Module Overview

This module will generally introduce and discuss the concepts soil erosion and and how
to control it.

Module Objectives/Outcomes
1. Understand the fundamental concepts and different factors of soil erosion, and its control
measures;
2. Estimate soil loss using different soil loss equations or models;
3. Explain the mechanics and different factors of sediment transport, and its control
measures;
4. Estimate small reservoir sedimentation;

Lessons:
Mechanics of Soil Erosion, Measurement of Soil Erosion, Soil Erosion Control, Sediment
Transport and Sedimentation, Transported Materials/Sediments, and Measurement/Prediction of
Sediment Transport and Sediment Yields

Learning Outcomes
1. Understand the process of soil erosion;
2. Understand the different forms and types of soil erosion;
3. Explain the different factors affecting soil erosion;
4. Familiarize the problems arising due to soil erosion;

Time Frame: 5 hours

Introduction
Welcome to the first lesson of the third module of your subject Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering. The lessons discussed here will particularly acquaints you on the
process and mechanics of soil erosion, its different types, and the factors contributing to the
erosion of soil. This lesson will consume an approximate time of 5 hours of your academic time.
Activity
Look for the actual soil erosion present (regardless of severity) in your locality, take a
picture and analyze the situation.

Analysis
Supplementary Questions:
1. Estimate how large the area where there is a soil erosion.
2. What might be the cause/s of the erosion?
3. How the erosion affects its surrounding area?

Abstraction

Soil erosion is the detachment of soil from its original location and transportation to a
new location.

Causes of Soil Erosion

There are many underlying factors responsible for this process, some induced by nature
and others by human being. The main causes of soil erosion can be enumerated as:
A. Destruction of Natural Protective Cover by:
 indiscriminate cutting of trees,
 overgrazing of the vegetative cover and
 forest fires.
B. Improper Use of the Land
 keeping the land barren subjecting it to the action of rain and wind,
 growing of crops that accelerate soil erosion,
 removal of organic matter and plant nutrients by injudicious cropping patterns,
 cultivation along the land slope, and
 faulty methos of irrigation.

Types of Soil Erosion

A. According to Origin: Soil erosion can broadly be categorized into two types:
a. geologic erosion, and
b. accelerated erosion
B. Geological Erosion: Under natural undisturbed conditions an equilibrium is established
between the climate of a place and the vegetative cover that protects the soil layer.
Vegetative covers like trees and forests retard the transportation of soil material and act as a
check against excessive erosion. A certain amount of erosion, however, does take place even
under the natural cover. This erosion, called geologic erosion, is a slow process and is
compensated by the formation of soil under the natural weathering process. Its effect are not
of much consequence so far as agricultural lands are concerned.
C. Accelerated Erosion: When land is put under cultivation, the natural balance existing
between the soil, its vegetation cover and climate is disturbed. Under such condition, the
removal of surface soil due to natural agencies takes places at faster rate than it can be built
by the soil formation process. Erosion occurring under these condition is referred to as
accelerated erosion. Its rates are higher than geological erosion. Accelerated erosion depletes
soil fertility in agricultural land.

D. According to Erosion Agents: Soil erosion is broadly categorized into different types
depending on the agent which triggers the erosion activity. Mentioned below are the four
main types of soil erosion.

a. Water Erosion: Running water is the most common agent of soil erosion. This
includes rivers which erode the river basin, rainwater which erodes various
landforms, and the sea waves which erode the coastal areas. Water erodes and
transports soil particles from higher altitude and deposits them in low lying areas.
Water erosion may further be classified, based on different actions of water
responsible for erosion, as :
i. Raindrop erosion. Soil detachment and transport resulting from the
impact of water drops directly on soil particles or on thin water surfaces.
Tremendous quantities of soil are splashed into the air, most particles more
than once.

Figure 1. Raindrop erosion

(Source: elibrary (unl.edu))
ii. Sheet erosion. A uniform removal of soil in thin layers from sloping land,
resulting from sheet or overland flow. This happens when water flows
downwards and detaches an entire layer of soil. This type of erosion rarely
occurs because minute channels (rills) form almost simultaneously with the
first detachment and movement of soil particles
 Figure 2. Sheet erosion
(Source: elibrary (unl.edu))
iii. Interrill erosion. Splash and sheet erosion are sometimes combined and
called interrill erosion. Research has shown interrill erosion to be a
function of soil properties, rainfall intensity, runoff rate, and slope.

iv. Rill erosion. The detachment and transport of soil by a concentrated flow
of water. Rills are eroded channels that are small enough to be removed by
normal tillage operations. Rill erosion is the predominant form of surface
erosion under most conditions. This happens when water flows over the
ground and lifts soil along with it, creating small channels, or rills, that
pick up more soil before they deposit sediment in streams and reservoirs.

Figure 3. Interrill and rill erosion

(Source: elibrary (unl.edu), & Imaggeo - Rill erosion (egu.eu))

v. Gully erosion. Gully erosion produces channels larger than rills. This
happens when water moves with such force that smaller channels can
widen into gullies and cause water to erode even deeper layers of soil.
 Figure 4. Gully erosion
(Source: Types of erosion | Environment, land and water | Queensland
Government (www.qld.gov.au), & elibrary (unl.edu))

vi. Stream Channel erosion. Includes soil removal from stream banks and
soil scour of the channel bed. Stream banks erode either by runoff flowing
over the side of the stream bank, or by scouring and undercutting below the
water surface.

b. Wind Erosion: Wind erosion is most often witnessed in dry areas wherein strong
winds brush against various landforms, cutting through them and loosening the soil
particles, which are lifted and transported towards the direction in which the wind
blows. The best example of wind erosion are sand dunes and mushroom rocks
structures, typically found in deserts.

Figure 5. Wind erosion

(Source:Wind erosion | VRO | Agriculture Victoria)

c. Glacial Erosion: Glacial erosion, also referred to as ice erosion, is common in cold
regions at high altitudes. When soil comes in contact with large moving glaciers, it
 sticks to the base of these glaciers. This is eventually transported with the glaciers,
and as they start melting it is deposited in the course of the moving chunks of ice.

d. Gravitational Erosion: It is basically the mass movement of soil due to

gravitational force. The best examples of this are landslides and slumps. While
landslides and slumps happen within seconds, phenomena such as soil creep take a
longer period for occurrence.

Figure 6. Gravitational erosion

(Source: Erosion and Deposition by Gravity | CK-12 Foundation (ck12.org))

Agents of Soil Erosion

Mainly water is responsible for this erosion although in many locations wind, glaciers are
also the agents causing soil erosion. Other factors responsible for soil erosion are human and
animal activities. When the animals continuously graze in the pastures, the vegetation is removed
due to their walking and grazing. Bare lands left behind are easily affected by soil erosion.
Activities of human like forest cutting, increased agriculture, and clearing of land for different
purposes are the other agents that cause erosion of the soil.

The soil erosion agent can be classified and summarized as shown in Fig. 7 below.
 Figure 7.Agents of soil erosion, its processes and effects (Sources: Das, 2000)

Factors Affecting Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is a very complicated problem as many complex factors affect the rate of
erosion and therefore it is difficult to solve. These factors include:

1. Climatic Factor:
i. rainfall amount
ii. rainfall intensity
iii. rainfall frequency
During the periods of frequent or continuous rainfall, high soil moisture or
saturated field conditions are developed, a greater percentage of the rainfall is
converted into runoff. This in turn results in soil detachment and
transport causing erosion at high rate.

2. Temperature:
 While frozen soil is highly resistant to erosion, rapid thawing of the soil surface
brought about by warm rains can lead to serious erosion. Although falling snow
does not cause erosion, heavy snow melts in spring can cause considerable
runoff damage.
 Areas with warmer climates have thinner organic cover on the soil. Organic
matter cover on the surface protects the soil by shielding it from the impact of
falling rain and helping in the infiltration of rainfall that would otherwise cause
more runoff. Organic matter inside the soil increases permeability of the soil to
cause more percolation and reduce runoff.

3. Topographical Factors:
 i. Slope length: Generally, longer slope increases the potential for erosion. The
greatest erosion potential is at the base of the slope, where runoff velocity is the
greatest and runoff concentrates.
ii. Steepness: The steeper the slope, the faster the water will flow.
iii. Roughness: The faster the water will flow, the more likely it will cause erosion
and increase sedimentation.

4. Soil:
 Physical characteristics of soil have a bearing on erodibility. Soil properties
influencing erodibility include:
i. Texture. Soil having a large amount of silt-sized particles is most
susceptible to erosion from both wind and water. Soil with clay or sand-
sized particles is less prone to erosion.
ii. Structure. Influences both the ability of the soil to absorb water and its
physical resistance to erosion.
iii. Cohesion. When moist, the individual soil particles in a cohesive soil cling
together to form a doughy consistency. Clay soils are very cohesive, while
sand soils are the least cohesive.

5. Vegetation:
 A good cover of vegetation shields the soil from the impact of raindrops. It also
binds the soil together, making it more resistant to runoff. A vegetative cover
provides organic matter, slows down runoff, and filters sediment.
 On a graded slope, the condition of vegetative cover will determine whether erosion
will be stopped or only slightly halted. A dense, robust cover of vegetation is one of
the best protections against soil erosion.

6. Biological Factors of Soil Erosion:

 Biological factors that influence the soil erosion are the activities like faulty
cultivation practices, overgrazing by animals etc. These factors may be broadly
classified into following three groups:
(i) Energy Factors: They include such factors which influence the potential
ability of rainfall, runoff and wind to cause erosion. This ability is termed as
erosivity. The other factors which directly reduce the power of erosive agents are
reduction in length/degree of slope through the construction of terraces and bunds
in case of water eroded areas and creation of wind breaks or shelter belts in case
of wind eroded areas.
(ii) Resistance Factors: They are also called erodibility factors which depend
upon the mechanical and chemical properties of the soil. Those factors which
enhance the infiltration of water into the soil reduce runoff and decrease
erodibility, while any activity that pulverizes the soil increases erodibility. Thus,
cultivation may decrease the erodibility of clay soils but increases that of sandy
soil.
(iii) Protection Factors: This primarily focuses on the factors related to plant
cover. Plant cover protects the soil from erosion by intercepting the rainfall and
reducing the velocity of runoff and wind. Degree of protection provided by
 different plant covers varies considerably. Therefore, it is essential to know the
rate of soil erosion under different land uses, degrees of length and slope, and
vegetative covers so that appropriate land use can be selected for each piece of
land to control the rate of soil erosion. The quantity of soil moved past a point is
called soil loss. It is usually expressed in unit of mass or volume per unit time per
unit area.

Mechanics of Soil Erosion

Soil erosion is initiated by detachment of soil particles due to action of rain. The detached
particles are transported by erosion agents from one place to another and finally get settled at
some place leading to soil erosion process. Different soil erosion processes are shown in Fig. 8.

Figure 8. Process of water erosion by the impact of raindrops.

(Source: www.landfood.ubc.ca)

Mechanics of Water Erosion

There are three steps for accelerated erosion by water:
1. Detachment or loosening of soil particles caused by flowing water, freezing and thawing
of the top soil, and/or the impact of falling raindrops,
2. Transportation of soil particles by floating, rolling, dragging, and/or splashing and
3. Deposition of transported particles at some places of lower elevation.
Rain enhances the translocation of soil through the process of splashing as shown
in Fig.8. Individual raindrops detach soil aggregates and redeposit them as particles. The
dispersed particles may then plug soil pores, reducing water intake (infiltration). Once the
soil dries, these particles develop into a crust at the soil surface and runoff is further
increased.

Mechanics of Wind Erosion

Wind erosion occurs where soil is exposed to the dislodging force of wind. The intensity
of wind erosion varies with surface roughness, slope and types of cover on the soil surface and
wind velocity, duration and angle of incidence. Fine soil particles can be carried to great heights
and for (may be) hundreds of kilometers. The overall occurrence of wind erosion could be
described in three different phases:
 1. Initiation of Movement: The initiation of the movement of soil particles is caused by
several factors acting separately in combination. In the course of collision of grains
rolling and bumping on the surface, some particles may be bounced up. It occurs when
the wind force or the impact of moving particles is strong enough to dislodge stationary
soil particles.

2. Transportation: The transportation of the particles once they are dislodged take place
in three ways:
i) Saltation – In saltation soil particles of medium size (0.10-0.15 mm diameter)
are carried by wind in a series of short bounces. These bounces are caused by the
direct pressure of the wind on soil particles.
ii) Soil Creep – saltation also encourages soil creep (rolling or sliding) along the
surface of the particles (0.5-1.0 mm diameter). The bouncing particles carried by
saltation strike the large aggregates and speed up their movement along the
surface.
iii) Suspension – When the particles of soil are very small (less than 0.1 mm)
they are carried over long distances. Finer suspended particles are moved parallel
to the ground surface and upward.

3. Deposition: Deposition of the particles occurs when the gravitational force is

greater than the forces holding the particles in air. Deposition could occur when the wind
velocity is decreased due to surface obstructions or other natural causes.

Impacts of erosion

I. Agriculture
 Soil erosion removes valuable top soil which is the most productive part of the soil
profile for agricultural purposes. The loss of this top soil results in lower yields and
higher production costs.When top soil is gone, erosion can cause rills and gullies that
make the cultivation of paddocks impossible.
 The impacts of erosion on cropping lands include:
 reduced ability of the soil to store water and nutrients
 exposure of subsoil, which often has poor physical and chemical properties
 higher rates of runoff, shedding water and nutrients otherwise used for crop
growth
 loss of newly planted crops
 deposits of silt in low-lying areas.

II. Waterways
 Downstream effects of soil erosion include:
 siltation of watercourses and water storages
 reduction in water quality of creeks, rivers and coastal areas.
  Eroded soil, which can contain nutrients, fertilizers and herbicides or pesticides, can be
deposited where there is a reduction in the slope of the land. This can be in sediment
traps, along contour banks, or in grassed waterways, dams or wetlands.
 Heavier soil particles are the first to be deposited, while finer colloidal clay particles
may remain in suspension. Soil removed by gully erosion (especially finer colloidal clay)
may be transported directly to creeks or rivers.

Infrastructure

 Dams and Embankments. If dispersible soils are not compacted properly during
construction, air voids occur. Water can easily get into these void spaces and cause
dispersion of the surrounding soil. Small ‘pipes’ can form which quickly develop into
tunnels. This has been known to cause piping and bank failure within a few hours when
a new dam is filled for the first time.
 Road and Tracks. Bitumen and concrete readily produce runoff. To build roads, the
land has to be disturbed, so erosion and siltation can occur if special stabilizing
techniques are not used.
 Urban Developments—can cause severe soil erosion if the land is unsuitable to be built
on and developments run through existing drainage lines.
 Mining and Exploration Activities. Interfere with the natural drainage of the landscape
which can cause erosion and siltation of waterways. Mining exploration requires the
development of hundreds of kilometres of tracks and roads from which vegetation is
cleared, leaving the soil more vulnerable to erosion.

Application
Based from your activity, identify its type of erosion. If its a water erosion, identify also
its specific type. Further, identify what are the agents (either wind, water or gravity) and factors
contributes to the development of erosion. Justify your answer.
Learning Outcomes
1. Understand the different soil loss equations;
2. Estimate soil loss using soil loss equations;

Time Frame: 3 hours

Introduction
Welcome to the second lesson of the third module of your subject Soil and Water
Conservation Engineering. The lessons discussed here will particularly acquaints you on the
different soil loss equations. You are also expected to practice the said equations by estimating
soil loss. This lesson will consume an approximate time of 3 hours of your academic time.

Abstraction

Several methods exist for the measurement of soil loss:

I. Universal Soil Loss Equation (USLE)
 A powerful tool that is widely used by soil conservationists in the United States and
many other countries.
 It was developed by W. H. Wischmeier, D. D. Smith, and others with the U.S.
Department of Agriculture (USDA), Agricultural Research Service (ARS), Soil
Conservation Service (SCS), and Purdue University in the late 1950s. Its field use was
institutionalized in the form of USDA Agricultural Handbook 282 in 1965, and later
updated as USDA Agricultural Handbook 537 in 1978.
 Estimates average annual soil loss by sheet and rill erosion on those portions of
landscape profiles where erosion, but not deposition, is occurring. It does not
estimate deposition like that at the toe of concave slopes, and it does not estimate
sediment yield at a downstream location. Also, it does not include ephemeral gully
erosion.
 There are three important applications of the universal soil loss equation. They are as
follows:
 It predicts the soil loss;
 It helps in identification and selection of agricultural practices;
and
 It provides the recommendations on crop management practices
to be used.
 USLE is an empirically based equation, derived from a large mass of field data,
especially erosion plots and rainfall simulator experiments, and computes sheet and rill
erosion as follows:
 A=RKLSCP
where:
A is computed soil loss,
R is the rainfall-runoff erosivity factor,
K is a soil erodibility factor,
L is the slope length factor,
S is the slope steepness factor,
C is a cover management factor, and
P is a supporting practices factor.

Rainfall-runoff Erosivity Factor (R)

 Calculated as a product of the kinetic energy of a rainfall times its maximum 30-minute
intensity of fall. The product of these two characteristics is termed as EI or EI30 or
rainfall erosivity. The erosivity factor, R is the number of rainfall erosion index units
(EI30) in a given period at the study location. The rainfall erosion index unit (EI30) of a
storm is estimated as:

where: KE = kinetic energy of storm in metric tones/ha-cm, expressed as:

where, I = rainfall intensity in cm/h, and Ι 30 Ι30 = maximum 30 minutes rainfall

intensity of the storm.

 The study period can be a week, month, season or year and this I30 values are different
for different areas. The storm EI30 values for that length of period is summed up. Annual
EI30 values are usually computed from the data available at various meteorological
stations and lines connecting the equal EI30 values (known as Iso-erodent lines) are
drawn for the region covered by the data stations for ready use in USLE.
 Table 1. Sample Range of Rainfall Erodibility (R) Values (Source: David, 1988)

Soil Erodibility Factor (K)

 Represents the ease with which a soil can be eroded and is influenced by the soil texture,
organic matter content, soil structural strength and permeability. K-values therefore
need to be determined for individual soil types and can be estimated for known soils
using the USDA erodibility nomograph.

 The soil erodibility factor (K) is expressed as tons of soil loss per hectare per unit
rainfall erosivity index, from a field of 9% slope and 22 m (in some cases 22.13 m) field
length. The formula used for estimating K is as follows:

where:
K = soil erodibility factor,
A0 = observed soil loss,
S = slope factor, and
ΣEI = total rainfall erosivity index.
 Table 2. Representative Values of Soil Erodibility Factor (K) for Variuos Philippine Soils
(Source: David, 1988)

Topographic Factor (LS)

 The L and S factors express the influence of the landscape on soil erosion. The LS
combination is the ratio of soil loss from a particular slope to a ‘reference slope (22.1 m
length and uniform 9% grade).

 Slope length factor (L) is the ratio of soil loss from the field slope length under
consideration to that from the 22.13 m length plots under identical conditions. The slope
length has a direct relation with the soil loss, i.e., it is approximately equal to the square
root of the slope length (L0.5), for the soils on which runoff rate is not affected by the
length of slope (Zing, 1940).
 Steepness of land slope factor (S) is the ratio of soil loss from the field slope gradient to
that from the 9% slope under otherwise identical conditions. The increase in steepness
of slope results in the increase in soil erosion as the velocity of runoff increases with the
increase in field slope allowing more soil to be detached and transported along with
surface flow.

 The value of LS can be calculated by using the formula given by Wischmeier and Smith
(1962):

where, L = field slope length in feet and S = percent land slope.

 Wischmeier and Smith (1978) again derived the following equation for LS factor in
M.K.S. system, based on the observations from cropped land on slopes ranging from 3
to 18% and length from 10 to 100 m. The derived updated equation is:

where,
λ = field slope length in meters,
m = exponent varying from 0.2 to 0.5, and
θ = angle of slope.

Table 3. Estimated Slope (S) Factors for Various Slopes (Source: David, 1988)
Crop Management Factor (C)

 The ratio of erosion under a specified cover and management to the amount of erosion
under a continuous bare fallow. It considers the type and density of vegetative cover on
the soil as well as all related management practices, such as time between operations,
weed control, tillage, watering, fertilization, crop residues etc. This factor is obviously
very complicated and can only be assessed with confidence for research-verified
crop/land management combinations.

 The variation in rainfall distribution within the year also affects the crop management
factor, which affects the soil loss. Considering all these factors, the erosion control
effectiveness of each crop and cropping practice is evaluated on the basis of five
recommended crop stages introduced by Wischmeier (1960). The five stages are:

i. Period F (Rough Fallow): It includes the summer ploughing or seed bed

preparation.

ii. Period 1 (Seed Bed): It refers to the period from seeding to 1 one month thereafter.

iii. Period 2 (Establishment): The duration ranges from 1 to 2 months after seeding.

iv. Period 3 (Growing Period): It ranges from period 2 to the period of crop
harvesting.

v. Period 4 (Residue or Stubble): The period ranges from the harvesting of crop to
the summer ploughing or new seed bed preparation.
Table 4. C factors for specific types of land cover compiled from various sources.
Table 5. Estimated Crop Cover Coefficient or C-factor Values for the Common Cover
Conditions of Philippine Watersheds (Source: David, 1988)
Supporting Practice Factor (P)

 The ratio of the erosion resulting from the described practice to that which would occur
with up-and-down slope cultivation. It recognizes the influence of conservation
practices, such as contour planting, strip cropping, terracing and combinations.

Table 6. Approximate Conservation Practice or Management Factors (Source: David, 1988)

II. Modified Universal Soil Loss Equation (MUSLE)
 The USLE was modified by Williams in 1975 to MUSLE by replacing the rainfall
energy factor (R) with another factor called as ‘runoff factor’. The MUSLE is expressed
as:

where,
Y = sediment yield from an individual storm (in metric tones),
Q = storm runoff volume in m3 and qp = the peak rate of runoff in m3/s.

 All other factors K, (LS), C and P have the same meaning as in USLE. The values of Q
and qp can be obtained by appropriate runoff models. In this model Q is considered to
represent detachment process and qp is the sediment transport. It is a sediment yield
model and does not need separate estimation of sediment delivery ratio and is applicable
to individual storms. Also it increases sediment yield prediction accuracy. From
 modeling point of view, it has the advantage that daily, monthly and annual sediment
yields of a watershed can be modeled by combining appropriate hydrological models
with MUSLE.
III. Revised Universal Soil Loss Equation (RUSLE)
 An upgrade of USLE that is land use independent.
 It can be used on cropland, disturbed forestland, rangeland, construction sites, mined
land, reclaimed land, military training grounds, landfills, waste disposal sites, and other
lands where rainfall and its associated overland flow cause soil erosion.
 First introduced in the USDA Soil and Water Conservation Service in 1993.
 Maintains the same empirically based equation as USLE to compute sheet and rill
erosion as follows: A=RKLSCP
 The major changes compared to USLE are in the values given for erosion as modified
by vegetative cover and better calculations of the slope (LS) factors, as well as more
advanced computerization.
 Gives more credit to the ability of surface residues to reduce erosion, as well as residues
incorporated in the soil near the soil surface. Where USLE assumed that runoff was
uniform over the catchment, RUSLE takes better into account that some runoff is
channeled into rills and gullies. RUSLE also captures better than USLE that long rains
can saturate the soil, leading to reduced intake and greater erosional runoff. In contrast
with USLE, RUSLE can handle converging and diverging terrain and considers areas
with net sedimentation.
 An additional change incorporated in the RUSLE is to account for rock fragments on
and in the soil. Rock fragments on the soil surface are treated like mulch in the C-factor,
while K is adjusted for rock in the soil profile to account for rock effects on
permeability and, in turn, runoff.

IV. Water Erosion Prediction Project (WEPP)

 A continuous simulation computer program which predicts soil loss and sediment
deposition from overland flow on hillslopes, soil loss and sediment deposition from
concentrated flow in small channels, and sediment deposition in impoundments.
 In addition to the erosion components, it also includes a climate component which
uses a stochastic weather generator to provide daily weather information, a hydrology
component which is based on a modified Green-Ampt infiltration equation and solutions
of the kinematic wave equations, a daily water balance component, a plant growth and
residue decomposition component, and an irrigation component.
 The WEPP model computes spatial and temporal distributions of soil loss and
deposition, and provides explicit estimates of when and where in a watershed or on a
hillslope that erosion is occurring so that conservation measures can be selected to most
effectively control soil loss and sediment yield.
 The WEPP model includes a number of conceptual components which are used to
predict and calculate these estimates of soil detachment and deposition:
(1) climate (rainfall, temperature, solar radiation, wind),
(2) winter conditions (freeze-thaw cycles, snow accumulation and snow melt),
(3) irrigation (stationary, sprinkler, furrow),
 (4) hydrological variables (infiltration, depressional storage, runoff),
(5) water balance (evapotranspiration, percolation, drainage),
(6) soil types and properties,
(7) plant growth (cropland, rangeland, forests),
(8) residue management and decomposition,
(9) tillage impacts on infiltration and erodibility,
(10) erosion (interrill, rill, channel),
(11) deposition (rills, channels and impoundments), and
(12) sediment delivery, particle sorting and enrichment.
 The current (2012) version of WEPP can be downloaded
from https://www.ars.usda.gov/midwest-area/west-lafayette-in/national-soil-erosion-
research/docs/wepp/wepp-downloads/.

Sample Problems:
1. Assume a farm with Fayette silt-loam soil. The field segment is on a 5 percent slope that
is 300 feet long. The R value for this farm is 200; the K value for Fayette silt- loam is 0.37;
the LS value is 0.93; C factor is 0.22; and P factor is 0.50. Using USLE, the amount of soil
lost annually under fallow would be:
Solution:
A=RKLSCP
A = (200)*(0.37)*(0.93)*(0.22)*(0.5)
A = 7.6 tons
2. A project site in Ukiah has a freshly disturbed nearly flat 1/4 acre square with smooth
compacted surface. The R value is 59, K value is 0.32 (well drained loamy terrace deposits),
LS value is 0.05, C value is 1 (since it is freshly graded, assumed to be no cover), P value for
stated condition is 1.3. Estimate the amount of soil lost of the said project site.
Solution:
A=RKLSCP
A = (59)*(0.32)*(0.05)*(1)*(1.3)
A = 1.2 tons/acre/year
Since the project site is just a quarter of acre, therefore the estimated soil loss in
the project site will be 0.3 tons/acre/year.
Application
In your activity from the lesson 1, estimate its soil loss per hectare annually using the soil
loss equations or tables (Table 1-6) discussed in this lesson. Show all possible solutions or data
considered in your calculation. Write your output in a clean bond paper.

Closure
Congratulations for the job well-done. You’ve just completed the first two lessons of
Module 3. Should there be some parts of the module which you need clarifications, don’t hesitate
to ask assistance from your instructor.

Module Assessment (for Lessons 1& 2)

Direction: Answer the following questions. Write your answer in a clean bond paper. Show your
solution if necessary.
1. Differentiate the different types of soil erosion.
2. How does soil, water, and wind erosion develop? What are its processes or mechanics?
3. Discuss the limitations of the different soil loss equations/models.
4. How can we control erosion?
5. Discuss the problems possibly occur due to soil, water, or wind erosion.
6. How does soil, water, and wind erosion affects agricultural operation? Specify atleast three
concrete examples.

References:
1. Huffman, R. L., Fangmeir, D. D., Elliot, W. J., & Workman, S. R. (2013). Soil and water
conservation engineering (7th ed.). American Society of Agricultural and Biological
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2. Das, G. (2000). Hydrology and Soil Conservation Engineering, Prentice Hall of India,
New Delhi, India.
3. Soil erosion: Why it happens and what we can do about it. (2021, February 11). Project
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4. Impacts of erosion. (2013, October 25). Queensland Government | Queensland
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8. David, W. P. (1988). SOIL AND WATER CONSERVATION PLANNING: POLICY
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9. www.landfood.ubc.ca.