarization and condensation of data. It aids in analysis of
relationships, trends and other summarization of the given data. The tabulation may be simple or
complex. Simple tabulation results in one-way tables, which can be used to answer questions
related to one characteristic of the data. The complex tabulation usually results in two way
tables, which give information about two interrelated characteristics of the date; three way tables
which give information about three interrelated characteristics of data, and still higher order
tables, which supply information about several interrelated characteristics of data.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

UNIT – V: REPORT DESIGN, WRITING AND ETHICS IN BUSINESS RESEARCH

Research report – Different types – Contents of report – need of executive summary –

chapterization – contents of chapter – report writing – the role of audience – readability –
comprehension – tone – final proof – report format – title of the report – ethics in research –
ethical behavior of research – subjectivity and objectivity in research.
1. What is a research report?

i) The research report is the compilation of findings from a piece of research.

ii) A research report is a precise presentation of the work done by a researcher while
investigating a particular problem.

2. What is research report writing?

Report writing is the final stage of the business research and it is concerned with making the
findings available to the readers with varied interests.

3. What are the types of reports?

In the context of reporting to management of a company, reports are classified as: external and
internal reports; routine and special reports; and operating and special reports.
Based on the audience, i.e., the people to whom the report is meant. On this basis, written reports
can be categorised as follows:
a) The popular report
b) The report for the Administrator
c) The technical report
d) Formal report

4. What is an executive summary?

Executive summary is a term used in business for a short document that summarizes a longer
report, proposal or group of related reports in such a way that readers can rapidly become
acquainted with a large body of material without having to read it all.

5. What is the difference between executive summary and abstract?

An executive summary differs from an abstract in that an abstract will usually be shorter and is
intended to provide a neutral overview or orientation rather than being a condensed version of
the full document. Abstracts are extensively used in academic research where the concept of the
executive summary would be meaningless.

6. Define cauterization.
Cauterization means scanning of the entire report taken up by the researcher. The subject of the
report is to be dividend into different parts, arrange them in a systematic way and mention which
aspect of the research will be studied in which chapter.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

7. List the types of audiences.

Experts, technicians, executives and non specialists.

8. Define readability.

i) Readability has been defined as “those aspects of a text which make it easy (or hard) for a
reader to understand, e.g. legibility, illustration, color, vocabulary, conceptual difficulty,
syntax and organization of content”
ii) Readability is also defined as reading ease, especially as it results from a writing style.

9. What is tone in writing?

Tone in writing refers to the writer‟s attitude toward the reader and the subject of the message.
The overall tone of a written message affects the reader just as one‟s tone of voice affects the
listener in everyday exchanges.
Tone in writing can be defined as attitude or emotion toward the subject and the reader.

10. What is a longitudinal study?

A longitudinal study is a correlation research study that involves repeated observations of the
same items over long periods of time. It is a type of observational study. A longitudinal study
involves the repeated observation or examination of a set of subjects over time with respect to
one or more study variables.

11. Define a synopsis.

A synopsis is primarily a condensation, an outline or a short presentation of a research report. By
reading the synopsis the essence of the research may be known. It is also a brief summary of the
major points of a written work.

Part B
1. Give the format of writing a research report with an illustration.
Writing the report is the last, and for many, the most difficult step of the research process. The
report informs the world what you have done, what you have discovered and what conclusions
you have drawn from your findings. The report should be written in an academic style. Language
should be formal and not journalistic.

Written Research Project Report Format

Traditional written reports tend to be produced in the following format.

Title Page
-Title of the Research Project,
-Name of the researcher,
-Purpose of the research project, e.g. “A research project submitted in partial fulfillment
of the requirements of National Council for Hotel Management and Catering Technology, New
Delhi for the degree of B.Sc Hospitality and Hotel

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Administration”
-Date of Publication

Table of Contents

In this section is listed the contents of the report, either in chapters or in subheadings
e.g.
Contents Page No
Introduction 1
Chapter I Theoretical Framework and
Review of Related Literature 3
Chapter II Research Design 30
Chapter III Data Analysis and Interpretation 35
Chapter IV Summary and Conclusion 70
Suggestions for Further Research 75
References/ Bibliography
Appendices
Appendix I Questionnaire for Employees
Appendix II Questionnaire for Managers

List of Tables

This section includes title and page number of all tables e.g.

Table No. Title Page No.

1 Income levels of Respondents 31

2 Age distribution of Respondents 35

List of Figures

This section contains title and page number of all graphs, pie charts etc. e.g.

Figure No. Title Page No

1. Pie Chart showing age distribution of respondents 33
2. Bar Graph showing popularity of menu items 37

Acknowledgements

Here the researcher may acknowledge Institute Principal, Faculty Guide-both research guide and
technical guide, research participants, friends etc.

Introduction

This section introduces the research setting out aims and objectives.
It includes a rationale for the research.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Theoretical Framework and Review of Literature

In this section is included all your background research which may be obtained from the
literature review. You must indicate from where all the information has come, so remember to
keep a complete record of everything you read. If you do not do this, you could be accused of
plagiarism which is a form of intellectual theft. When you are referring to a particular book or
journal article, use the Harvard system.

Research design:

This section includes all practical details followed for research. After reading this, any interested
party should be able to replicate the research study. The methods used for data collection, how
many people took part, how they were chosen, what tool was used for data collection, how the
data was analyzed etc.

Data Analysis and Interpretation:

If you have conducted a large quantitative survey, this section may contain tables, graphs, pie
charts and associated statistics. If you have conducted a qualitative piece of research this section
may be descriptive prose.

Summary and Conclusion:

In this section you sum up your findings and draw conclusions from them, perhaps in relation to
other research or literature.

Recommendations

If you have conducted a piece of research for a hotel or any other client organization, this section
could be the most important part of the report. A list of clear recommendations which have been
developed from the research is included- sometimes this section is included at the beginning of
the report.

Suggestion for Further Research

It is useful in both academic reports and work-related reports to include a section which shows
how the research can be continued. Perhaps some results are inconclusive, or perhaps the
research has thrown up many more research questions which need to be addressed. It is useful to
include this section because it shows that you are aware of the wider picture and that you are not
trying to cover up something which you feel may be lacking in your own work.

List of References /Bibliography

- List of references contains details only of those works cited in the text.
- A bibliography includes sources not cited in the text but which are relevant to the

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

subject.(larger dissertations or thesis)

- Small research projects will need only a reference section. This includes all the
literature to which you have referred in your report. The popular referencing
systemHarvard System lists books and periodicals in the following manner:

For Books

1.Authors surname ( alphabetically), followed by their initials,

2.Date of publication
3.Title of book in italics
4.Place of publication, Publisher. e.g.

Philip, T.E.; 1986, Modern Cookery for Teaching and Trade, Mumbai, Orient Longman.
For Journal Article:

The title of the article appears in inverted commas and name of the journal comes in italics,
followed by volume number and pages of the article. e.g.

Philip, T.E.; “Influence of British Raj on Indian Cuisine”; Journal of Hospitality Education;
5:5-11

Appendices:

If you have constructed a questionnaire or Interview schedule for your research, it may be useful
to include them in your report as an appendix.

Appendices do not count towards your total number of pages/words. It is a useful way of
including relevant material so that the examiner can gain a deeper understanding of your work by
reading it.

Certification Page:

CERTIFICATE

Certified that this research project titled---------------------------------------------------------------

-------------- is the bonafide record of work carried out by------------------------- for
final year B.Sc.Hospitality and Hotel Administration.

------------------------- --------------------------- ---------------

Technical Guide Research Coordinator Principal

Place---------------- Date--------------

Typing and Binding of Research Project Report:

Paper: Bond Paper ( need not be executive bond)

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Size: 8.5inches X 11 inches

Margin: Left- 1.5 inch
Top- 1 inch
Bottom 1 inch
Right 1 inch

Font: Times New Roman

Font Size: 12
Spacing: Double
Binding: Black Rexin
Gold Embossing on Cover:
Research Title
Student Name
Name of Institute
Year of Submission

2. What are the parts of report?

The different parts of a report are:
1) Cover and the title page
2) Introductory pages
a) Foreword
b) Preface
c) Acknowledgement
d) Table of contents
e) Lists of tables and illustrations
f) Summary
3) Text
a) Headings
b) Quotations
c) Footnotes
d) Exhibits
4) Reference section
a) Appendices
b) Bibliography
c) Glossary (if required)

3. What are things that to be kept in mind while typing a report?

For typing of a report, the following should be kept in mind.
Paper
Quarto-size, white, thick, unruled paper is used for manuscripts.
Typing is done on only one side of the paper.

Margins
The following margins may be followed :
Left = 1.5 in.
http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

Right = 1 in.
Top and bottom = 1 in. (But on the first page of every major division, e.g., beginning of a chapter
give 3 in. space at the top. give 3 in. space at the top.
Uniform margins make the typescript look neat.
Indention
The first line of a regular paragraph is indented five spaces from the margin.
All lines in an indented paragraph are indented five spaces from the margin. But the first line of
an indented paragraph, if it has a paragraph beginning, is indented 10 spaces from the margin.

Example :
The increase in taxation on commodities through excise duties and custom duties has increased
the tax and therefore the prices.
Spacing between Lines
The whole manuscript is typed in double space, except indented paragraphs, tables, and
footnotes, which are usually in single space. Wherever single space is used, double space is
given between paragraphs or sets of items.
Triple space is given 1) before a paragraph head and 2) before and after a centre head, centre
subhead, side head, indented paragraph, or table.

Spacing within a Sentence

Between words 1 space
After a semi-colon 2 spaces
After a colon 2 spaces
After a comma 1 space
After a full stop 2 spaces

Before the first

parenthesis or bracket 1 space
After the last parenthesis 1 space
No space is given in the following cases :
Between the last letter and the comma, semi-colon, colon, exclamation mark, question mark, last
parenthesis, and last bracket.
Between the first quotation mark and the following word.
Between the last quotation mark and the last quoted word or punctuation.
Between the dash and the words preceding or following it.
Between hyphenated words.
Between the bar (/) and the words preceding or following it.

4. Write brief about proof reading.

Types of Proofs
Usually the printer sends galley proofs (also known as first proofs), page proofs, and engraver's
proofs (wherever photographs or other illustrations are involved). If required, revised proofs at

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

any stage are sent. For a high quality work, the printer provides a dummy, which is also called
machine proof or press proof.
The galley proof is the one which is not divided into pages. Galleys, the short name for galley
proofs, are in single column set in the line width of the text and sometimes as long as 24 inches.
The second stage is that of page proofs, which give Formats of Reports an idea what each page
will contain and look fake. Dummy is the final stage which represents the printed version before
copies are run off.
How to Proof Read
a) A good proof reader has accuracy to pin-point all the mistakes, clarity in giving instructions to
the printer, and speed for meeting the printer's deadlines.
b) Correction marks are indicated at two places 1) within the line where the correction is to be
carried out and 2) in the margin against the corresponding line giving the instruction. If there are
two or more corrections in a line, both the right and left margins are used for instructions.- The
sequence of instructions corresponds to the sequence of marks within the line in order from left
to right. Each instruction Is separated by a bar (/).
c) Instructions are never given at the place of correction. The printer only goes through the
margins and never reads through the proofs. If the instruction is not in the margin, the printer
will miss it.
d) The proof may be marked preferably with a red ballpoint pen. The red colour shows up better
in the background of black ink and darkness of the composing room. Avoid red ink or pencil. Ink
spreads on the cheap paper used for proofs and pencil marks are not sharp.
e) To catch as many errors as possible, proof may be read four times as follows :
1) Ask another person to read the copy aloud while you go through the proofs.
2) bead the proof alone without somebody reading from the copy.
3) Check all the headings and subheadings.
4) Check all the cross references.
Above all, remember proofs have to be read letter by letter rather than word by word.
f) Proofs are meant to be corrected but not edited. Additions and deletions at the proof stage,
commonly known as author's alterations (AA), are time consuming and very expensive. The cost
of making these alterations are passed on to the author. Large-scale editing will upset the layout
of the pages also. But if the mistake is very glaring, edit it at the proof stage rather than let it go
into the final print.
(Proof reading symbols with explanations are given at the end of this unit in Appendix B.)
Returning the Proofs
a. Proofs must be returned to the printer according to the agreed schedule. The delay
on author's part upset scheduling of the machines and other operations of the
printer and the publisher.
b. The manuscript is also returned with the proofs. The printer uses the manuscript
for his checking and record in case any suit for damages is filed. The manuscript
becomes the property of the printer.

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in
BA7207 Dept Of MBA

The author can use the duplicate of the manuscript for correcting. Then the printer
need not send the original copy back and forth.
c. Sometimes printers send two proof copies-6ne for the author's record and the
other for returning to the printer.
d. For security, either hand deliver the proofs or send in a registered cover.

5. What do you mean by proposal? What are the contents of a proposal of report?

Preparation of reports is time consuming and expensive. Therefore, reports have to be very
sharply focused in purpose, content, and readership. And to control the final outcome of the
product-whether it is a research report, committee/ consulting administrative report, or student
report-it is often preceded by a proposal and its acceptance or modification and periodic interim
reports and their acceptance or modification by the sponsor.
A proposal gives information on the following items :
1) Descriptive title of the study
2) Names of authors and their background
3) Nature of the study

Problem to be examined
Significance and need for the study
Background information available
Scope of the study-extent and limitations
To whom will it be useful
4) Hypothesis, if any, to be tested
5) Data
Sources
Collection procedure
Methodology for analysis
6) Equipment and facilities required
7) Schedule-target dates for completing
a. Library research
b. Primary research
c. Data organization and analysis
d. Outlining the report
e. First draft
f. Final draft
8) Likely product or tentative outline
9) Cost estimates
10) Bibliography

http://www.francisxavier.ac.in