Acoustic Benchmark

Propeller DJI 9450

This study shows a CFD&CAA workflow of a drone propeller DJI-9450 using a simulation
environment TCAE

Keywords
CFD, CAA, SIMULATION, DJI, PROPELLER, DRONE, TURBOMACHINERY, EXTERNAL
AERODYNAMICS, COMPRESSIBLE FLOW, ACOUSTIC PRESSURE, POWER SPECTRAL DENSITY,
SIGNAL PROCESSING, SOUND PRESSURE LEVEL, AUTOMATION, WORKFLOW, UAV, VTOL, NOISE

Benchmark Parameters
● Propeller speed: 6000 RPM ● Simulation type: Propeller
● Flow model: compressible ● Number of components: 2
● CFD Mesh size: 2-12M cells ● Physical time: 0.5s (50 rounds)
● Medium: Air ● CPU Time: min 25 core.hours/round
● Dynamic viscosity: 1.8 × 10-5 Pa⋅s ● Speed of sound: 343 m/s
● Fluid density: 1.2 kg/m3 ● Acoustic Analogy: Ffowcs
● Turbulence intensity: 2% Williams-Hawkings
● Turb. Model: k-omega SST ● Formulation: Farassat 1A
● Single propeller ● Reference sound pressure: 2e-5 Pa

1/22
Propeller DJI 9450 - Introduction

Multi-rotor flying vehicles UAVs (Unmanned

Aerial Vehicles) and VTOLs (Vertical Take-Off
and Landing Vehicles) have become a
significant trend in the aerospace industry.
The propeller motion is an eminent source of
noise produced by aerial vehicles.
Particularly, the main noise sources of a UAV
propeller are the tonal self-noise, which is
generated by the volume displacement and
steady aerodynamic blade loading, and the
blade-vortex interaction, which occurs when
the blade tip vortex impinges on a
subsequent blade.

The main goal of this study is to show a

step-by-step aero-acoustic benchmark
validation of the DJI 9450 propeller. The simulation software used for this analysis is TCAE – a
comprehensive simulation environment based on open source. The propeller that was
investigated in this study, comes from real-world applications and is used to move drones.
Particularly it is used on the popular civil drone DJI Phantom 3. This propeller was extensively
measured in anechoic chambers and the measurement data are publicly available. The details
about the noise measurements, methods, and facility descriptions, as well as other simulation
results, can be found in the references [1,2,3]. This study shows a complete workflow of
geometry preparation,
simulation setup, simulation
run, and results
post-processing. The
simulation results are
compared with the
measurement results.

2/22
Propeller DJI 9450 - Geometry Description

For several reasons the measurements were performed with a single propeller. The simulation
has to mimic the measurements as much as possible, for the simulation, only a single
propeller approach is used too. The propeller blade has its profile combined out of EPPLER
856 (0-0.2 r/R) and EPPLER 63 (0.2-1 r/R). The propeller had the following parameters:

number of blades 2 -

propeller diameter 0.239 m

propeller speed 6000 RPM

torque 0.066 N.m

thrust 4.256 N

power 41.783 W

3/22
Acoustic Analogy Theory
Acoustic analogies provide a way to calculate pressure fluctuations in a cheaper way than
solving Navier-Stokes equations in very high resolution (the spatial resolution is so high that
usage in real-world problems is almost impossible). There are several types of analogies from
which the most common one is Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings with its Farassat1A formulation
[4,5].

In short, the steps to get Ffowcs Williams-Hawkings equations are

1. Introduce a sound-producing surface. This can be a surface surrounding the noise
source or the surface of the noise source directly (blades of a propeller, for example).
In our case, it is a cylinder surrounding the rotation zone. Both the volume mesh and
the surface mesh need to be fine enough, the rule of thumb is 25 cells on a wavelength
to catch the corresponding frequency (frequency 1000 Hz requires a cell size of at
least 0.01372 m).
2. Rearrange the fluid dynamics equations in such a way that we have a wave operator
applied on pressure on the left-hand side and other quantities grouped in source
terms on the right-hand side. The right-hand side now contains monopole (thickness)
dipole (loading) surface sources and quadrupole volume sources. In our
implementation, we neglect the quadrupole sources, which are the non-linear sources
from turbulence. The monopole sources describe the noise generated by the
displacement of fluid as the body passes. The dipole sources model the noise that
results from the unsteady motion of the force distribution on the body surface.
3. Now we simplify the remaining terms. We use Green functions and rewrite time
derivatives as space derivatives which give us the final equation

4. where is the thickness noise term

and is the loading noise term

4/22
 The symbols in equations (20.2) and (20.3) have the following meaning,
● is the surface describing function.
● is the reference density.
● is the distance to the observer.
● is the Mach number in the radiation direction.
● is the magnitude of the local Mach number.
● is the speed of sound.
● , , where and are the th components of velocity and
surface normal vector, respectively.

● , , , where are components of the radiation

direction vector and are the components of local force intensity with

being the components of Lighthill compress

tensor and surface velocity.
● The subscript signalizes quantities evaluated in retarded time .
This list of steps is just to sketch where the equations came from and how they look. For a
more detailed explanation see for example [6] and references therein.

Signal Processing Theory

Once the time series of acoustic pressure values are computed for each observer (the acoustic
analogy simulation is finished), transformation to the frequency domain follows. As a result,
we obtain the Sound Pressure Level and Power Spectral Density quantities for each observer.
These quantities can be interpreted as a measure of the loudness of each tone (pressure
fluctuation frequency) and overall loudness in the observer location.
This process we call Signal Processing consists of the following steps. At first, we clean the
time signal from unwanted frequencies with the chosen signal filter (can be none,
Butterworth, Chebyshev1, or Chebyshev2). These are standard types of signal filters and their
implementation from the Python SciPy[7] library is used in TCAE. For more details search the
internet, follow the references in [7] or ask your librarian.
The cleaned signal is then transformed to the frequency domain with Fourier Transform. In
order to get reasonable results from acoustics the CFD results which play the role of input
needs to be precise enough. If the CFD is of questionable quality, acoustic results cannot be
good. Moreover, we want to use only the CFD data from times when the simulated flow is
already stabilized (i.e., the first few rotations of a propeller simulation should be skipped).
Then there is the time-step size ∆𝑡. We require CFD to be run with a fixed time step size. This

5/22
 1
is because the input to Fourier Transform is correct and the sampling frequency 𝑓 = ∆𝑡
is
𝑠

well-defined only for constant fixed ∆ 𝑡. The sampling frequency 𝑓𝑠 gives us a limitation for

the accuracy of the signal processing results. The frequencies above Nyquist frequency
𝑓𝑠
𝑓𝑁 = 2
cannot be trusted (distorted by the aliasing effects).

If the signal is long enough more sophisticated treatment is possible. The so-called Welch
method [8] splits the signal on a chosen number of (possibly overlapping) segments. On each
segment, a window function is applied and the result is Fourier-transformed. Finally, the
results of the segments are averaged which gives the final result.
The role of the window functions is to force the Fourier Transform to focus more on the data
from the middle of the interval than on the corner values. The most important reason is the
fact that the Fourier Transform silently assumes the last value matches the first value which is
true for a perfectly periodic signal of the length of a whole number of periods but not true for
real-life applications. This means not using any filter potentially leads to ill input to Fourier
Transform. The window function properties and more information about them can be found
for instance on the SciPy[7] website and references therein. Further reading on signal
processing can be found in the example in [9].

With the Fourier Transform finished, we have the values for each considered frequency ω.
With this, we can calculate SoundPressure Level and Power Spectral Density quantities. They
both describe “sound loudness” as a function of frequency ω. Their definitions and meanings
are however not the same. The Sound Pressure Level for frequency ω is defined as

where is the reference sound pressure and is the normalization factor depending on the
chosen window function.
The Power Spectral Density differs from the Sound pressure level in the aspects that it is a

power so appears here in the second power and it is also a density, which we divide with
sampling frequency . The equation is

where is (another) normalization factor depending on the chosen window function.

6/22
Propeller DJI 9450 - Simulation Input

A typical input for a detailed simulation

analysis is a 3D surface model in the form
of an STL surface, together with related
physics and boundary conditions. For CFD
simulation, it is needed to have a
simulation-ready surface, which is a closed
watertight model (sometimes also called
waterproof, model negative, or wet
surface) of the model's parts where the
fluid flows. The input to the TCAA module
out of TCAE software is fluid quantities
evaluated on a reference surface
(typically a cylinder or a sphere that
surrounds the source of the noise). These
quantities are density, pressure, and
velocity and are collected during the CFD
simulation run. In this particular case, the
source surface (control surface) we used
was a cylinder enclosing the propeller
(including the rotating cylinder).
The propeller rotation method is solid
body motion which means that the
cylinder with a propeller inside is
physically rotating in the simulation
domain.
The simulation domain is a sphere where
technically the top hemisphere is an inlet
and the bottom hemisphere is an outlet.
The rotating cylinder (with a propeller
inside) is rotating in the center of the
sphere. The reference virtual surface
(control surface) for acoustics data is a
bigger cylinder (virtual - not part of the

7/22
mesh!) and surrounds the smaller rotating cylinder.

Propeller DJI 9450 - CFD Preprocessing

For CFD simulation it is best to split the geometry into several waterproof components
because of rotation (some parts may be rotating and others not). Each component itself has
to be waterproof and consists of a few or multiple STL surfaces. It is smart to split each
component into multiple surfaces (more is better) because it opens a broader range of
meshing options, simulation methods (mesh
refinements, manipulation, boundary conditions,
evaluation of results on model-specific parts, …), and
postprocessing.
The principle is always the same: the 3D surface
model has to be created; all the tiny, irrelevant, and
problematic model parts must be removed, and all the
holes must be sealed up (a watertight surface model
is required). This propeller CAD model is simple. The
final surface model in the STL format is created as
input for the meshing phase. This preprocessing
phase of the workflow is
extremely important
because it determines the
simulation potential and
limits the CFD results.
In this drone propeller
project, the CAD model
was split into two logical parts: 1. The cylinder with the impeller blade inside. The cylinder is
physically rotating. 2. The outer simulation domain - the sphere.
The surface model data in .stl file format together with physical inputs are loaded in TCFD.
Another option would be loading an external mesh in OpenFOAM mesh format or loading an
MSH mesh format (Fluent mesh format), or CGNS mesh format. This CFD methodology
employs a multi-component approach, which means the model is split into a certain number
of components. In TCFD each region can have its own mesh and individual meshes
communicate via interfaces.

8/22
Propeller DJI 9450 - CAA Preprocessing
As mentioned above, the input to the TCAA module needs certain CFD fields evaluated on a
reference surface (control surface). We chose to use a cylinder that encloses the propeller
together with the rotational domain (smaller cylinder). The values need to be stored for
several time steps and fixed time-step-size in the CFD simulation is required as we need the
input to Fourier transform to have equal stepping in time. The location of the source surface
(control surface) matters, we need to catch the values of CFD fields close enough to the
propeller where the mesh is finer because the results are more accurate here. On the other
hand, we need all the sources to be
inside the source surface (control
surface), this talks about keeping the
cylinder further away from the
propeller. Mankbadi et al., in [1] came
to the conclusion that the suitable
radius for the control cylinder is 1.2
times the propeller radius. Another
aspect that can influence the results'
accuracy is the surface resolution. The
finer the resolution is the more
accurate the results are. At least in
theory. But having the surface
resolution higher than the local CFD
mesh coarseness will, of course, not help us. In TCAE software, the acoustic control surface
can either be created with chosen shape, location and resolution, or an external STL file can
be used. As a third option, CFD patches can be used too.

IMPORTANT NOTICE ABOUT PREPROCESSING:

The surface of the simulation-ready model has to be clean. The principle is always the same:
the watertight surface model has to be created; all the tiny, irrelevant, and problematic model
parts must be removed, and all the holes must be sealed up (the watertight surface model is
required). The preprocessing phase is an extremely important part of each simulation
workflow. It sets up all the simulation potential and limitations. It should never be
underestimated. Mistakes or poor quality engineering in the preprocessing phase can be
hardly compensated later in the simulation phase and post-processing phase. For more
details, see the TCAE documentation.

9/22
Propeller DJI 9450 - CFD Meshing
The computational mesh for CFD is created in an automated software module TMESH, using
the snappyHexMesh open-source application. All the mesh settings are done in the TCAE GUI.

For each model component, a cartesian block mesh is created (box around the model), as an
initial background mesh, that is further refined along with the simulated object. The basic
mesh cell size is a cube defined with the keyword "background mesh size".

10/22
 The mesh is gradually refined to the
model wall. The mesh refinement levels
can be easily changed, to obtain the
coarser or finer mesh, to better handle
the mesh size. Inflation layers can be
easily handled if needed. As already
stated, one of the key things to perform a
good CAA simulation is a choice of a
representative control surface. Its
properties were described in the previous
section. The generation of the control
surface is executed in GMSH meshing
software with desired shape and accuracy
specified.

The total number of mesh cells is always a

big question for every CFD project. In this
particular case, we run several meshes
with the various number of mesh cells,
varying from 2 million to 12 million with
no major effect on the results. However,
the proper mesh (grid) dependence study
should be done. In this project, the
authors only follow the basic analysis that
the smallest cell should be smaller than
0.013 m. The exact mesh settings remain
the object of future investigation.

11/22
CFD Simulation Setup
The CFD simulation is managed with the TCAE software module TCFD. Complete CFD
simulation setup and run are done in the TCFD GUI in ParaView. TCFD is based on the
OpenFOAM open-source software. The simulation setup is done in GUI from the top menu to
the bottom.

● Propeller speed: 6000 RPM ● Simulation type: Propeller

● Flow model: compressible ● Number of components: 2
● CFD Mesh size: 2-12M cells ● Physical time: 0.5s (50 rounds)
● Medium: Air ● CPU Time: min 25 core.hours/round
● Dynamic viscosity: 1.8 × 10-5 Pa⋅s ● Speed of sound: 343 m/s
● Fluid density: 1.2 kg/m3 ● Acoustic Analogy: Ffowcs
● Turbulence intensity: 2% Williams-Hawkings
● Turb. Model: k-omega SST ● Formulation: Farassat 1A
● Single propeller ● Reference sound pressure: 2e-5 Pa

Every project simulated in TCFD has its component graph. The component graph is a simple
scheme that shows how the components are organized. The flow model topology, the inlet,
the outlet, and how the components are connected via interfaces.

12/22
Propeller DJI 9450 - CAA Simulation Setup

The CAA simulation is managed with the TCAE software module TCAA. Complete CAA
simulation setup and run are done in the TCAA GUI in ParaView. TCAA is based on the
libAcoustics OpenFOAM library [10]. This library was hugely adjusted to fit the TCAE family in
the best possible way. The biggest difference is TCAA uses data from disk so one set of data
can be used repeatedly for more CAA simulations. In contrast, the original libAcoustics library
works in the OpenFOAM run time with temporal data. Once the time evolution of acoustic
pressure for all observers is computed the signal processing comes to play. TCAA uses Python
script with SciPy functions to convert the temporal signal to the frequency domain. The first
step of the signal processing step is filtering the signal to clean it from high frequencies that
can cause unwanted aliasing phenomena, as well as from low frequencies (DC shift). A clean
temporal signal serves as input to the Fourier transform and subsequently, Power Spectral
Density and Sound Pressure Level are computed.

● Speed of sound: 343 [m/s] ● Acoustic Analogy: Ffowcs

● Signal source: TCFD [-] Williams-Hawkings [-]

● Reference density: 1.2 [kg/m^3] ● Formulation: Farassat 1A [-]

● Reference pressure: 1 [atm] ● Reference sound pressure: 2e-5 [Pa]

● Medium: Air [-]

13/22
Propeller DJI 9450 - TCAE Simulation

The TCAE simulation run is completely automated. The whole workflow can be run by a single
click in the GUI, or the whole process can be run in batch mode on a background. Modules used in
this particular project are TMESH, TCFD, and TCAA The simulation is executed in the transient
mode.

TCFD includes a built-in post-processing module that automatically evaluates all the required
quantities, such as efficiency, torque, forces, force coefficients, flow rates, pressure, velocity, and
much more. All these quantities are evaluated throughout the simulation run, and all the
important data is summarized in an HTML report, which can be updated anytime during the
simulation, for every run.
All the simulation data are also saved in tabulated .csv files for further evaluation. TCFD is
capable of writing the results down at any time during the simulation. The convergence of basic
quantities and integral quantities are monitored still during the simulation run. The geometry was
created one-time using TCAD in the preprocessing phase. First, the TMESH is executed to create
the volume mesh for CFD. Then the CFD simulation is executed and evaluated with fields needed
for acoustic being stored on the source surface. Once the CFD simulation is finished, the CAA
simulation starts, first the acoustic pressure for each observer is calculated and then the Sound
Pressure Level and Power Spectral Density are computed, again for each observer separately.

14/22
Propeller DJI 9450 - Post-processing - Integral Results

The integral results and simulation statistics are evaluated automatically for every simulation run.
Every simulation run in TCAE has its own unique simulation report. The integral results both for
CFD and FEA are written down in the corresponding HTML or PDF reports.

All the relevant integral quantities are evaluated, sorted, and stored in the corresponding CSV
files and are ready for further usage. The following integral quantities are evaluated every time
step.

efficiency[-] efficiency-avg[-] massFlowIn[kg/s] massFlowIn-avg massFlowOut[kg/s] massFlowOut-avg

magUOut-avg[m/s] magUIn[m/s] magUIn-avg[m/s] phi[-] phi-avg[-] psi[-]

pIn[Pa] pIn-avg[Pa] pOut[Pa] pOut-avg[Pa] pTotIn[Pa] pTotIn-avg[Pa]

DeltaTTot-avg[K] effic_TT[-] effic_TT-avg[-] ax_force[N] ax_force-avg[N] rad_force[N]

TTotIn-avg[K] TTotOut[K] TTotOut-avg[K] PTotRatio[-] PTotRatio-avg[-] deltaPTot[Pa]

volFlowIn[m3/s] volFlowIn-avg[m3/s] volFlowOut[m3/s] volFlowOut-avg torque[N.m] torque-avg[N.m]

psi-avg[-] circAng[deg] circAng-avg[deg] head[m] head-avg[m] TTotRatio[-]

pTotOut[Pa] pTotOut-avg[Pa] TIn[K] TIn-avg[K] TOut[K] TOut-avg[K]

rad_force-avg[N] adv_ratio[-] adv_ratio-avg[-] thrust_co[-] thrust_co-avg[-] torque_co[-]

deltaPTot-avg[Pa] time power[W] torque_co-avg[-] TTotIn[K] TTotRatio-avg[-]

15/22
16/22
Propeller DJI 9450 - Post-processing - CFD Volume Fields

While all the integral results are stored in the CSV files and are available for further
post-processing, the volume fields are post-processed in the open-source visualization tool
ParaView. ParaView provides a wide range of tools and methods for CFD post-processing and
results in the evaluation. There are available countless useful filters and sources, for example,
Calculator, Contour, Clip, Slice, Threshold, Glyph (Vectors), Streamtraces (Streamlines), and many
others.

17/22
18/22
Acoustic Results

The most useful CAA results are the acoustic quantities in the observer position. These are the
temporal evolution of acoustic pressure and Sound Pressure Level and Power Spectral Density.
All this is part of the CAA HTML report in the form of plots and tables.
In this paper, we present graphs for the observer located in a position [0. 128, 1. 423, 0. 779] with
the origin being the center of
the propeller and the axis of
rotation the 𝑧 axis pointing
downwards. This should
correspond to the
measurement and observer of
the location from the papers
[1,2].
The graph titled “Unfiltered
signal” is the result of the
Acoustic Analogy simulation. It
is the raw sound pressure
evolution in the observer
position. We can see here that
we used data from 0.3 s to 0.5
s of the simulation time. In the
language of propeller
revolutions, this corresponds
to 30-50 revolutions. The data
from the first 30 revolutions
are not used for acoustic
investigations. In the TCAA
workflow, the signal is later
cleaned with signal filters.
The graphs “Power spectral
density” and “Sound pressure
level” depict the frequency
domain quantities calculated
from the Fourier-Transformed

19/22
temporal signal. Their definitions are stated in the chapter Signal Processing Theory, for the
equations we kindly refer to there or to the literature.
For the power spectral density, we also show the results from the references [1,2] (red line)
compared to ours (blue line). We see that our model correctly recognizes the blade passage
frequency (𝑏𝑝𝑓 = 𝑟𝑜𝑡𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑜𝑛𝑠 𝑝𝑒𝑟 𝑠𝑒𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑑 · # 𝑏𝑙𝑎𝑑𝑒𝑠 = 100 · 2 = 200 𝐻𝑧) as the loudest
frequency. The multiples of 𝑏𝑝𝑓 are also caught as peaks. Although we meet quite a good
agreement with the reference we still observe differences in the magnitudes. This can be caused
by several reasons: we might use different propeller geometry than Mankbadi et al.,[2] use in
their study. Despite visually being similar and also similar to the real measured propeller, subtle
diversities can cause different results. The exact location of the observer is questionable too as in
the original paper it is described with the respect to the center of the drone, not to the center of
the propeller as we need it, and the dimensions of the drone needed to be estimated.
We also need to mention that the simulation of Mankbadi et al.,[2] which we compare to and is
almost indistinguishable from the measurements, is way more expensive than ours. The mesh size
is 70 million cells compared to ours 5 million, time step size of about 0.025° rotor rotation
−9 −5
(approx. 7. 5 · 10 𝑠) compared to our 1° rotor rotation (approx. 2. 7 · 10 𝑠). We both started to
use data at the simulation time 0. 3 𝑠 whereas we use only 0. 2 𝑠 long time interval, Mankbadi et
al.,[2] use 0. 5 𝑠 long interval. Taking these notes into account we can conclude the light-weighted
TCAE simulation predicts correctly the acoustic behavior of DJI propeller 9450.

20/22
Conclusion
● It has been shown how to make a comprehensive CFD & CAA analysis of the real-world

propeller in a single automated workflow.

● The TCAE results were successfully compared to the measurement data.

● There was no special tweaking used in the CFD simulation at all.

● There remains a lot of space for tuning the CFD methodology, especially for the mesh

resolution, turbulence modeling, and numerical schemes.

● TCAE showed to be a very effective tool for CFD, FEA, and FSI engineering simulations for

all rotating machinery in general.

● This benchmark study was intentionally written in short not to overwhelm its readers with

too many details.

● The original intention was to show the modern simulation workflow and its potential.

● The benchmark details are listed in the references below.

● All the technical details regarding CFD & CAA simulation are listed in the TCAE manual.

● The benchmark geometry and data are freely available for download on the CFDSUPPORT

website https://www.cfdsupport.com.

● More information about TCAE can be found on the CFD SUPPORT website:

https://www.cfdsupport.com/tcae.html

● Questions will be happily answered via email [email protected]

Acknowledgement
Special thanks of gratitude to all technical advisors, especially to Mats Gustavsson and Prof.

Sofiane Khelladi who helped CFDSUPPORT to understand a lot of issues associated with

acoustics and signal processing.

21/22
References
[1] Intaratep, N., Alexander, W.N., Devenport, W.J., Grace, S.M., Dropkin, A. (2016) Experimental Study of
Quadcopter Acoustics and Performance at Static Thrust Conditions, 22nd AIAA/CEAS Aeroacoustics
Conference.

[2] Mankbadi, R.R., Afari, S.O., and Golubev, V.V (2020) Simulations of Broadband Noise of a Small UAS'
Propeller, 10.2514/6.2020-1493.

[3] Zawodny, N.S., Boyd, D.D., and Burley, C.L. (2013) Acoustic Characterization and Prediction of
Representative, Small-Scale Rotary-Wing Unmanned Aircraft System Components, Proceedings of the
American Helicopter Society 72nd Annual Forum.

[4] Glegg, S. and Devenport, W. (2017) Aeroacoustics of Low Mach Number Flows, Academic Press

[5] Farassat, F. (2007) Derivation of Formulations 1 and 1A of Farassat

[6] Brentner, K.S., Farassat, F. (2003) Modeling aerodynamically generated sound of helicopter rotors,
Progress in Aerospace Sciences, Volume 39, Issues 2–3

[7] Virtanen, P., Gommers, R., Oliphant, T.E., Haberland, M., Reddy, T., Cournapeau, D., Burovski, E., Peterson,
P., Weckesser, W., Bright, J., van der Walt, S. J., Brett, M., Wilson, J., Millman, K.J., Mayorov, Nelson, A.R.J.,
Jones, E., Kern, R., Larson, E., Carey, C.J., Polat, İ., Feng, Y., Moore, E.W., VanderPlas, J., Laxalde, D., Perktold,
J., Cimrman, R., Henriksen, I., Quintero, E.A., Harris, Ch.R., Archibald, A.B., Ribeiro, A.H., Pedregosa, F., van
Mulbregt, P., (2020) SciPy 1.0: Fundamental Algorithms for Scientific Computing in Python. Nature Methods,
17(3), 261-272.

[8] Welch, P.D. (1967) The Use of Fast Fourier Transform for the Estimation of Power Spectra: A Method
Based on Time Averaging Over Short, Modified Periodograms, IEEE Transactions on Audio and
Electroacoustics, vol. 15, no. 2, pp. 70-73, doi: 10.1109/TAU.1967.1161901.
[9] Heinzel, G., Rüdiger, A. and Schilling R. (2002) Spectrum and spectral density estimation by the Discrete
Fourier transform (DFT), including a comprehensive list of window functions and some new flat-top
windows.

[10] Epikhin, A., Evdokimov, I., Kraposhin, M., Kalugin, M., Strijhak, S. (2015) Development of a Dynamic
Library for Computational Aeroacoustics Applications Using the OpenFOAM Open Source Package,
Procedia Computer Science, DOI: 10.1016/j.procs.2015.11.018

[11] Moslem, F., Masdari, M., Fedir, K., Moslem, B., 2022/08/02, SP - 095441002210913, Experimental
investigation into the aerodynamic and aeroacoustic performance of bioinspired small-scale propeller
planforms, DO - 10.1177/09544100221091322, JO - Proceedings of the Institution of Mechanical
Engineers, Part G: Journal of Aerospace Engineering

[12] TCAE Training - https://www.cfdsupport.com/download-documentation.html

[13] TCAE Manual - https://www.cfdsupport.com/download-documentation.html

[14] TCAE Webinars - https://www.youtube.com/playlist?list=PLbxC_ERCZDHbytN1WvSRi57eksKTNtTis

22/22