LEARNING GUIDE

Week No.: __9__

TOPIC/S

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF DIFFERENTIAL EQUATIONS

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

Learning Module, you will be able to:

1. Solve laplace transform of differential equations with initial value

problem.

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Recall:

𝒅𝒙
𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝒅𝒕

𝒙′ 𝐷𝑒𝑟𝑖𝑣𝑎𝑡𝑖𝑣𝑒 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚

𝑫𝒙 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚

 DIFFERENTIATION PROPERTY

𝑑𝑥
ℒ(𝑥′) = ℒ ( ) = ℒ(𝐷𝑥 ) = 𝑠 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑥(0)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑2𝑥
ℒ(𝑥′′) = ℒ ( 2 ) = ℒ(𝐷 2 𝑥 ) = 𝑠 2 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 𝑠 𝑥 (0) − 𝑥 ′ (0)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑3𝑥
ℒ(𝑥′′′) = ℒ ( 3 ) = ℒ(𝐷 3 𝑥 ) = 𝑠 3 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑠 2 𝑥 (0) − 𝑠 𝑥 ′ (0) − 𝑥′′(0)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑4𝑥
ℒ(𝑥′′′′) = ℒ ( 4 ) = ℒ(𝐷 4 𝑥 ) = 𝑠 4 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 𝑠 3 𝑥(0) − 𝑠 2 𝑥 ′ (0) − 𝑠 𝑥 ′′ (0) − 𝑥 ′′ ′(0)
𝑑𝑡
Find the laplace transform of differential equations given below:

𝑑𝑥
𝐄𝐗𝐀𝐌𝐏𝐋𝐄 𝟏 =𝑡 ; 𝑥(0) = 2 (𝐼𝑉𝑃 − 𝐼𝑛𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑉𝑎𝑙𝑢𝑒 𝑃𝑟𝑜𝑏𝑙𝑒𝑚)
𝑑𝑡

In solving laplace transform of differential equations, it is better if you have to decide

first of what form will you use all throughout the process.

So in this process, we will be using the Differential Operator Form for consistency of
process in solving of the solution of differential equation. You are free to use the other
forms.

𝑑𝑥
=𝑡 ; 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑑𝑡

𝐷𝑥 = 𝑡 ; 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

ℒ (𝐷𝑥 ) = ℒ(𝑡)

Then identify the order of the differential equation given and choose the appropriate
differentiation property based on the order that have been identified.

We know that the differential equation given, 𝑫𝒙 = 𝑡, is in first order. Thus, we will
use this formula: ℒ(𝐷𝑥 ) = 𝒔 𝓛(𝒙) − 𝒙(𝟎).

ℒ (𝐷𝑥 ) = ℒ(𝑡)

𝑠 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑥 (0) = ℒ(𝑡) ; 𝑥 (0) = 2

𝑠 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 2 = ℒ (𝑡 ) ; 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑡𝑟𝑎𝑛𝑠𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚

1
𝑠 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 2 = ; 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦
𝑠2
1
𝑠 ℒ (𝑥 ) = +2 ; 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦
𝑠2

1 + 2𝑠 2
𝑠 ℒ (𝑥 ) = ; 𝑑𝑖𝑣𝑖𝑑𝑒 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑏𝑦 𝑠
𝑠2

1 + 2𝑠 2 1 + 2𝑠 2 1 2𝑠 2 1 2
ℒ (𝑥 ) = 2
= 3
= 3
+ 3 = 3+
𝑠(𝑠 ) 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

1 2 1 2
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( 3
+ ) = ℒ −1 ( 3 ) + ℒ −1 ( )
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠

𝒕𝟐
𝒙 = +𝟐 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
𝟐
 𝑑3𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
𝐄𝐗𝐀𝐌𝐏𝐋𝐄 𝟐 − =0 ; 𝑥(0) = 𝑥′(0) = 𝑥"(0) = 3 (𝐼𝑉𝑃)
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 2

Again, we will be using the Differential Operator Form for consistency of process in
solving of the solution of differential equation.

𝑑3𝑥 𝑑2𝑥
− =0 ; 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑑𝑡 3 𝑑𝑡 2

𝐷3𝑥 − 𝐷2𝑥 = 0 ; 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

ℒ (𝐷 3 𝑥 ) − ℒ (𝐷 2𝑥 ) = ℒ(0)

Then identify the order of the differential equation given and choose the appropriate
differentiation property based on the order that have been identified.

We know that the differential equation given, 𝐷 3𝑥 − 𝐷 2 𝑥 = 0, is in third and second

order respectively. Thus, we will use this formulas:

ℒ(𝐷 2 𝑥 ) = 𝑠 2 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 𝑠 𝑥 (0) − 𝑥 ′ (0)

ℒ(𝐷 3 𝑥 ) = 𝑠 3 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 𝑠 2 𝑥(0) − 𝑠 𝑥 ′ (0) − 𝑥′′(0)

Therefore:
ℒ(𝐷 3 𝑥 ) − ℒ(𝐷 2 𝑥 ) = ℒ(0)

𝑠 3 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑠 2 𝑥 (0) − 𝑠 𝑥 ′ (0) − 𝑥 ′′ (0) − [𝑠 2 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 𝑠 𝑥 (0) − 𝑥 ′ (0)] = ℒ(0)

𝑠 3 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑠 2 𝑥 (0) − 𝑠 𝑥 ′ (0) − 𝑥 ′′ (0) − 𝑠 2 ℒ (𝑥 ) + 𝑠 𝑥 (0) + 𝑥 ′ (0) = ℒ(0)

Substitute the IVP and get the ℒ (0),

𝑠 3 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 3𝑠 2 − 3𝑠 − 3 − 𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑥 ) + 3𝑠 + 3 = 0

𝑠 3 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 3𝑠 2 − 3𝑠 + 3𝑠 − 3 + 3 = 0

(𝑠 3 − 𝑠 2 ) ℒ(𝑥 ) − 3𝑠 2 = 0

(𝑠 3 − 𝑠 2 ) ℒ(𝑥 ) = 3𝑠 2

3𝑠 2 3𝑠 2 3
ℒ (𝑥 ) = = =
(𝑠 3 − 𝑠 2 ) 𝑠 2 (𝑠 − 1) 𝑠−1

3 1
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( ) = 3 ℒ −1 ( )
𝑠−1 𝑠−1

𝒙 = 𝟑 𝒆𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓
 𝑑𝑥
𝐄𝐗𝐀𝐌𝐏𝐋𝐄 𝟑 − 𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑡 ; 𝑥 (0) = 0 (𝐼𝑉𝑃)
𝑑𝑡

𝑑𝑥
− 𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑡 ; 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑑𝑡

𝐷𝑥 − 𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑡 ; 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

ℒ (𝐷𝑥 ) − ℒ (𝑥 ) = 2ℒ (sin 𝑡)

We know that the differential equation given, 𝐷𝑥 − 𝑥 = 2 sin 𝑡, is in first order. Thus,
we will use this formula: ℒ(𝐷𝑥 ) = 𝑠 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑥(0).

Therefore:
ℒ(𝐷𝑥 ) − ℒ(𝑥 ) = 2 ℒ (sin 𝑡)

𝑠 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑥(0) − ℒ(𝑥 ) = 2 ℒ (sin 𝑡 )

Substitute the IVP and get the ℒ (sin 𝑡),

1
𝑠 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 0 − ℒ (𝑥 ) = 2 (𝑠 2 +1)

2
(𝑠 − 1) ℒ (𝑥 ) =
𝑠2 +1

2
ℒ (𝑥 ) =
(𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 2 + 1)

2
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( )
(𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 2 + 1)

Recall partial fraction decomposition,

2 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
2
= + 2 ; 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 2 + 1)
(𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 − 1 𝑠 + 1

2 = 𝐴(𝑠 2 + 1) + (𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶)(𝑠 − 1)

2 = 𝐴𝑠 2 + 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 2 − 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠 − 𝐶

2 = 𝐴𝑠 2 + 𝐵𝑠 2 − 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠 + 𝐴 − 𝐶

𝑠2 0= 𝐴+𝐵 ; 𝐴 = −𝐵 𝑒𝑞1
𝑠 0 = −𝐵 + 𝐶 ; 𝐵=𝐶 𝑒𝑞2
𝑘 2=𝐴−𝐶 𝑒𝑞3
 Combine eq1, eq2 and eq3

2= 𝐴−𝐶
2 = −𝐵 − 𝐵
2 = −2𝐵
𝑩 = −𝟏

𝐴 = −𝐵
𝐴 = −(−1)
𝑨=𝟏

𝐵=𝐶
−𝟏 = 𝑪

Substitute the values of A, B & C.

2 𝐴 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( 2
) = ℒ −1 ( + 2 )
(𝑠 − 1) (𝑠 + 1) 𝑠−1 𝑠 +1

1 (−1)𝑠 + (−1)
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( + )
𝑠−1 𝑠2 + 1

1 𝑠−1
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( − 2 )
𝑠−1 𝑠 +1

1 𝑠 1
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( − 2 − 2 )
𝑠−1 𝑠 +1 𝑠 +1

𝒙 = 𝒆𝒕 − 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝒕 − 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝑑2𝑥
𝐄𝐗𝐀𝐌𝐏𝐋𝐄 𝟒 −𝑥=0 ; 𝑥 (0) = 3 ; 𝑥′(0) = 1 (𝐼𝑉𝑃)
𝑑𝑡 2

𝑑2𝑥
−𝑥=0 ; 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑚
𝑑𝑡 2

𝐷2𝑥 − 𝑥 = 0 ; 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

ℒ (𝐷 2 𝑥 ) − ℒ (𝑥 ) = ℒ (0)

We know that the differential equation given, 𝐷 2𝑥 − 𝑥 = 0, is in second order. Thus,

we will use this formula: ℒ(𝐷 2 𝑥 ) = 𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑠 𝑥(0) − 𝑥 ′ (0)

Therefore:

ℒ (𝐷 2 𝑥 ) − ℒ (𝑥 ) = ℒ (0)

𝑠 2 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 𝑠 𝑥 (0) − 𝑥 ′ (0) − ℒ(𝑥 ) = ℒ(0)

Substitute the IVP and get the ℒ (0),

𝑠 2 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 3𝑠 − 1 − ℒ(𝑥 ) = 0

𝑠 2 ℒ (𝑥 ) − ℒ(𝑥 ) = 3𝑠 + 1

(𝑠 2 − 1) ℒ(𝑥 ) = 3𝑠 + 1

3𝑠 + 1
ℒ (𝑥 ) =
𝑠2 − 1
3𝑠 + 1
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( )
𝑠2 − 1

Recall partial fraction decomposition,

3𝑠 + 1 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵
= ; 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝑠 2 − 1)
𝑠2 − 1 𝑠2 − 1

3𝑠 + 1 = 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵

𝑠 𝟑=𝑨
𝑘 𝟏=𝑩

Substitute the values of A & B.

3𝑠 + 1 𝐴𝑠 + 𝐵
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( 2
) = ℒ −1 ( 2 )
𝑠 −1 𝑠 −1

3𝑠 + 1
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( )
𝑠2 − 1

3𝑠 1
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( + )
𝑠2 − 1 𝑠2 − 1

𝑠 1
𝑥 = 3 ℒ −1 ( ) + ℒ −1 ( 2 )
𝑠2 −1 𝑠 −1

𝒙 = 𝟑 𝐜𝐨𝐬𝐡 𝒕 + 𝐬𝐢𝐧𝐡 𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

Note: Whenever you encounter a “cosh” and “sinh” in your answer or any other
hyperbolic functions, there will always be an equivalent answer in terms of exponential
function.

Recall:
𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
sinh 𝑥 = cosh 𝑥 = tanh 𝑥 = 𝑥
2 2 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥
2 2 𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥
csch 𝑥 = 𝑥 sech 𝑥 = 𝑥 coth 𝑥 = 𝑥
𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 − 𝑒 −𝑥
Therefore, to prove that, here’s an example of equivalent exponential function.

𝑥 = 3 cosh 𝑡 + sinh 𝑡

𝑒 𝑥 + 𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑥 = 3( )+
2 2

3𝑒 𝑥 + 3𝑒 −𝑥 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑥= +
2 2

3𝑒 𝑥 + 3𝑒 −𝑥 + 𝑒 𝑥 − 𝑒 −𝑥
𝑥=
2

4𝑒 𝑥 + 2𝑒 −𝑥 4𝑒 𝑥 2𝑒 −𝑥
𝑥= = +
2 2 2

𝒙 = 𝟐𝒆𝒙 + 𝒆−𝒙 𝒕𝒉𝒊𝒔 𝒊𝒔 𝒕𝒉𝒆 𝒆𝒒𝒖𝒊𝒗𝒂𝒍𝒆𝒏𝒕 𝒆𝒙𝒑𝒐𝒏𝒆𝒏𝒕𝒊𝒂𝒍 𝒇𝒖𝒏𝒄𝒕𝒊𝒐𝒏

Let’s solve again the differential equation given in EXAMPLE 4, to prove again that
the statement is valid.

3𝑠 + 1
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( )
𝑠2 − 1

Notice that the denominator can be factored out.

3𝑠 + 1
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( )
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 − 1)

Recall partial fraction decomposition,

3𝑠 + 1 𝐴 𝐵
= + ; 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 − 1)
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 − 1) 𝑠 + 1 𝑠 − 1

3𝑠 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 1) + 𝐵(𝑠 + 1)

3𝑠 + 1 = 𝐴𝑠 − 𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 + 𝐵

𝑠 3= 𝐴+𝐵 𝑒𝑞1
𝑘 1 = −𝐴 + 𝐵 𝑒𝑞2

Combine eq1 and eq2. We will use elimination by addition method.

3= 𝐴+𝐵
1 = −𝐴 + 𝐵
4 = 2𝐵
𝑩=𝟐
Substitute the value of B to either eq1 or eq2.

3= 𝐴+𝐵
3= 𝐴+2
𝑨=𝟏

Therefore,
3𝑠 + 1 𝐴 𝐵
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( ) = ℒ −1 ( + )
(𝑠 + 1)(𝑠 − 1) 𝑠+1 𝑠−1

1 2
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( + )
𝑠+1 𝑠−1

𝒙 = 𝒆−𝒙 + 𝟐𝒆𝒙 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝐄𝐗𝐀𝐌𝐏𝐋𝐄 𝟓 𝐷 2 𝑥 − 2𝐷𝑥 = 4 ; 𝑥 (0) = −1 ; 𝑥′(0) = 2 (𝐼𝑉𝑃)

𝐷 2 𝑥 − 2𝐷𝑥 = 4 ; 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

ℒ (𝐷 2 𝑥 ) − 2ℒ (𝐷𝑥 ) = ℒ(4)

We know that the differential equation given, 𝐷 2 𝑥 − 2𝐷𝑥 = 4, is in second and first
order respectively. Thus, we will use this formulas: ℒ (𝐷 2𝑥 ) = 𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑠 𝑥 (0) −
𝑥 ′ (0) and ℒ(𝐷𝑥 ) = 𝑠 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 𝑥(0).
Therefore:

ℒ (𝐷 2 𝑥 ) − 2ℒ (𝐷𝑥 ) = ℒ(4)

𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑠 𝑥 (0) − 𝑥 ′ (0) − 2[𝑠 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 𝑥 (0)] = ℒ(4)

𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑠 𝑥 (0) − 𝑥 ′ (0) − 2𝑠 ℒ (𝑥 ) + 2 𝑥 (0) = ℒ(4)

Substitute the IVP and get the ℒ (4),

𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑥 ) − 𝑠 𝑥 (0) − 𝑥 ′ (0) − 2𝑠 ℒ (𝑥 ) + 2 𝑥 (0) = ℒ(4)

4
𝑠 2 ℒ (𝑥 ) + 𝑠 − 2 − 2𝑠 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 2 = ; 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦
𝑠
4
𝑠 2 ℒ (𝑥 ) − 2𝑠 ℒ(𝑥 ) = +4−𝑠
𝑠

4 + 4𝑠 − 𝑠 2
(𝑠 2 − 2𝑠) ℒ(𝑥 ) =
𝑠

4 + 4𝑠 − 𝑠 2
ℒ (𝑥 ) =
𝑠 (𝑠 2 − 2𝑠)
 4 + 4𝑠 − 𝑠 2
ℒ (𝑥 ) =
𝑠 2 (𝑠 − 2)

4 + 4𝑠 − 𝑠 2
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( 2 )
𝑠 (𝑠 − 2)

Recall partial fraction decomposition,

4 + 4𝑠 − 𝑠 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
2
= 2+ + ; 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑠 2 (𝑠 − 2)
𝑠 (𝑠 − 2) 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠−2

4 + 4𝑠 − 𝑠 2 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 2) + 𝐵[𝑠(𝑠 − 2)] + 𝐶𝑠 2

4 + 4𝑠 − 𝑠 2 = 𝐴𝑠 − 2𝐴 + 𝐵(𝑠 2 − 2𝑠) + 𝐶𝑠 2

4 + 4𝑠 − 𝑠 2 = 𝐴𝑠 − 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 2 − 2𝐵𝑠 + 𝐶𝑠 2

𝑠2 −1= 𝐵+𝐶 𝑒𝑞1

𝑠 4 = 𝐴 − 2𝐵 𝑒𝑞2
𝑘 4 = −2𝐴 𝑒𝑞3

Simplify eq3

4 = −2𝐴
𝑨 = −𝟐
Substitute the value of A to eq2.

4 = 𝐴 − 2𝐵
4 = −2 − 2𝐵
4 + 2 = −2𝐵
6 = −2𝐵
𝑩 = −𝟑

Substitute the value of B to eq3.

−1 = 𝐵 + 𝐶
−1 = −3 + 𝐶
−1 + 3 = 𝐶
𝑪=𝟐

Substitute the values of A, B & C.

−1
4 + 4𝑠 + 𝑠 2 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
𝑥=ℒ ( 2 ) = ℒ −1 ( 2 + + )
𝑠 (𝑠 − 2) 𝑠 𝑠 𝑠−2

−2 (−3) 2
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( 2
+ + )
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠−2
 −2 (−3) 2
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( 2
+ + )
𝑠 𝑠 𝑠−2

𝒙 = −𝟐𝒕 − 𝟑 + 𝟐𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝐄𝐗𝐀𝐌𝐏𝐋𝐄 𝟔 𝐷 2 𝑦 − 5𝐷𝑦 + 6𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑦(0) = 𝑦′(0) = 2 (𝐼𝑉𝑃)

𝐷 2 𝑦 − 5𝐷𝑦 + 6𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

ℒ (𝐷 2 𝑦) − 5 ℒ(𝐷𝑦) + 6 ℒ(𝑦) = ℒ(0)

We know that the differential equation given, 𝐷 2 𝑦 − 5𝐷𝑦 + 6𝑦 = 0 , is in second

and first order respectively. Thus, we will use this formulas: ℒ(𝐷 2 𝑦) = 𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑦) −
𝑠 𝑦(0) − 𝑦 ′(0) and ℒ(𝐷𝑦) = 𝑠 ℒ(𝑦) − 𝑦(0).

Therefore:

ℒ (𝐷 2 𝑦) − 5 ℒ(𝐷𝑦) + 6 ℒ(𝑦) = ℒ(0)

𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑦) − 𝑠 𝑦(0) − 𝑦 ′(0) − 5[𝑠 ℒ (𝑦) − 𝑦(0)] + 6 ℒ (𝑦) = ℒ(0)

𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑦) − 𝑠 𝑦(0) − 𝑦 ′(0) − 5𝑠 ℒ (𝑦) + 5 𝑦(0) + 6 ℒ(𝑦) = ℒ (0)

Substitute the IVP and get the ℒ (0),

𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑦) − 2𝑠 − 2 − 5𝑠 ℒ(𝑦) + 5 (2) + 6 ℒ (𝑦) = 0 ; 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦

𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑦) − 2𝑠 − 2 − 5𝑠 ℒ(𝑦) + 10 + 6 ℒ (𝑦) = 0 ; 𝑔𝑟𝑜𝑢𝑝 𝑙𝑖𝑘𝑒 𝑡𝑒𝑟𝑚𝑠

(𝑠 2 − 5𝑠 + 6)ℒ(𝑦) = 2𝑠 + 2 − 10

(𝑠 2 − 5𝑠 + 6)ℒ(𝑦) = 2𝑠 − 8

2𝑠 − 8
ℒ (𝑦 ) =
(𝑠 2 − 5𝑠 + 6)

2𝑠 − 8
ℒ (𝑦 ) =
(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 − 2)

2𝑠 − 8
𝑦 = ℒ −1 ( )
(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 − 2)

Recall partial fraction decomposition,

2𝑠 − 8 𝐴 𝐵
= + ; 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 (𝑠 − 3) (𝑠 − 2)
(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 − 2) 𝑠 − 3 𝑠 − 2
 2𝑠 − 8 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 2) + 𝐵(𝑠 − 3)

2𝑠 − 8 = 𝐴𝑠 − 2𝐴 + 𝐵𝑠 − 3𝐵

𝑠 2=𝐴+𝐵 𝑒𝑞1
𝑘 − 8 = −2𝐴 − 3𝐵 𝑒𝑞2

Then use elimination by addition or substitution method to get the value for A and B.
For this one, we will be using the substitution method.

Let’s equate the eq1 to B

2=𝐴+𝐵 → 𝐵 =2−𝐴 𝑒𝑞3

Then substitute eq3 to eq2

−8 = −2𝐴 − 3𝐵
−8 = −2𝐴 − 3(2 − 𝐴)
−8 = −2𝐴 − 6 + 3𝐴
−8 + 6 = 𝐴
𝑨 = −𝟐

Substitute the value of A to eq3.

𝐵 = 2−𝐴
𝐵 = 2 − (−2)
𝑩=𝟒
Substitute the values of A & B.

2𝑠 − 8 𝐴 𝐵
𝑦 = ℒ −1 ( ) = ℒ −1 ( + )
(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 − 2) 𝑠−3 𝑠−2

−2 4
𝑦 = ℒ −1 ( + )
𝑠−3 𝑠−2

𝒚 = −𝟐𝒆𝟑𝒕 + 𝟒𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

𝐄𝐗𝐀𝐌𝐏𝐋𝐄 𝟕 𝑦" − 2𝑦′ − 3𝑦 = 1 ; 𝑦(0) = 2 ; 𝑦′(0) = −2 (𝐼𝑉𝑃)

𝑦" − 2𝑦′ − 3𝑦 = 1 ; 𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣𝑒𝑟𝑡 𝑡𝑜 𝐷𝑖𝑓𝑓𝑒𝑟𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑖𝑎𝑙 𝑂𝑝𝑒𝑟𝑎𝑡𝑜𝑟 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑚

𝐷 2 𝑦 − 2𝐷𝑦 − 3𝑦 = 1 ; 𝑔𝑒𝑡 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑙𝑎𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒 𝑜𝑓 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠

ℒ (𝐷 2 𝑦) − 2 ℒ(𝐷𝑦) − 3 ℒ(𝑦) = ℒ(1)

We know that the differential equation given, 𝐷 2 𝑦 − 2𝐷𝑦 − 3𝑦 = 1, is in second and

first order respectively. Thus, we will use this formulas: ℒ(𝐷 2 𝑦) = 𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑦) −
𝑠 𝑦(0) − 𝑦 ′(0) and ℒ(𝐷𝑦) = 𝑠 ℒ(𝑦) − 𝑦(0).
Therefore:

ℒ (𝐷 2 𝑦) − 2 ℒ(𝐷𝑦) − 3 ℒ(𝑦) = ℒ(1)

𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑦) − 𝑠 𝑦(0) − 𝑦 ′(0) − 2[𝑠 ℒ (𝑦) − 𝑦(0)] − 3 ℒ (𝑦) = ℒ(1)

𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑦) − 𝑠 𝑦(0) − 𝑦 ′(0) − 2𝑠 ℒ (𝑦) + 2 𝑦(0) − 3 ℒ(𝑦) = ℒ (1)

Substitute the IVP and get the ℒ (1),

𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑦) − 𝑠 𝑦(0) − 𝑦 ′(0) − 2𝑠 ℒ (𝑦) + 2 𝑦(0) − 3 ℒ(𝑦) = ℒ (1) ; 𝑠𝑖𝑚𝑝𝑙𝑖𝑓𝑦

1
𝑠 2 ℒ(𝑦) − 2𝑠 + 2 − 2𝑠 ℒ(𝑦) + 4 − 3 ℒ (𝑦) = 𝑠

1
(𝑠 2 − 2𝑠 − 3)ℒ(𝑦) − 2𝑠 + 6 =
𝑠

1
(𝑠 2 − 2𝑠 − 3)ℒ (𝑥 ) = + 2𝑠 − 6
𝑠

2𝑠 2 − 6𝑠 + 1
(𝑠 2 − 2𝑠 − 3)ℒ (𝑥 ) =
𝑠

2𝑠 2 − 6𝑠 + 1
ℒ (𝑥 ) =
𝑠(𝑠 2 − 2𝑠 − 3)

2𝑠 2 − 6𝑠 + 1
ℒ (𝑥 ) =
𝑠(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 + 1)

2𝑠 2 − 6𝑠 + 1
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( )
𝑠(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 + 1)

Recall partial fraction decomposition,

2𝑠2 − 6𝑠 + 1 𝐴 𝐵 𝐶
= + + ; 𝑚𝑢𝑙𝑡𝑖𝑝𝑙𝑦 𝑏𝑜𝑡ℎ 𝑠𝑖𝑑𝑒𝑠 𝑠(𝑠 − 3) (𝑠 + 1)
𝑠(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 + 1) 𝑠 𝑠 − 3 𝑠 + 1

2𝑠2 − 6𝑠 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐵𝑠(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐶𝑠(𝑠 − 3)

2𝑠2 − 6𝑠 + 1 = 𝐴(𝑠2 − 2𝑠 − 3) + 𝐵𝑠(𝑠 + 1) + 𝐶𝑠(𝑠 − 3)

𝑠 2=𝐴+𝐵 𝑒𝑞1
𝑘 − 8 = −2𝐴 − 3𝐵 𝑒𝑞2

Then use elimination by addition or substitution method to get the value for A and B.
For this one, we will be using the substitution method.

Let’s equate the eq1 to B

 2=𝐴+𝐵 → 𝐵 =2−𝐴 𝑒𝑞3

Then substitute eq3 to eq2

−8 = −2𝐴 − 3𝐵
−8 = −2𝐴 − 3(2 − 𝐴)
−8 = −2𝐴 − 6 + 3𝐴
−8 + 6 = 𝐴
𝑨 = −𝟐

Substitute the value of A to eq3.

𝐵 = 2−𝐴
𝐵 = 2 − (−2)
𝑩=𝟒
Substitute the values of A & B.

2𝑠 − 8 𝐴 𝐵
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( ) = ℒ −1 ( + )
(𝑠 − 3)(𝑠 − 2) 𝑠−3 𝑠−2

−2 4
𝑥 = ℒ −1 ( + )
𝑠−3 𝑠−2

𝒙 = −𝟐𝒆𝟑𝒕 + 𝟒𝒆𝟐𝒕 𝑨𝒏𝒔𝒘𝒆𝒓

PROGRESS CHECK

Solve the laplace transform of the following differential equations:

1. 𝑦 ′ − 𝑦 = 𝑒 3𝑡 ; 𝑦(0) = 1
2. 𝑦" − 3𝑦′ + 2𝑦 = 0 ; 𝑦(0) = 𝑦′(0) = 1
3. 𝑦" + 4𝑦 = sin 𝑡 ; 𝑦(0) = 1 ; 𝑦′(0) = 0
4. 𝑦" − 2𝑦′ + 2𝑦 = 2𝑒 𝑡 ; 𝑦(0) = 0 ; 𝑦′(0) = 1
5. 𝑥" − 2𝑥′ + 𝑥 = 𝑒 𝑡 ; 𝑥(0) = 1 ; 𝑥′(0) = 0
𝑑2 𝑥
6. −𝑥 = 0 ; 𝑥 (0) = 𝑥 ′ (0) = 0
𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑4 𝑥 𝑑2 𝑥
7. + + 𝑥 = 𝑒 2𝑡 ; 𝑥(0) = 𝑥 ′ (0) = 𝑥 ′′ (0) = 𝑥 ′′′ (0) = 0
𝑑𝑡 4 𝑑𝑡 2
𝑑2 𝑧 𝑑𝑧
8. 2 +3 − 2𝑧 = 𝑡𝑒 −2𝑡 ; 𝑧(0) = 0 ; 𝑧 ′(0) = −2
𝑑𝑡 2 𝑑𝑡

9. 𝑧 ′′ + 6𝑧 ′ + 9𝑧 = 𝑒 −4𝑡 ; 𝑧(0) = 𝑧 ′ (0) = 2

REFERENCES

Dawkins, Paul "Solving IVP’s with Laplace Transforms” From Paul’s Online
Notes. https://tutorial.math.lamar.edu/classes/de/IVPWithLaplace.aspx
 LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __10__

TOPIC/S

UNIT STEP FUNCTIONS

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

Learning Module, you will be able to:

1. Analyze and identify what is step function/Heaviside function.
2. Graph different step functions.

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

 THE UNIT STEP FUNCTION (HEAVISIDE FUNCTION)

In engineering applications, we frequently encounter functions whose values change

abruptly at specified values of time t. One common example is when a voltage is
switched on or off in an electrical circuit at a specified value of time t.

The value of t = 0 is usually taken as a convenient time to switch on or off the given
voltage.

The switching process can be described mathematically by the function called the Unit
Step Function (otherwise known as the Heaviside function after Oliver Heaviside).

The Unit Step Function

𝟎, 𝒕 < 𝟎
Definition: The unit step function, u(t), is defined as 𝒖(𝒕) = {
𝟏, 𝒕 > 𝟎

That is, u is a function of time t, and u has value zero when time is negative (before
we flip the switch); and value one when time is positive (from when we flip the
switch).
Value at t = 0? In some text books you will see the unit step function defined as
having value 1 at t = 0, as follows:
0, 𝑡<0
𝑢 (𝑡 ) = {
1, 𝑡≥0

We would indicate the discontinuity on our graph like this:

Also, sometimes you'll see the value given as f (0) = 0.5.

In this work, it doesn't make a great deal of difference to our calculations, so we'll
continue to use the first interpretation, and draw our graphs accordingly.

Shifted Unit Step Function

In many circuits, waveforms are applied at specified intervals other than t = 0. Such a
function may be described using shifted (aka delayed) unit step function.

Definition: A function which has value 0 up to the time t = a and thereafter has value
𝟎, 𝒕 < 𝒂
1, is written: 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂) = {
𝟏, 𝒕 > 𝒂

EXAMPLE 1 𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡 − 3)

The equation means f (t) has value t < 3 and t > 3. The sketch of the waveform is as
follows:
Rectangular Pulse

A common situation in a circuit is for a voltage to be applied at a particular time (say t

= a) and removed later, at t = b (say). We write such a situation using unit step
functions as: 𝑽(𝒕) = 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒂) − 𝒖(𝒕 − 𝒃)

This voltage has strength 1, duration (b−a).

EXAMPLE 2 Rectangular Pulse

The graph of 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑢(𝑡 − 1.2) − 𝑢(𝑡 − 3.8) is as follows. Here, the duration
is 3.8 − 1.2 = 2.6.

For examples 3 to 8, write the functions in terms of unit step function(s). Sketch
each waveform.

EXAMPLE 3 A 12-V source is switched on at t = 4 s.

Since the voltage is turned on at t = 4, we need to use u (t − 4). We multiply by 12 since

that is the voltage.

We write the function as follows: 𝑉 (𝑡) = 12 𝑢(𝑡 − 4)

Here’s the graph:

 1, 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑎
EXAMPLE 4 𝑉(𝑡) = { 𝐴𝑠𝑠𝑢𝑚𝑒 𝑎 > 0
0, 𝑡 > 𝑎

In words, the voltage has value 1 up until time t = a. Then it is turned off.

We have a "rectangular pulse" situation and need to use this formula: V(t) = u (t − a) –
u (t − b)

In our example, the pulse starts at t = 0, so we use u (t), and finishes at t = a, so we use u
(t − a).

So the required function is: V(t) = 1 [u(t) − u(t − a)] = u(t) − u(t − a)

EXAMPLE 5 One cycle of a square wave, f (0) = 4, amplitude = 4, period =

2 seconds.

f (0) = 4 means we start at value 4.

If the whole wave has period 2, and it is a square wave, then it means for half of the
time, the value is (positive) 4 and the other half it is −4.

So for the first second, it has value 4, for the second second, the function value is −4.

We write this, using the "rectangular pulse" formula from before:

f (t) = 4⋅{u(t) − u(t − 1)} − 4⋅{u(t − 1) − u(t − 2)}

= 4⋅u(t) − 8⋅u(t − 1) + 4⋅u(t − 2)

The graph of this first cycle is:

EXAMPLE 6 The unit ramp function, 𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑡, 𝑓𝑜𝑟 𝑡 > 0

The unit ramp function has slope 1 [so the function is simply 𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑡], starting from
𝑡 = 0 [so we need to multiply by u (t)], and passes through (0,0).

So the voltage function is given by:

𝑉(𝑡) = 𝑡 𝑢(𝑡)

The graph of the function is:

𝑎
EXAMPLE 7 One cycle of a sawtooth waveform, 𝑓 (𝑡) = 𝑏 𝑡 for 0 < 𝑡 < 𝑏. Assume
𝑎 > 0.
𝑎
Our graph starts at t = 0 and has slope 𝑏 . It finishes at t = b.
So our function will be:

𝑎
𝑓 (𝑡 ) = 𝑡 {𝑢(𝑡) − 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑏)
𝑏

The graph of our function:

0, 𝑡<3
EXAMPLE 8 𝑉(𝑡) = {2𝑡 + 8, 3<𝑡<5
0, 𝑡>5

In this example, our function is 𝑉(𝑡) = 2𝑡 + 8 which has slope 2 and V-intercept 8.

The signal is only turned on between 𝑡 = 3 and 𝑡 = 5. The rest of the time it is off.

So our voltage function will be:

𝑉 (𝑡) = (2𝑡 + 8) ∗ {𝑢(𝑡 − 3) − 𝑢(𝑡 − 5)}

The graph is as follows:

 Oliver Heaviside (1850 - 1925, England)

Oliver Heaviside was an important pioneer in the study of electronics.

Some highlights of Heaviside's contributions:

 Heaviside caught scarlet fever when he was a young child and this affected his
hearing.

 At age 16 he left school. He taught himself Morse code and electricity. He was
helped by his uncle Charles Wheatstone (after whom the Wheatstone bridge* was
named).

 Heaviside introduced operational calculus to enable him to solve the ordinary DEs
which came out of the theory of electrical circuits. He replaced the differential
𝑑
operator 𝑑𝑥 by a variable p, which transformed differential equations into easier
algebraic equations. The solution of the algebraic equation could be transformed
back using conversion tables to give the solution of the original differential equation.

 Had the idea for an induction coil to increase induction, but it was patented in 1904
in the United States by AT&T.

 His nails were always exquisitely manicured, and painted a glistening cherry
pink...(!)

 He developed the Wheatstone bridge, used for determining an unknown resistance:

PRODUCTS INVOLVING UNIT STEP FUNCTIONS

When combined with other functions defined for 𝑡 > 0, the unit step function “turns
off” a portion of their graph.

The concept is related to having a switch in an electronic circuit open for a period of
time (so there is no current flow), then the switch is closed (so the current begins to
flow).

EXAMPLE 1 If 𝑓 (𝑡) = sin 𝑡, then the graph of 𝑔(𝑡) = sin 𝑡 · 𝑢(𝑡 − 2𝜋) is

The sin 𝑡 portion starts at 𝑡 = 2𝜋, because we have multiplied sin 𝑡 by 𝑢(𝑡 − 2𝜋).
We use the dot (⋅) for multiplication so that it is easier to read.

EXAMPLE 2 If 𝑓 (𝑡) = 10 𝑒 −2𝑡 , then the graph of 𝑔(𝑡) = 10 𝑒 −2𝑡 · 𝑢(𝑡 − 5) is

The portion 10 𝑒 −2𝑡 starts at 𝑡 = 5.

Product of 𝒖(𝒕) vs. Shifting the Function Along the t-axis

Note the differences between the following:

𝑓 (𝑡) ∙ 𝑢(𝑡) , where the 𝑓 (𝑡) part begins at 𝑡 = 0.

𝑓 (𝑡) ∙ 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) , where the 𝑓 (𝑡) part begins at 𝑡 = 𝑎.

𝑓 (𝑡 − 𝑎) ∙ 𝑢(𝑡) , where the 𝑓 (𝑡) part has been shifted to the right by a units and
begins at 𝑡 = 0.

𝑓 (𝑡 − 𝑎) ∙ 𝑢(𝑡 − 𝑎) , where the 𝑓 (𝑡) part has been shifted to the right by a units and
begins at 𝑡 = 𝑎.

EXAMPLE 1 Let 𝑓 (𝑡) = 4𝑡 + 2 and 𝑎 = 1. We see different combinations of shifting

with different starting points.

a.) 𝑔1 (𝑡) = 𝑓(𝑡) · 𝑢(𝑡) = (4𝑡 + 2) · 𝑢(𝑡) is

In this example, the 4𝑡 + 2 part starts at 𝑡 = 0.

EXAMPLE 2
PROGRESS CHECK

Rewrite the following functions in a suitable way and then sketch the functions:

REFERENCES

Bourne, Murray "The Unit Step Functions" From Interactive Mathematics.

https://www.intmath.com/laplace-transformation/1a-unit-step-functions-
definition.php
 LEARNING GUIDE
Week No.: __11__

TOPIC/S

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF UNIT STEP FUNCTIONS

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF PERIODIC FUNCTIONS

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

Learning Module, you will be able to:

1. Solve problems involving laplace of unit step functions and periodic

functions.

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

LAPLACE TRANSFORM OF UNIT STEP FUNCTIONS

Recall 𝑢(𝑡) is the unit-step function.

EXAMPLES

Sketch the following functions and obtain their Laplace transforms:

We write the function using the rectangular pulse formula.

We also use the linearity property since there are 2 items in our function.
The function can be described using Unit Step Functions, since the signal is turned at t = 0 and
turned off at t = 𝜋, as follows:

From trigonometry, we have:

LAPLACE TRANSFORM PERIODIC FUNCTIONS

EXAMPLES Find the Laplace transforms of the periodic functions below:
PROGRESS CHECK

TBA

REFERENCES

Bourne, Murray "Transform of Unit Step Functions and Periodic Functions" From Interactive
Mathematics. https://www.intmath.com/laplace-transformation/1a-unit-step-
functions-definition.php
 LEARNING GUIDE (Week No. 9)

Week No.: __12___

TOPIC/S
TAYLOR SERIES
MACLAURIN SERIES

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. Solve problems involving taylor series and maclaurin series.

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Taylor and Maclaurin Series

∞
1 (𝑛)
𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑ 𝑎𝑛 (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛 ; 𝑎𝑛 = 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
𝑛=0
𝑛!
∞
(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛 (𝑛)
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑ 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
𝑛!
𝑛=0
(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )1 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 ′′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )𝑛 (𝑛)
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + ⋯ + 𝑓 (𝑧0)
1! 2! 𝑛!

Maclaurin Series ⟶ 𝒛𝟎 = 𝟎
Example #1:
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 −2𝑧 at 𝑧0 = 0
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑒 −2𝑧 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = 𝑒 −2(0) = 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = 1
𝑓 ′(𝑧) = −2𝑒 −2𝑧 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = −2𝑒 −2(0) = 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = −2
𝑓 ′′(𝑧) = 4𝑒 −2𝑧 𝑓 ′′(𝑧0 ) = 4𝑒 −2(0) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧0 ) = 4
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧) = −8𝑒 −2𝑧 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧0 ) = −8𝑒 −2(0) = 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧0 ) = −8
𝑓 (4) (𝑧) = 16𝑒 −2𝑧 𝑓 (4) (𝑧0 ) = 16𝑒 −2(0) = 𝑓 (4) (𝑧0) = 16

(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )1 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 ′′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )3 ′′′
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
1! 2! 3!
(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )4 (4)
+ 𝑓 (𝑧0) + ⋯
4!
(𝑧 − 0)1 (𝑧 − 0)2 (𝑧 − 0)3 (𝑧 − 0)4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 1 + (−2) + (4) + (−8) + (16) + ⋯
1! 2! 3! 4!
𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3 𝑧4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1 + (−2) + (4) + (−8) + (16) + ⋯
1 2 6 24
4 2 8 3 16 4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1 − 2𝑧 + 𝑧 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 +⋯
∞
2 6 24
(−1)𝑛 (2𝑧)𝑛
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑
𝑛!
𝑛=0
Example #2: (easy)
𝑓 (𝑧) = ln(1 + 𝑧) at 𝑧0 = 0
𝑓 (𝑧) = ln(1 + 𝑧) 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = ln(1 + 0) = 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = 0
1 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = (1 + 0)−1 = 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = 1
𝑓 ′ (𝑧 ) = = 𝑓 ′(𝑧) = (1 + 𝑧)−1
1+𝑧
𝑓 ′′(𝑧) = −(1 + 𝑧)−2 𝑓 ′′(𝑧0 ) = (1 + 0)−2 = 𝑓 ′′(𝑧0 ) = −1
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧) = 2(1 + 𝑧)−3 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧0 ) = 2(1 + 0)−3 = 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧0 ) = 2
𝑓 (4) (𝑧) = −6(1 + 𝑧)−4 𝑓 (4) (𝑧0 ) = −6(1 + 0)−4 = 𝑓 (4) (𝑧0 )
= −6

(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )1 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 ′′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )3 ′′′
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
1! 2! 3!
4
(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) (4)
+ 𝑓 (𝑧0) + ⋯
4!
(𝑧 − 0)1 (𝑧 − 0)2 (𝑧 − 0)3 (𝑧 − 0)4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 0 + (1) + (−1) + (2) + (−6) + ⋯
1! 2! 3! 4!
𝑧1 𝑧2 𝑧3 𝑧4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 0 + (1) + (−1) + (2) + (−6) + ⋯
1 2 6 24
1 2 2 3 6 4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 0 + 𝑧 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 − 𝑧 + ⋯
2 6 24
1 2 1 3 1 4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 0 + 𝑧 − 𝑧 + 𝑧 − 𝑧 + ⋯
∞
2 3 4
(−1)𝑛 𝑧 (𝑛+1)
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑
𝑛+1
𝑛=0
Example #3: (average)
1
𝑓 (𝑧) = (3+6𝑧)2 = (3 + 6𝑧)−2 at 𝑧0 = 0
𝑓 (𝑧) = (3 + 6𝑧)−2
𝑓 ′(𝑧) = −2(3 + 6𝑧)−3 (6) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑧) = −12(3 + 6𝑧)−3
𝑓 ′′(𝑧) = (−3)(−12)(3 + 6𝑧)−4 (6) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧) = 216(3 + 6𝑧)−4
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧) = (−4)(216)(3 + 6𝑧)−5 (6) = 𝑓 ′′′(𝑧) = −5184(3 + 6𝑧)−5
𝑓 (4) (𝑧) = (−5)(−5184)(3 + 6𝑧)−6 (6) = 𝑓 (4) (𝑧) = 155,520 (3 + 6𝑧)−6
𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = [3 + 6(0)]−2 = 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = 3−2
𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = −12[3 + 6(0)]−3 = −12(3−3 ) = 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = −2(6)(3−3 )
𝑓 ′′(𝑧0 ) = 216[3 + 6(0)]−4 = 216(3−4 ) = 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = 6(62 )(3−4 )
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧0 ) = −5184[3 + 6(0)]−5 = −5184(3−5 ) = 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧0 ) = −24(63 )(3−5 )
𝑓 (4) (𝑧0 ) = 155,520 [3 + 6(0)]−6 = 155,520(3−6 ) = 𝑓 (4) (𝑧0) = 120(64 )(3−6 )

(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )1 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 ′′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )3 ′′′
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
1! 2! 3!
(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )4 (4)
+ 𝑓 (𝑧0) + ⋯
4!
1 (𝑧 − 0)1 2(6) (𝑧 − 0)2 6(62 ) (𝑧 − 0)3 −24(63 )
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 2 + [− 3 ] + [ 4 ]+ [ ]
3 1! 3 2! 3 3! 35
(𝑧 − 0)4 120(64 )
+ [ ]+⋯
4! 36

1 2(6𝑧) 6(6𝑧)2 24(6𝑧)3 120(6𝑧)4

⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 2 − + − + +⋯
3 1(33 ) 2(34 ) 6(35 ) 24(36 )
1 (6𝑧) 2(6𝑧)2 4(6𝑧)3 5(6𝑧)4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 2 − 3 + 4
− 5
+ 6
+⋯
3 3 3 3 3
∞
(−1)𝑛 (6𝑧)𝑛 (𝑛 + 1)!
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑
3(𝑛+2)
𝑛=0
Example #4: (difficult)
2
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥 at 𝑥0 = 0
2
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑥 2 𝑒 3𝑥
2 2 2 2
𝑓 ′(𝑥 ) = 2𝑥(𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 𝑥 2 [(6𝑥)𝑒 3𝑥 ] = 2𝑥(𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 6𝑥 3 (𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
𝑓 ′(𝑥 ) = (2𝑥 + 6𝑥 3 )(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2 2
𝑓 ′′(𝑥 ) = (2 + 18𝑥 2 )(𝑒 3𝑥 ) + (2𝑥 + 6𝑥 3 )[(6𝑥 )𝑒 3𝑥 ]
2 2 2 2
𝑓 ′′(𝑥 ) = 2(𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 18𝑥 2 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 12𝑥 2 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 36𝑥 4 (𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
𝑓 ′′(𝑥 ) = (36𝑥 4 + 30𝑥 2 + 2)(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2 2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = (144𝑥 3 + 60𝑥 )(𝑒 3𝑥 ) + (36𝑥 4 + 30𝑥 2 + 2)[(6𝑥 )𝑒 3𝑥 ]
2 2 2 2 2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = 144𝑥 3 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 60𝑥(𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 216𝑥 5 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 180𝑥 3 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 12𝑥(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥 ) = (216𝑥 5 + 324𝑥 3 + 72𝑥 )(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2 2
𝑓 (4) (𝑥 ) = (1080𝑥 4 + 972𝑥 2 + 72)(𝑒 3𝑥 ) + (216𝑥 5 + 324𝑥 3 + 72𝑥 )[(6𝑥 )𝑒 3𝑥 ]
2 2 2 2
𝑓 (4) (𝑥 ) = 1080𝑥 4 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 972𝑥 2 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 72(𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 216𝑥 5 [(6𝑥)𝑒 3𝑥 ]
2 2
+ 324𝑥 3 [(6𝑥)𝑒 3𝑥 ] + 72𝑥[(6𝑥 )𝑒 3𝑥 ]
2 2 2 2
𝑓 (4) (𝑥 ) = 1080𝑥 4 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 972𝑥 2 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 72(𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 1296𝑥 6 (𝑒 3𝑥 )
2 2
+ 1944𝑥 4 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 432𝑥 2 (𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
𝑓 (4) (𝑥 ) = (1296𝑥 6 + 3024𝑥 4 + 1404𝑥 2 + 72)(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
𝑓 (5) (𝑥 ) = (7,776𝑥 5 + 12,096𝑥 3 + 2808𝑥 )(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
+ (1296𝑥 6 + 3024𝑥 4 + 1404𝑥 2 + 72)[(6𝑥 )𝑒 3𝑥 ]
2 2 2 2
𝑓 (5) (𝑥 ) = 7,776𝑥 5 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 12,096𝑥 3 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 2808𝑥(𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 7,776𝑥 7 (𝑒 3𝑥 )
2 2 2
+ 18,144𝑥 5 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 8424𝑥 3 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 432𝑥(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
𝑓 (5) (𝑥 ) = (7,776𝑥 7 + 25,920𝑥 5 + 20,520𝑥 3 + 3,240𝑥 )(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
𝑓 (6) (𝑥 ) = (54,432𝑥 6 + 129,600𝑥 4 + 61,560𝑥 2 + 3,240)(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
+ (7,776𝑥 7 + 25,920𝑥 5 + 20,520𝑥 3 + 3,240𝑥 )[(6𝑥 )𝑒 3𝑥 ]
2 2 2 2
𝑓 (6) (𝑥 ) = 54,432𝑥 6 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 129,600𝑥 4 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 61,560𝑥 2 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 3,240(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2 2 2
+ 46,656𝑥 8 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 155,520𝑥 6 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 123,120𝑥 4 (𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
+ 19,440𝑥 2 (𝑒 3𝑥 )
2 2 2
𝑓 (6) (𝑥 ) = 46,656𝑥 8 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 54,432𝑥 6 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 155,520𝑥 6 (𝑒 3𝑥 )
2 2 2
+ 129,600𝑥 4 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 123,120𝑥 4 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 61,560𝑥 2 (𝑒 3𝑥 )
2 2
+ 19,440𝑥 2 (𝑒 3𝑥 ) + 3,240(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
𝑓 (6) (𝑥 ) = (46,656𝑥 8 + 209,952𝑥 6 + 252,720𝑥 4 + 81,000𝑥 2 + 3,240)(𝑒 3𝑥 )
2
𝑓 (𝑥0 ) = (0)2 𝑒 3(0) = 𝑓 (𝑥0 ) = 0
2
𝑓 ′(𝑥0 ) = [2(0) + 6(0)3 ](𝑒 3(0) ) = 𝑓 ′ (𝑥0 ) = 0
2
𝑓 ′′(𝑥0 ) = [36(0)4 + 30(0) + 2](𝑒 3(0) ) = 𝑓 ′′(𝑥0 ) = 2
2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑥0 ) = [216(0)5 + 324(0)3 + 72(0)](𝑒 3(0) ) = 𝑓 ′′′(𝑥0 ) = 0
2
𝑓 (4) (𝑥0 ) = [1296(0)6 + 3024(0)4 + 972(0)2 + 1404(0)2 + 72](𝑒 3(0) )
𝑓 (4) (𝑥0 ) = 72
 2
𝑓 (5) (𝑥0 ) = [7,776(0)7 + 25,920(0)5 + 20,520(0)3 + 3,240(0)](𝑒 3𝑥 )
𝑓 (5) (𝑥0 ) = 0
𝑓 (6) (𝑥0 ) = [46,656(0)8 + 209,952(0)6 + 252,720(0)4 + 81,000(0)2
2
+ 3,240](𝑒 3𝑥 )
𝑓 (6) (𝑥0 ) = 3,240

(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )1 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 ′′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )3 ′′′
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
1! 2! 3!
(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )4 (4)
+ 𝑓 (𝑧0) + ⋯
4!
(𝑥 − 0)1 (𝑥 − 0)2 (𝑥 − 0)3 (𝑥 − 0)4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 0 + (0) + (2) + (0) + (72)
1! 2! 3! 4!
(𝑥 − 0)5 (𝑥 − 0)6
+ (0) + (3,240) + ⋯
5! 6!
𝑥2 𝑥4 𝑥4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 0 + 0 + (2) + 0 + (72) + 0 + (3,240) + ⋯
2 24 720
9
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑥 2 + 3𝑥 4 + 𝑥 6 + ⋯
∞
2
𝑛 (2𝑛+2)
3 𝑥
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑
𝑛!
𝑛=0
Taylor Series ⟶ 𝒛𝟎 ≠ 𝟎

Example #1:
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 −1 at 𝑧0 = 1
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 −1 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = (1)−1 = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) = 1
𝑓 ′(𝑧) = −𝑧 −2 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = −(1)−2 = 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = −1
𝑓 ′′(𝑧) = 2𝑧 −3 𝑓 ′′(𝑧0 ) = 2(1)−3 = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧0 ) = 2
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧) = −6𝑧 −4 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧0 ) = −6(1)−4 = 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧0 ) = −6
𝑓 (4) (𝑧) = 24𝑧 −5 𝑓 (4) (𝑧0 ) = 24(1)−5 = 𝑓 (4) (𝑧0) = 24

(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )1 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 ′′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )3 ′′′
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
1! 2! 3!
(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )4 (4)
+ 𝑓 (𝑧0) + ⋯
4!
(𝑧 − 1)1 (𝑧 − 1)2 (𝑧 − 1)3 (𝑧 − 1)4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 1 + (−1) + (2) + (−6) + (24) + ⋯
1! 2! 3! 4!
(𝑧 − 1)1 (𝑧 − 1)2 (𝑧 − 1)3 (𝑧 − 1)4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 1 + (−1) + (2) + (−6) + (24) + ⋯
1 2 6 24
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 1 − (𝑧 − 1)1 + (𝑧 − 1)2 − (𝑧 − 1)3 + (𝑧 − 1)4 + ⋯
∞

𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑(−1)𝑛 (𝑧 − 1)𝑛

𝑛=0
Example #2: (easy)
𝑓 (𝑧) = sin(2𝑧) at 𝑧0 = 𝜋
𝑓 (𝑧) = sin(2𝑧) 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = sin(2𝜋) = 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = 0
′(
𝑓 𝑧) = 2 cos(2𝑧) 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = 2 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋) = 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = 2
𝑓 ′′(𝑧) = −4 sin(2𝑧) 𝑓 ′′(𝑧0 ) = −4 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋) = 𝑓 ′′ (𝑧0 ) = 0
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧) = −8 cos(2𝑧) 𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧0 ) = −8 𝑐𝑜𝑠(2𝜋) = 𝑓 ′′′(𝑧0 ) = −8
𝑓 (4) (𝑧) = 16 sin(2𝑧) 𝑓 (4) (𝑧0 ) = 16 𝑠𝑖𝑛(2𝜋) = 𝑓 (4) (𝑧0) = 0
𝑓 (5) (𝑧) = 32 cos(2𝑧) 𝑓 (5) (𝑧0 ) = 32 cos(2𝜋) = 𝑓 (5) (𝑧0) = 32
𝑓 (6) (𝑧) = −64 sin(2𝑧) 𝑓 (6) (𝑧0 ) = −64 sin(2𝜋) = 𝑓 (6)(𝑧0 ) = 0
𝑓 (7) (𝑧) = −128 cos(2𝑧) 𝑓 (7) (𝑧0 ) = −128 cos(2𝜋) = 𝑓 (7) (𝑧0) = −128
𝑓 (8) (𝑧) = 256 cos(2𝑧) 𝑓 (8) (𝑧0 ) = 256 cos(2𝜋) = 𝑓 (8) (𝑧0) = 0
𝑓 (9)(𝑧) = 512 sin(2𝑧) 𝑓 (9)(𝑧0 ) = 512 sin(2𝜋) = 𝑓 (9)(𝑧0 ) = 512

(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )1 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 ′′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )3 ′′′
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
1! 2! 3!
(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )4 (4)
+ 𝑓 (𝑧0) + ⋯
4!
(𝑧 − 𝜋)1 (𝑧 − 𝜋 ) 2 (𝑧 − 𝜋 ) 3 (𝑧 − 𝜋 ) 4
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = 0 + (2) + (0) + (−8) + (0)
1! 2! 3! 4!
(𝑧 − 𝜋 )5 (𝑧 − 𝜋 )6 (𝑧 − 𝜋 ) 7 (𝑧 − 𝜋 ) 8
+ (32) + (0) + (−128) + (0)
5! 6! 7! 8!
(𝑧 − 𝜋 )9
+ (512) + ⋯
9!
8(𝑧 − 𝜋)3 32(𝑧 − 𝜋)5 128(𝑧 − 𝜋)7 512(𝑧 − 𝜋)9
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧) = 2(𝑧 − 𝜋) − + − + +⋯
3! 5! 7! 9!
∞
(−1)𝑛 (2𝑛 )(𝑧 − 𝜋)𝑛
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑
𝑛!
𝑛=0
Example #3: (average)
𝑓 (𝑧) = ln(𝑧) at 𝑧0 = 2
𝑓 (𝑧) = ln(𝑧) 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = ln(2)
1 1
𝑓 ′(𝑧) = = 𝑧 −1 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = (2)−1 = 𝑓 ′ (𝑧0 ) =
𝑧 2
𝑓 𝑧 = −𝑧 −2
′′ ( ) 1
𝑓 ′′(𝑧0 ) = −(2)−2 = 𝑓 ′′(𝑧0 ) = −
4
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧) = 2𝑧 −3 1
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧0 ) = 2(2)−3 = 𝑓 ′′′(𝑧0 ) =
4
𝑓 (4) (𝑧) = −6𝑧 −4 3
𝑓 (4) (𝑧0 ) = −6(2)−4 = 𝑓 (4)(𝑧0 ) = −
8
𝑓 (5) (𝑧) = 24𝑧 −5 3
𝑓 (5) (𝑧0 ) = 24(2)−5 = 𝑓 (5) (𝑧0) =
4

(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )1 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 ′′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )3 ′′′
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
1! 2! 3!
(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )4 (4)
+ 𝑓 (𝑧0) + ⋯
4!
(𝑧 − 2)1 1 (𝑧 − 2)2 1 (𝑧 − 2)3 1 (𝑧 − 2)4 3
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧) = ln(2) + ( )+ (− ) + ( )+ (− )
1! 2 2! 4 3! 4 4! 8
(𝑧 − 2)5 3
+ ( )+⋯
5! 4
(𝑧 − 2)1 1 (𝑧 − 2)2 1 (𝑧 − 2)3 1 (𝑧 − 2)4 3
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧) = ln(2) + ( )+ (− ) + ( )+ (− )
1 2 2 4 6 4 24 8
(𝑧 − 2)5 3
+ ( )+⋯
12 4
(𝑧 − 2)1 (𝑧 − 2)2 (𝑧 − 2)3 (𝑧 − 2)4 (𝑧 − 2)5
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧) = ln(2) + − + + + +⋯
∞
2 8 24 64 160
(−1)𝑛+1 (𝑧 − 2)𝑛
𝑓 (𝑧 ) = ∑
𝑛(2𝑛 )
𝑛=0
Example #4: (difficult)
7
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑧 4 = 7𝑧 −4 at 𝑧0 = −3
𝑓 (𝑧) = 7𝑧 −4 7
𝑓 (𝑧0 ) = 7(−3)−4 = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) =
(−3)4
𝑓 ′(𝑧) = −28𝑧 −5 (−7)(4)
𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) = −28(−3)−5 = 𝑓 ′(𝑧0 ) =
(−3)5
𝑓 ′′(𝑧) = 140𝑧 −6 (28)(5)
𝑓 ′′(𝑧0 ) = 140(−3)−6 = 𝑓 ′′(𝑧0 ) =
(−3)6
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧) = −840𝑧 −7 (−140)(6)
𝑓 ′′′ (𝑧0 ) = −840(−3)−7 = 𝑓 ′′′(𝑧0 ) =
(−3)7
𝑓 (4) (𝑧) = 5,880𝑧 −8 (840)(7)
𝑓 (4) (𝑧0 ) = 5,880(−3)−8 = 𝑓 (4)(𝑧0 ) =
(−3)8

(𝑧 − 𝑧0 )1 ′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )2 ′′ (𝑧 − 𝑧0 )3 ′′′
𝑓 (𝑧) = 𝑓(𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 ) + 𝑓 (𝑧0 )
1! 2! 3!
4
(𝑧 − 𝑧0 ) (4)
+ 𝑓 (𝑧0) + ⋯
4!
7 (𝑧 + 3)1 (−7)(4) (𝑧 + 3)2 (28)(5) (𝑧 + 3)3 (−140)(6)
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑧 ) = + + +
(−3)4 1! (−3)5 2! (−3)6 3! (−3)7
4
(𝑧 + 3) (840)(7)
+ +⋯
4! (−3)8
∞
𝑎𝑛−1 (𝑛 + 3)(𝑧 + 3)𝑛
𝑓 (𝑧) = ∑(−1)𝑛
(−3)(𝑛+4) 𝑛!
𝑛=0

PROGRESS CHECK

TBA

REFERENCES

Svirin, Alex "Taylor and Maclaurin Series" From Math24. https://www.math24.net/taylor-

maclaurin-series/
 LEARNING GUIDE (Week No. 9)

Week No.: __13 __

TOPIC/S
FOURIER SERIES

EXPECTED COMPETENCIES

At the end of the lesson, you will be able to:

1. Solve problems involving fourier series.

CONTENT/TECHNICAL INFORMATION

Fourier Series (Jean Baptiste Joseph Fourier)

∞
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos ( 𝑥) + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( 𝑥)]
𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1

Euler’s Formula (Leonhard Euler)

1 𝐿
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
2𝐿 −𝐿
1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) [cos ( 𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
𝐿 𝑛 = 1,2,3, …
1 𝑛𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) [sin ( 𝑥)] 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿 }
Example #1:
𝟑; 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝟏
𝒇(𝒛) = {
−𝟑; 𝟏 < 𝒙 < 𝟎
𝑃 = 2𝐿
2 = 2𝐿
𝐿=1

1 𝐿
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
2𝐿 −𝐿
1 0
1 1
⟶ 𝑎0 = [∫ (3)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (−3)𝑑𝑥 ] = (3𝑥 |10 − 3𝑥 |0−1 )
2(1) 0 −1 2
1 1
⟶ 𝑎0 = [3(1 − 0) − 3(0 − (−1))] = (3 − 3) = 𝑎0 = 0
2 2

1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
1 0
1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = [∫ (3) cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (−3) cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ]
1 0 (1) −1 (1)
1 0
1 1
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = 3 ( ) sin(𝑛𝜋𝑥 )| − 3 ( ) sin(𝑛𝜋𝑥 )|
𝑛𝜋 0 𝑛𝜋 −1
3 3
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = {sin[𝑛𝜋 (1)] − sin[𝑛𝜋(0)]} − {sin[𝑛𝜋(0)] − sin[𝑛𝜋 (−1)]}
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Trigonometric Identity:
sin(0) = 0
3 3
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = sin[𝑛𝜋(1)] − {− sin[𝑛𝜋(−1)]}
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Trigonometric Identity:
sin(−𝑥 ) = − sin(𝑥 )
3 3
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = sin(𝑛𝜋) − sin(𝑛𝜋) = 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋

1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
1 0
1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = [∫ (3) sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (−3) sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ]
1 0 (1) −1 (1)
 1 0
1 1
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = − 3 ( ) cos(𝑛𝜋𝑥 )| + 3 ( ) cos(𝑛𝜋𝑥 )|
𝑛𝜋 0 𝑛𝜋 −1
−3 3
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = {cos[𝑛𝜋(1)] − cos[𝑛𝜋(0)]} + {cos[𝑛𝜋(0)] − cos[𝑛𝜋(−1)]}
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Trigonometric Identity:
cos(0) = 1
−3 3
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = {cos[𝑛𝜋(1)] − 1} + {1 − cos[𝑛𝜋 (−1)]}
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Trigonometric Identity:
cos(−𝑥 ) = cos(𝑥 )
−3 3 −6[𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜋) − 1]
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = [cos(𝑛𝜋) − 1] − [cos(𝑛𝜋) − 1] = 𝑏𝑛 =
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
∞
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos ( 𝑥) + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( 𝑥)]
𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1
∞
𝑛𝜋 −6[𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜋) − 1] 𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 0 + ∑ [(0) cos ( 𝑥) + ( ) sin ( 𝑥)]
(1) 𝑛𝜋 (1)
𝑛=1
∞
−6[𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜋) − 1] 𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ∑ [ sin ( 𝑥)]
𝑛𝜋 (1)
𝑛=1

Example #2: (easy)

𝟎; −𝟏 ≤ 𝒙 ≤ 𝟎
𝒇 (𝒙 ) = { ; 𝑳=𝟏
𝟏; 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝟏

1 𝐿
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
2𝐿 −𝐿
1 0
1 1 1 1
⟶ 𝑎0 = [∫ (1)𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (0)𝑑𝑥 ] = (𝑥 |10 ) = (1 − 0) = 𝑎0 =
2(1) 0 −1 2 2 2

1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
1 1 𝑛𝜋 0
𝑛𝜋
( )
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = [∫ 1 cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (0) cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ]
1 0 (1) −1 (1)
Property of Integral:
∫ 0 𝑑𝑥 = 0
1
1 1 1
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = ( ) sin(𝑛𝜋𝑥 )| = {sin[𝑛𝜋(1)] − sin[𝑛𝜋(0)]} = (0) = 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝑛𝜋 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Trigonometric Identity:
sin(𝑛𝜋) = 0 ; sin(0) = 0
 1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
1 1 𝑛𝜋 0
𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = [∫ (1) sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (0) sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ]
1 0 (1) −1 (1)
Where:
∫ 0 𝑑𝑥 = 0
1
1 −1 −1
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = − ( ) cos(𝑛𝜋𝑥 )| = {cos[𝑛𝜋(1)] − cos[𝑛𝜋(0)]} = [(−1)𝑛 − 1]
𝑛𝜋 0 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
Trigonometric Identity:
cos(𝑛𝜋) = (−1)𝑛 ; cos(0) = 1
[1 − (−1)𝑛 ]
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 =
𝑛𝜋
∞
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos ( ) 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( ) 𝑥]
𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1
∞
1 𝑛𝜋 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ] 𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ [(0) cos ( 𝑥) + ( ) sin ( 𝑥)]
2 (1) 𝑛𝜋 (1)
𝑛=1
∞
1 [1 − (−1)𝑛 ]
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ [( ) sin(𝑛𝜋𝑥 )]
2 𝑛𝜋
𝑛=1
Example #3: (average)
𝝅
𝒇(𝒙) = {(−𝒙 − 𝝅) ; −𝝅 < 𝒙 < 𝟎 ; 𝑳=
𝟐

1 𝐿
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
2𝐿 −𝐿
0 0
1 −1 𝑥 2
⟶ 𝑎0 = 𝜋 [∫ (−𝑥 − 𝜋)𝑑𝑥 ] = [( + 𝜋𝑥)| ]
2 ( 2) −𝜋 𝜋 2 −𝜋
2 2
−1 (0) (−𝜋) −1 𝜋2
⟶ 𝑎0 = {[ + 𝜋(0)] − [ + 𝜋(−𝜋)]} = [− ( − 𝜋 2 )]
𝜋 2 2 𝜋 2
2
−1 𝜋 −𝜋
⟶ 𝑎0 = ( ) = 𝑎0 =
𝜋 2 2

1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
0
1 𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = 𝜋 [∫ (−𝑥 − 𝜋) cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ]
(2) −𝜋 (𝜋⁄2)
0 0
2
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = {[∫ (−𝑥 ) cos(2𝑛𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ] − [∫ 𝜋 cos(2𝑛𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ]}
𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋
Integration by parts:
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

Let:
𝑢 = −𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = cos(2𝑛𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=
1
sin(2𝑛𝑥 )
2𝑛
0 0 0
1 1
∫ (−𝑥 ) cos(2𝑛𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 [ sin(2𝑛𝑥 )] − ∫ sin(2𝑛𝑥 ) (−𝑑𝑥 )
−𝜋 2𝑛 −𝜋 −𝜋 2𝑛
0 0
−𝑥 −1
= [ sin(2𝑛𝑥 )] + [ cos(2𝑛𝑥 )]
2𝑛 −𝜋 2𝑛 −𝜋
0 0 0
2 −𝑥 −1 𝜋
(
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = {[ sin 2𝑛𝑥 )] (
+ [ cos 2𝑛𝑥 )] − [ sin(2𝑛𝑥 )] }
𝜋 2𝑛 −𝜋 2𝑛 −𝜋 2𝑛 −𝜋
2 −(0) −(−𝜋)
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = {{[ sin(2𝑛(0))] − [ sin(2𝑛(−𝜋))]}
𝜋 2𝑛 2𝑛
−1 −1
+ {[ cos(2𝑛(0))] − [ cos(2𝑛(−𝜋))]}
2𝑛 2𝑛
𝜋 𝜋
− {[( ) sin(2𝑛(0))] − [( ) sin(2𝑛(−𝜋))]}}
2𝑛 2𝑛
Trigonometric Identity: Trigonometric Identity:
sin(0) = 0 ; sin(𝑛𝜋) = 0 cos(−2𝑛𝜋) = 1 ; cos(0) = 1
2 −1 −1 2
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = {[0 − 0] + {[ (1)] − [ (1)]} + [0 − 0]} = (0) = 𝑎𝑛 = 0
𝜋 2𝑛 2𝑛 𝜋
 1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
0
1 𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = 𝜋 [∫ (−𝑥 − 𝜋) sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ]
(2) −𝜋 (𝜋⁄2)
0 0
2
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = {[∫ (−𝑥 ) sin(2𝑛𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ] − [∫ 𝜋 sin(2𝑛𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 ]}
𝜋 −𝜋 −𝜋
Integration by parts:
∫ 𝑢 𝑑𝑣 = 𝑢𝑣 − ∫ 𝑣𝑑𝑢

Let:
𝑢 = −𝑥 𝑑𝑢 = −𝑑𝑥 𝑑𝑣 = sin(2𝑛𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 𝑣=
1
− cos(2𝑛𝑥 )
2𝑛
0 0 0
−1 −1
∫ (−𝑥 ) sin(2𝑛𝑥 ) 𝑑𝑥 = −𝑥 [ cos(2𝑛𝑥 )] − ∫ cos(2𝑛𝑥 ) (−𝑑𝑥 )
−𝜋 2𝑛 −𝜋 −𝜋 2𝑛
0 0
𝑥 1
= [ cos(2𝑛𝑥 )] − [ sin(2𝑛𝑥 )]
2𝑛 −𝜋 2𝑛 −𝜋
0 0 0
2 𝑥 1 𝜋
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = {[ cos(2𝑛𝑥 )] − [ sin(2𝑛𝑥 )] + [ cos(2𝑛𝑥 )] }
𝜋 2𝑛 −𝜋 2𝑛 −𝜋 2𝑛 −𝜋
2 (0) (−𝜋)
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = {{[ cos(2𝑛(0))] − [ cos(2𝑛(−𝜋))]}
𝜋 2𝑛 2𝑛
1 1
+ {[ sin(2𝑛(0))] − [ sin(2𝑛(−𝜋))]}
2𝑛 2𝑛
𝜋 𝜋
− {[ cos(2𝑛(0))] − [ cos(2𝑛(−𝜋))]}}
2𝑛 2𝑛
Trigonometric Identity: Trigonometric Identity:
sin(0) = 0 ; sin(𝑛𝜋) = 0 cos(−2𝑛𝜋) = 1 ; cos(0) = 1
2 (−𝜋) 𝜋 𝜋 2 𝜋 1
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = {[0 − (1)] + [0 − 0] − [ (1) − (1)]} = ( ) = 𝑏𝑛 =
𝜋 2𝑛 2𝑛 2𝑛 𝜋 2𝑛 𝑛
∞
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos ( ) 𝑥 + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( ) 𝑥]
𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1
∞
−𝜋 𝑛𝜋 1 𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ [(0) cos ( ) 𝑥 + (− ) sin ( 𝑥)]
2 (𝜋⁄2) 𝑛 (𝜋⁄2)
𝑛=1
∞
−𝜋 1
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = + ∑ [ sin(2𝑛𝑥 )]
2 𝑛
𝑛=1
Example #4: (difficult)
𝒆𝒙 ; −𝟏 < 𝒙 < 𝟎
𝒇 (𝒙 ) = { ; 𝑳=𝟏
𝒙; 𝟎 < 𝒙 < 𝟏

1 𝐿
𝑎0 = ∫ 𝑓(𝑥 )𝑑𝑥
2𝐿 −𝐿
1 0 1
1 1 𝑥2
⟶ 𝑎0 = [∫ (𝑥 )𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑒 )𝑑𝑥 ] = ( | + 𝑒 𝑥 |0−1 )
𝑥
2(1) 0 −1 2 2 0
1 1 1 1 1 3 1
⟶ 𝑎0 = [ (12 − 02 ) + (𝑒 0 − 𝑒 −1 )] = [ + (1 − )] = 𝑎0 = −
2 2 2 2 𝑒 4 2𝑒
where
𝑒0 = 1

1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
𝑎𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
1 0
1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = [∫ (𝑥 ) cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑒 𝑥 ) cos ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ]
1 0 (1) −1 (1)
1 0
𝑥 sin(𝑛𝜋𝑥 ) cos(𝑛𝜋𝑥 ) 𝑛𝜋𝑒 𝑥 sin(𝑛𝜋𝑥 ) + 𝑒 𝑥 cos(𝑛𝜋𝑥 )
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = [ + ] +[ ]
𝑛𝜋 (𝑛𝜋)2 0 (𝑛𝜋)2 + 1 −1
𝑛𝜋𝑒 0 sin(𝑛𝜋(0)) + 𝑒 0 cos(𝑛𝜋(0))
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = {[ ]
(𝑛𝜋)2 + 1
𝑛𝜋𝑒 −1 sin(𝑛𝜋 (−1)) + 𝑒 −1 cos(𝑛𝜋(−1))
−[ ]}
(𝑛𝜋)2 + 1
𝑥 sin(𝑛𝜋(1)) cos(𝑛𝜋(1)) 𝑥 sin(𝑛𝜋(0)) cos(𝑛𝜋(0))
+ {[ + 2
]−[ + ]}
𝑛𝜋 (𝑛𝜋) 𝑛𝜋 (𝑛𝜋)2
Trigonometric Identity: Trigonometric Identity:
sin(0) = 0 ; sin(𝑛𝜋) = 0 cos(𝑛𝜋) = (−1)𝑛 ; cos(0) = 1
1 − 𝑒 −1 (−1)𝑛 (−1)𝑛 − 1
⟶ 𝑎𝑛 = +
(𝑛𝜋)2 + 1 (𝑛𝜋)2

1 𝐿 𝑛𝜋
𝑏𝑛 = ∫ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥
𝐿 −𝐿 𝐿
1 0
1 𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = [∫ (𝑥 ) sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 + ∫ (𝑒 𝑥 ) sin ( 𝑥) 𝑑𝑥 ]
1 0 (1) −1 (1)
1 0
−𝑥 cos(𝑛𝜋𝑥 ) sin(𝑛𝜋𝑥 ) 𝑛𝜋𝑒 𝑥 cos(𝑛𝜋𝑥 ) + 𝑒 𝑥 sin(𝑛𝜋𝑥 )
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = [ + ] +[ ]
𝑛𝜋 (𝑛𝜋)2 0 (𝑛𝜋)2 + 1 −1
−(1) cos(𝑛𝜋(1)) sin(𝑛𝜋 (1)) −(0) cos(𝑛𝜋(0)) sin(𝑛𝜋(0))
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = {[ + ]−[ + ]}
𝑛𝜋 (𝑛𝜋)2 𝑛𝜋 (𝑛𝜋)2
𝑛𝜋𝑒 0 cos(𝑛𝜋 (0)) + 𝑒 0 sin(𝑛𝜋(0))
+ {[ ]
(𝑛𝜋)2 + 1
𝑛𝜋𝑒 −1 cos(𝑛𝜋(−1)) + 𝑒 −1 sin(𝑛𝜋(−1))
−[ ]}
(𝑛𝜋)2 + 1
 Trigonometric Identity: Trigonometric Identity:
sin(0) = 0 ; sin(𝑛𝜋) = 0 cos(𝑛𝜋) = (−1)𝑛 ; cos(0) = 1
𝑛𝜋(1 − 𝑒 −1 (−1)𝑛 ) (−1)𝑛
⟶ 𝑏𝑛 = −
(𝑛𝜋)2 + 1 𝑛𝜋
∞
𝑛𝜋 𝑛𝜋
𝑓 (𝑥 ) = 𝑎0 + ∑ [𝑎𝑛 cos ( 𝑥) + 𝑏𝑛 sin ( 𝑥)]
𝐿 𝐿
𝑛=1
∞
3 1 1 − 𝑒 −1 (−1)𝑛 (−1)𝑛 − 1 𝑛𝜋
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ( − ) + ∑ {[ + ] cos ( 𝑥)}
4 2𝑒 (𝑛𝜋)2 + 1 (𝑛𝜋)2 (1)
𝑛=1
∞
𝑛𝜋(1 − 𝑒 −1 (−1)𝑛 ) (−1)𝑛 𝑛𝜋
+ ∑ {[ − ] sin ( 𝑥)}
(𝑛𝜋)2 + 1 𝑛𝜋 (1)
𝑛=1
∞
3 1 1 − 𝑒 −1 (−1)𝑛 (−1)𝑛 − 1
⟶ 𝑓 (𝑥 ) = ( − ) + ∑ {[ + ] 𝑐𝑜𝑠(𝑛𝜋𝑥 )}
4 2𝑒 (𝑛𝜋)2 + 1 (𝑛𝜋)2
𝑛=1
∞
𝑛𝜋(1 − 𝑒 −1 (−1)𝑛 ) (−1)𝑛
+ ∑ {[ − ] 𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝑛𝜋𝑥 )}
(𝑛𝜋)2 + 1 𝑛𝜋
𝑛=1

PROGRESS CHECK

TBA

LIST OF REFERENCES

Weisstein, Eric W. "Laplace Transform." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web

Resource. https://mathworld.wolfram.com/LaplaceTransform.html
 ABOUT THE AUTHOR/S

ENGR. JOVANIE O. ESPAÑOLA

 Master of Engineering Major in Electronics and Communication Engineering

University of St. La Salle - Bacolod
(January 2019 to present)

 College of Engineering – Electronics Engineering Instructor

Technological University of the Philippines - Visayas
(September 2018 to present)

 Hardware/Software/Firmware Engineer
Stratium Software Group, Inc.
(January 2017 to September 2018)

 Teacher Certification Program – Graduate

Colegio San Agustin – Bacolod

 Institute of Electronics and Communications Engineers of the Philippines – Member

 Mechatronics and Robotics Society of the Philippines – Member

 Mathematics Teachers Association of the Philippines – Tertiary Level Inc. - Member

Email: [email protected]
Mobile #: 09661432126