INTRODUCTION

Soil loss threatens to destabilize our food systems even today. Incredibly, an inch
of topsoil can take several hundred years to develop and scientists estimate that the
United States is losing soil 10 times faster than nature's ability to replenish it. Soil
scientists believe that if the current rate of land degradation continues, all of the world's
topsoil could disappear within 60 years. Fortunately, there are many proven techniques to
help preserve
Erosion is a geological process in which earth materials (i.e. soils, rocks,
sediments) are eroded and transported over time by natural forces such as water or wind;
this is sometimes accelerated by poor management or other human interventions on the
land. The difference between weathering and erosion is that weathering removes
materials but does not transport them. And erosion is the opposite of deposition, when the
forces of nature leave behind earth materials.
Soil erosion also refers to the erosion of the top layer of earth known as topsoil,
the fertile material essential to life. The rate of soil erosion depends on many factors,
including soil type, vegetation, and the intensity of wind and rain. Soil erosion reduces
the quantity and quality of soil ecosystems and cropland (land that can be used to grow
crops). Severe and relentless soil erosion can lead to the loss of food crops, affecting the
resilience and livelihoods of communities, and even altering ecosystems by reducing
biodiversity above, within and below topsoil.
Where does the land go? According to agricultural researchers, about 60 percent
of the soil swept away ends up in rivers, streams and lakes, along with anything that has
been applied to that soil, including agricultural chemicals and other pollutants that can
contribute to harmful algal blooms and water courses. polluted water. Debris entering
water bodies can also clog their natural flow and increase flooding along waterways. The
soil that does not reach the fields from the waterways can end up in the neighboring
areas.
 AGENTS OF SOIL EROSION

1. Water

Water can be considered the most common soil erosion agent. It is also one of the
most important and effective. The action of water as an erosive agent takes various forms.
These can be classified into broad categories based on effects and based on responses.
Other factors also contribute to the role of water in soil erosion. These include soil
type, topographic relief, velocity, volume, and gravity. For example, the damage caused
by runoff as an erosive agent in a hilly and sloping scenario is likely to be greater than the
damage caused by water flowing over flat terrain. When the discharge is of high volume
and high flow velocity, its erosive effect is generally greater than when it is low in
volume and velocity.
There are different types of soil erosion that can be caused by water alone. These
include rill, gully, sheet and splash erosion. These different types are powered by
different mechanisms. For example, spatter erosion is caused by falling raindrops
colliding with rock and soil, while gully erosion is caused by violent washout due to
runoff.
The physical mechanisms of water-based erosion are galling, shedding, scalding,
and collision. On the other hand, dissolution is a chemical mechanism by which water
can erode the soil. Dissolution is likely to occur in regions where soluble rock minerals
predominate. These include the calcites that make up limestone rocks. Upon contact with
water, these minerals dissolve and are transported as solutes to another location where
they can be deposited by evaporation and precipitation.
Geographically, water is a versatile factor in soil erosion. Its effects can occur in
coastal, inland, hilly, flat, vegetated, barren, tropical, temperate, rural and urban areas.
Finally, waterb-based erosion is related to man-made and natural hazards such as
stormwater pollution and flooding, respectively.
 2. Glacier
Glacier is simply the frozen form of water that usually comes in the form of
massive ice caps. The potential effect of glaciers as a factor in soil erosion is greater than
that of water because glaciers are heavier than water. However, the mobility and speed of
glaciers are lower than those of water. Glaciers are also not geographically diverse. Their
presence and impact are more pronounced in low-temperature regions such as the Arctic
and Antarctic zones, where climatic conditions and biological properties of ecosystems
favor the formation of ice caps. This means that glaciers are not among the most common
causes of soil erosion.
There are several mechanisms by which glaciers erode rock and soil. They are
usually based on freeze-thaw cycles and involve picking and abrading. Uprooting occurs
when ice sheets loosen and fracture rocks and ground materials as they freeze or thaw.
Abrasion is the frictional removal of soil and rock materials by glaciers. Features
resulting from glacial erosion include moraines and fjords.

3. Waves
Waves are simply masses of water mobilized into energetic ripples by wind
energy, the Earth's rotation, solar radiation and other factors. As a cause of erosion, waves
are particularly effective and massive, as they exert considerable pressure on the rocks
and soil they collide with. The pressure exerted by the waves is what constitutes the force
of the waves; a form of renewable energy that can be used, among other things, to
generate electricity.
Apart from the physical impact of the waves, they can cause erosion through a
chemical reaction in the form of decomposition. This is due to the variable salinity and
composition of the seawater. The geographical presence of waves is limited to marine and
coastal areas. In these areas, wave erosion is responsible for the constant change of
beaches and coastlines. Wave erosion mechanisms include abrasion, impact, and
dissolution (where soluble minerals are available). The resulting features include caves,
arches, bays, cliffs and headlands.
 4. Wind
Along with water, wind erosion is also one of the most common and
geographically diverse causes of soil erosion. Indeed, wind erosion can occur wherever
the wind occurs, that is to say in all regions of the world. However, the effectiveness of
wind as an erosive agent depends on certain topographical and climatic factors.
In general, wind erosion is more pronounced in areas prone to drought and
desertification, including true deserts, grasslands, and Sahelian zones. In these areas,
wind power is abundant, few obstructions to wind flow, and loose soils and rocks. Wind
erosion can occur in other remote areas where there are few barriers to air currents, but its
effectiveness depends on soil type and topography. A more viable function of wind in
remote, non-desert areas is to supply kinetic energy to wind turbines and related power
plants, which use this energy to generate electricity. A general term for the erosive effect
of wind is "wind erosion". It can occur due to mechanisms such as rubbing and abrasion.
Like waves, wind can change and change the landform through erosion.
Characteristics of wind erosion and wind particle dynamics are winds and sand dunes.
Subsequent deposition of eroded materials can lead to the formation of loess structures.

5. Gravity
Gravity is a fundamental factor in soil erosion. The term "fundamental" is used
here to indicate that gravity is an underlying force that drives all other factors of soil
erosion, including wind, water, waves, and glaciers.
Since gravitational force exerts a downward pull on bodies, it is instrumental in
mobilizing runoff, wind, glaciers, and eroded particles. A most common and obvious
effect of gravity as an erosive agent can be seen in mass movement processes (or events)
such as rock falls, soil creep, landslides, and landslides. subsidence. In such cases, gravity
facilitates erosion by pulling down loose particles or masses of soil and rock. It is
possible to prevent soil erosion due to gravity using methods such as terracing, bunding
and contour farming.
 FORMS AND KINDS OF SOIL EROSION

In general, forms of soil erosion are named by the agents that cause them. Besides
water and wind as erosive agents, there are other agents that cause soil erosion, but not in
significant quantities. These agents are glaciers, snow, organic matter, anthropogenic, etc.
The erosion caused by these agents is referred to by their respective names. For example,
erosion caused by glaciers is called glacial erosion.

1. Glacial Erosion
This type of soil erosion is predominant in cold regions, where mean temperature
is found below 0°C.
The main characteristics of glacial erosion are given as under:
i. Action of a large mass of ice moving very slowly.
ii. The protective measures including encouragement of vegetation have little
effect.
iii. Soil is damaged only at the edge of ice.
iv. Major part of the erosion energy is dissipated during erosion of bedrock
materials.
by furrowing, cutting, ploughing and scouring, is referred as exaration.
v. Most pronounced form of glacial erosion is characterized by furrowing, cutting,
ploughing and scouring, is referred as exaration.

The glacial erosion mainly occurs in following forms:

(a) Exaration
(b) Grinding and rubbing, also referred as glacial abrasion or detersion.
(c) Detraction is the last phase of glacial erosion which is a typical form of
disturbance caused by glacial action.
 2. Snow erosion
Snow erosion is pronounced in those areas where there is permanent snow cover.
Glacial zones are climatically associated with snow zones. Unlike glacial erosion, snow
erosion actively damages the soil, especially in avalanche channels where increased snow
pressure and velocity create erosion currents. In snow erosion, soil particles are eroded by
a slow, creeping downward motion of the snow by friction.
3. Organic erosion
Soil erosion caused by living organisms is called organic erosion. This type of soil
erosion is quite common but little known. In the broadest sense, it is part of the overall
destructive geological activity. It is rarely considered as an erosion phenomenon.

Organic erosion is divided into two forms as:

(a) Phytogenic erosion
Phytogenic erosion is the destruction of the soil caused by the root system of
plants. It is also sometimes called root erosion. In this type of soil erosion, the weathering
process replaces the loss of soil in the field, caused by external sources and by the
collection of plant material.

(b) Zoogenic erosion

In zoogenetic erosion, soil particles are removed by animals, especially as they
move from one place to another, either in search of food or while digging for shelter.
When digging holes/shelters, a large amount of loose soil is deposited around the hole
and is then carried away by the action of wind or water. This type of soil erosion is often
seen around dams. In these places, this erosion is likely to increase during the occurrence
of floods.

4. Anthropogenic Erosion
This erosion is associated with the activities of people indirectly responsible for
soil destruction. Activities such as destruction of natural vegetation through deforestation,
shifting cultivation, cultivation of crops without soil conservation measures, exposure of
bare soils, increase and concentration of runoff and alteration of Soil quality (eg
reduction in humus content, degradation of soil structure, reduction in nutrients, decrease
in fertility, etc.) are taken into account as a cause of soil erosion.

Apart from human-made activities, animal activities are also responsible for soil
erosion, which is classified as anthropogenic erosion. An example is cattle grazing on
rangelands. In addition to grazing, the acceleration of this type of soil erosion by fire is
also strong, reducing the protective cover of the soil.

5. Underground Erosion
Rainfall is responsible for both surface and underground erosion. Surface erosion
is clearly visible, but subsurface erosion is not.

Different forms of underground erosion are given as under:

i. Intra Soil Erosion

This type of erosion is pronounced in those soils consisting largely of gravel or
stones, where the soil, after the removal of vegetation, is rapidly leached into the coarse
skeleton and partly carried away by subterranean flow towards the lower parts of the
carried slope or in streams.

The main features of intra soil erosion are described as under:

i. This form of erosion falls under micro erosion.

ii. In this erosion, the washing of soil particles is done by the flow of water by
gravity through the pore spaces left between the soil particles. It is a rule that the larger
the interconnected pore spaces, the faster the water flows under the influence of gravity
and the more easily the soil particles are drawn into them by the flow of water within the
soil and thus by the underground stream.
iii. The formations of the soil horizons and the different types of soil layers are the
result of intrasoil erosion.
iv. Soil erosion also occurs during leaching. During leaching, dissolved minerals
and organic matter are transported in dissolved form to deeper layers, which are
ultimately transported to seawater by groundwater flow. The salinity of seawater is
probably the result of this phenomenon.
v. The amount of soil transported by this erosion depends on the flow rate of the
water and the size of the interconnected porous spaces through which the water is
channeled. Formations made up of stones or rocks are accompanied by greater loss of soil
and other materials such as humus etc. by this type of erosion.
vi. In short, this erosion reveals the leaching of fine soil particles by the flow of
gravitational water through the interstices formed between the aggregates. The washing
of soil particles develops effects on the ecological and geomorphological characteristics
of the soils.

Linear Erosion
When the intensity of rainfall exceeds the holding capacity of the soil, puddles
form in the field, which are then connected by streams; and when these flows reach a
certain velocity of 25 cm/s, they absorb their own energy, according to Hjulstrom (1935).
The erosion generated by this energy is contained and concentrated in the current lines on
the steepest slopes and no longer extends over the entire surface.
Linear erosion is therefore indicative of a well-organized outflow, which picks up
speed and acquires a kinetic energy capable of cutting the soil and carrying ever larger
particles with it, not just clay and silt as in selective foliar erosion, but also gravel or
pebbles and larger blocks as soon as the vortex begins.
Forms of Linear Erosion:
Once runoff begins, light particles are eroded, especially organic matter, crop
residues and fine particles of clay, silt and sand. “Flood debris” is visible on the bottom,
often consisting of long fibrous organic matter, as well as bands of sand, very common in
wadis. Linear erosion occurs when strata flow becomes more organized and sinks deeper
and deeper into the ground.

As a result, ridges or gouges can form, ridges being small channels only a few
centimeters deep, and ridges more than 10 cm deep, which can be removed by tillage. We
speak of gullies when the channels are between 10 and 20 cm deep but up to several
meters wide, and true ravines are when the channels are at least 50 cm deep and more
precisely when they cannot be eliminated. by pruning techniques.

The category of gullies can be divided into different classes. On the one hand,
there are small ravines where the bed is still overgrown with leaf and especially shrub
growth, which can be quickly avoided with biological methods. On the other hand, in the
large canyons, which can extend for several kilometres, the middle ravine presents
boulders, which testify to a large-scale sediment transport and a certain visibility.

Therefore, as the bottoms of such ravines are mobile, they cannot be stabilized by
biological methods alone and expensive mechanical methods can be conveniently
employed. The cause of linear erosion lies in the runoff energy, which depends on the
runoff volume and its squared speed.
Tunnel Erosion
The terms tunnel erosion, tunnel trench erosion, rodent erosion, soil pipe erosion,
pipe erosion, piping etc. are used to express the same meaning as tunnel erosion. It is a
specific form of subsoil erosion, in which the washing of soil particles through
underground passages or passages is done by groundwater flow. The washed out soil
particles accumulate on an impermeable layer.

The peculiarities of tunnel erosion are described as follows:

I. In tunnel erosion, the corridors of the subterranean formation are enlarged, i.e. a
large cavity is created below the surface of the earth and thus the cover is weakened,
accordingly the overlying layer is collapsed and thus a large channel or ravine is created
on the land surface. The last stage of tunnel erosion is also called channel erosion.

ii. This type of erosion is pronounced in regions with semi-arid climates and
where soils and geological substrates are deeply fractured. iii. In soils with fissures below
the subsoil, when rainwater enters these fissures, it washes away the formation materials;
and sometimes visible vertical gaps of various sizes arise. In extreme conditions, vertical
openings are connected to the water table, allowing water to flow over sloping
underground layers.

6. River Erosion
This erosion mainly occurs in those rivers where water flows permanently, usually
at varying speeds. This erosion is likely to be most effective in streams with a smaller
catchment area and streams with less favorable drainage conditions. The upper branches
of the stream thus resemble the channel and thus form a transition between rivers and
channel.
The main features of river erosion are given as below:
I. In this erosion, a clear distinction is made between vertical and bed erosion
depending on the prevailing direction of influence, as a result of which the riverbed
profile deepens. Vertical erosion refers to the removal of soil mass from the vertical sides
of the river cross section, while soil erosion refers to the erosion of the riverbed portion.
Soil erosion is more accentuated due to abrasive phenomena, while vertical erosion is due
to abrasion, shearing of the banks, undermining and incursion.
ii. In places, ravine and river erosion are very similar, but in river erosion the
stream area changes only slightly and the soil is only damaged when the river meanders.
In the case of gully erosion, the area covered by the gullies is very large, which can
significantly affect agricultural land.
 SAMPLE COMPUTATION FOR SOIL EROSION

Example 1:

Estimate the peak rate of runoff for a 10 year frequency from a watershed of 25
hectares, having 15 hectares under cultivation (C = 0.5), 5 hectares under forests
(C = 0.4) and 5 hectares under grass cover (C = 0.45). There is fall of 5 metres in
a distance of 700 metres. The distance from the remotest point in the watershed to
the outlet is 700 metres.
 Example 2:

WAYS OF MINIMIZING SOIL EROSION

Note:
 Biological Ways of Minimizing Soil Erosion
Biological control is usually cheaper, but more risky, than mechanical methods.

Trees
Trees reduce the rate of erosion:
● protect the soil from the influence of rain
● large amounts of water evaporate, which counteracts very wet soil
● tie the soil to the sloping ground with their roots

Spaced Planting

The trees, mostly poplars, are strategically planted in hilly landslide-prone areas, such as
the Taihape area. Thousands have also been planted in the hill country of the North
Island.

They are planted as posts and protected from grazing animals until they become
established. Poplars grow rapidly and their root system develops rapidly. But they're
deciduous, so they don't evaporate as much water in the winter as evergreens. Where
trees are easy to harvest, pines (Pinus radiata) can be planted in a location where both
grazing and trees for timber are co-managed. Known as agroforestry, this can be
successful in more productive sites and less steep terrain, where trees generally grow
faster.

Pair Planting
This method is used to control the erosion of gullies for permanent and ephemeral flows.
Willows or poplars are planted about 2-3 meters apart on either side of the bottom of the
ravine. Over time, their roots create a damming effect that slows water flow, stabilizes the
sides of gutters, and allows other plants to regrow.
Stream Bank Planting
Willows are planted on the banks of streams and rivers to reduce bank erosion. Traps or
small weirs can also be used to catch material that has come loose from the edge.

Riparian Strip
This is a strip (10 meters or more wide) next to a stream or river, which is fenced off to
keep out farm animals. It can be planted with a mix of trees, shrubs and lawns. The goal
is to capture sediment and nitrogen and phosphorus in runoff from nearby slopes before it
enters streams.

Plantion Trees
Pines and cedars planted for forest production (about 400 stems per acre) can slip and
control gully erosion in hilly areas, if they cover a larger area than the gully. About 200
square miles have been reforested through the East Coast Forestry Project, which began
in 1992.

Shelter Belts
Rows of trees, planted perpendicular to the prevailing wind, help reduce wind erosion
and protect livestock and crops. Radiata pine (Pinus radiata) and macrocarpa (Cupressus
macrocarpa) are the most used species.
Shelter belts can have more than one row and more than one species and can be up to 10
meters wide. For best effect, they should be as tall as possible, at least 12 times the height
of the trees.

Protection forestry
Conservation forestry is operated on land that has little production value, but has
significant erosion protection value if protected from grazing animals. These areas are
often the headwaters of large river basins. They may consist of regenerating forests or be
planted on trees (exotic or native).
Pasture
A dense, vigorous willow reduces leaf and wind erosion, but its shallow roots do not
prevent slipping, troughing and subsidence. In the highlands of the South Island, trail
owners are encouraged to remove upper catchment areas from grazing and allow
snow-capped ecosystems to regenerate.

Animal pest control

Animal pest control is important to reduce erosion caused by agriculture. One example is
Molesworth Station in Marlborough, once a rabbit-infested sheep farm. Sheep have been
replaced by beef cattle, which do not graze as close together, leaving the pasture open to
the invasion of rabbits. Keeping the rabbits in check helped regrow the impoverished hill
country.

Mechanical Ways of Minimizing Soil Erosion

Flumes
Flumes are artificial channels that control the flow of water down a slope and release it
into an area where its impact is reduced. They are often placed at the head of gullies to
prevent the backward erosion of the headwall by water flowing over the top.

Dams
Debris dams are sited in the floor of gullies. Built of wood planks or tyres, they trap
material moving down the gully floor. Often this technique is used in conjunction with
pair planting.
Detention dams are small dams on farms or sites such as ephemeral waterways which,
under heavy rainfall, can create erosion within the waterway. The dams are designed with
a wide spillway that allows some storage of water, and in flood conditions allows a
steady and slow release of water over the spillway.
Bulldozing
Where an earthflow has occurred, land smoothing is used to stabilise the soil. Bulldozers
smooth the surface of the earthflow, so water will run off rather than pond and saturate
the unstable soil. This technique is expensive.
Infilling can be used where tunnel gully erosion has occurred. The gully edges are pushed
into the centre, which is compacted. The contour of the land is then shaped to spread
run-off. This method was used successfully in the early 1960s at Wither Hills near
Blenheim.

Furrows
Pasture furrows were introduced in the 1950s, notably in Canterbury’s cultivated
downlands, to control run-off and prevent sheet and rill erosion.
In the pasture phase of crop rotation, small channels are ploughed about 10 metres apart
across the slope. These divert run-off to grassed waterways, which then feed into natural
streams and rivers.
A variant of pasture furrows are graded banks, which are much wider and further apart.
These were used in Northland.

Cultivation techniques
Conservation tillage is where crop-growing soils are left, after harvest, covered in crop
residues. This acts as a mulch, protecting the soil from wind erosion and raindrop impact.
With contour cultivation, all cultivation is done across the slope. This creates a series of
mini-barriers to the downward flow of water.
Direct drilling is a method where pasture seeds or crops are drilled straight into the soil,
under pasture. The advantage is that being unploughed, the soil is not vulnerable to
erosion.
 References
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Mulvihill, K. 2021. Soil Erosion 101. Retrieved from

https://www.nrdc.org/stories/soil-erosion-101#what-is

Shweta, R. n.d. Forms of Soil Erosion: 8 Forms | Soil Science. Retrieved from
https://www.soilmanagementindia.com/soil-erosion/forms-of-soil-erosion-8-forms
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