SQL BASICS

2nd Sem, MSc.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ I N T RO
• SQL - Structured Query Language (also called, See-Quell).
• Used to perform operations on records stored in database.
• Updating records, inserting records, deleting records, creating and modifying database tables, views, etc.
• SQL is not a database system, but it is a query language.
• SQL operates on database management system in PC.
• Example of DBMS; Oracle, MySQL, MongoDB, PostgreSQL, SQL Server, DB2, etc.
• SQL is a query programming language that manages RDBMS.
• MySQL is a relational database management system that uses SQL.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ I N T RO
Advantages of SQL
• No programming needed: No large numeric of coding lines, rather simple SQL syntactical rules (user-
friendly).
• High-Speed Query Processing
• Standardized Language
• Portability: across difference devices and applications according to user's requirements.
• Interactive language: easy to learn and understand SQL language.
• More than one Data View

Disadvantages of SQL
• Cost
• Interface is Complex
• Partial Database control: business rules are hidden
SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC
 DIFFERENT TYPES OF COMMANDS

✓ DDL commands: -
To create and modify database objects - CREATE, ALTER, DROP
✓ DML commands: -
To manipulate data of a database objects- INSERT, DELETE, UPDATE
✓ DQL command: -
To retrieve the data from a database - SELECT
✓ DCL commands: -
To control the data of a database – GRANT, REVOKE
✓ TCL commands:-
To control and manage transactions – COMMIT, SAVEPOINT,

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ I N T RO
• SQL commands help in creating and managing database.
• Most common SQL commands which are highly used are:

o CREATE command
o UPDATE command
o DELETE command
o SELECT command
o DROP command
o INSERT command

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ I N T RO
CREATE Command: helps in creating new database, new table, table view, and other objects of database.

UPDATE Command: helps in updating or changing stored data in database.

DELETE Command: helps in removing or erasing saved records from database tables.

SELECT Command: helps in accessing single/multiple rows from one/multiple tables of database

(also used with WHERE clause)

DROP Command: helps in deleting entire table, table view, and other objects from database.

INSERT Command: helps in inserting data or records into database tables.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ D ATA T Y P E S
char(n). Fixed length character string, with user-specified length n.
varchar(n)/varchar2(n). Variable length character strings, with user-specified maximum length n.
int. Integer (a finite subset of the integers that is machine-dependent).
smallint. Small integer (a machine-dependent subset of the integer domain type).
numeric(p,d)/number(p,d). Fixed point numeric, with user-specified precision of p digits, with d digits to
the right of decimal point.
real, double precision. Floating point and double-precision floating point numbers, with machine-
dependent precision.
float(n). Floating point numeric, with user-specified precision of at least n digits.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ D ATA T Y P E S

date: Dates, containing a (4 digit) year, month and date

Example: date ‘2005-7-27’

time: Time of day, in hours, minutes and seconds.

Example: time ‘09:00:30’ time ‘09:00:30.75’

timestamp: date plus time of day

Example: timestamp ‘2005-7-27 09:00:30.75’

interval: period of time.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ I N T RO

• show DATABASES; SQL statements also include the semicolon (";")

statement terminator.

• use databaseName;

• show TABLES;

• describe tableName;

• select * from tableName;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C R E AT E TA B L E
Create table command:
CREATE DATABASE database_name;
CREATE TABLE table-name

( column_name Datatype(size), CREATE DATABASE newDB;

column_name Datatype(size), . . . );

Example:
create table instructor
( ID varchar(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2));

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ I N S E R T TA B L E
Insert table command:
INSERT INTO table-name VALUES

( data1, data2, data3, . . . );

Example:
INSERT INTO instructor VALUES
(‘100’, 'rajesh’, null, 20000);

insert into instructor values (‘10211’, ’Smith’, ’Biology’, 66000);

insert into instructor values (‘10211’, null, ’Biology’, 66000);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ S E L E C T TA B L E
create table instructor (
ID varchar(5),
name varchar(20),
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2));

Select table command:

SELECT * FROM table-name;
Example:
select * from instructor;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ INTEGRITY CONSTSRAINTS
Valid data – data which follows certain rules/ regulations of real world system.

designer has to ensure that data entered by user has to be checked against these rules and allowed
to store if valid otherwise need to be rejected.

Integrity constraints guard against accidental damage to the database, by ensuring that
authorized changes to the database do not result in a loss of data consistency.
Example:
Data in some Column such as Phone_numeric is mandatory for user to enter.
Data in some Column such as Registration_numeric has to be Unique ( No duplicated allowed).
Data in some Column such as Registration_numeric is used to identify every student distinctly.
Valid range of Data for some Column such as Under_Gradate is BSc, B.Tech. BE.
A SB account must have a balance greater than 1000/-

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ INTEGRITY CONSTSRAINTS
Rule/Constraints can be imposed on single column or combination of columns.

Column-level Constraints- Imposed on Single Column. Defined along with Column

Table Level Constraint.- Defined at the end after defining all the columns.

 Multi-level Column.

– Primary key imposed on combination of columns- (Name,F.name,Surname)

 Constraint imposed on a column that reference another column in the constraint.

– Assume that are two columns in the table say- Date_of_Birth and Date_of_Join.

– We want to impose condition(constraint) on Date_of_Join that

Date_of_Join > Date_of_Birth.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ INTEGRITY CONSTSRAINTS

SQL supports a numeric of different integrity constraints.

not null -
primary key (A1, ..., An )
foreign key (Am, ..., An ) references r
Unique
Check
Default

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ INTEGRITY - NULL
NULL is special kind of value applicable to any domain(datatype).

NULL is not equivalent to '' or ' '

In some cases, value to some column is mandatory to enter.

In other words we want to force the user to enter some value to the column; can’t be left null vales.

create table instructor (

ID varchar(5),
name varchar(20) NOT NULL ,

dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2) );

insert into instructor values (‘10211’, ’Smith’, ’Biology’, 66000);

insert into instructor values (‘10211’, null, ’Biology’, 66000); GIVES ERROR

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - P R I M A RY K E Y
Identifies every tuple(record/row) in the table uniquely.
primary key (Aj1, Aj2, . . . , Ajm )
Where Aj1, Aj2, . . . , Ajm are the set of attributes in the table used to form a primary key.
Aj1, Aj2, . . . , Ajm are said to be components of primary key.
Primary key may be imposed on a single attribute or multiple attributes of the table.
There can be ONLY ONE PRIMARY key for a table.
Properties:
NO component of primary key can be NULL.
Values to the columns must be Unique( Duplicate values can’t be entered to a column)
create table instructor (
ID varchar(5) PRIMARY KEY
name varchar(20) not null,
dept_name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2));

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - P R I M A RY K E Y
Table level primary key
Constraint is on multiple column, it has to be defined as Table level Constraints.

CREATE TABLE Enrollment create table instructor (

(SID varchar(9) NOT NULL, ID varchar(5) PRIMARY KEY
CNO varchar(7) NOT NULL, name varchar(20) not null,
Year numeric(2) NOT NULL, dept_name varchar(20),
Grade varchar(2), salary numeric(8,2));

PRIMARY KEY (SID, CNO, Year));

primary key defined only after defining all the columns

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ CONSTSRAINTS - UNIQUE
unique ( A1, A2, …, Am)
The unique specification states that the attributes A1, A2, … Am form a candidate key.
Candidate keys are permitted to be null (in contrast to primary keys).

Example:
CREATE TABLE Student(
ID varchar(5) PRIMARY KEY,
Name Varchar(10),
Phone numeric(10) UNIQUE,
tot_credit numeric(2) );

Phone is implemented with Column level UNIQUE Constraints.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ CONSTSRAINTS - UNIQUE
Area_code & Phone_Num is to be implemented as Table-level Constraint.

Example:
Example:
CREATE TABLE BsnL_Customer (
CREATE TABLE Student(
Customer_ID numeric(7) PRIMARY KEY,
ID varchar(5) PRIMARY KEY,
Name varchar(10) NOT NULL,
Name Varchar(10),
Address varchar(20),
Phone numeric(10) UNIQUE,
Area_Code numeric(4),
Phone_Num numeric(6), tot_credit numeric(2) );
UNIQUE(Area_Code , Phone_Num ) );

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ I N S E RT

INSERT INTO emp VALUES(102,'rajesh','btech',null,'[email protected]','developer',null);

INSERT INTO emp VALUES

(102,'rajesh','btech',null,'[email protected]','developer',null),
(103,'rajesh','btech',null,'[email protected]','developer',null);

INSERT INTO emp (empcode, name, salary)

VALUES(101,'rajesh',120.00);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C R E AT E

CREATE TABLE prj (

Multiple Constraints
prjid varchar(3),
create table emp (
prj_name varchar(10),
name varchar(10) unique not null,
start_date date, Age int,
Empid varchar primary key);
end_date date);

INSERT INTO prj VALUES

('p1','spyder','2020-2-22','2022-10-11'); yyyy-mm-dd

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ SELECT
EMP
Select column_name Attribute Datatype size Constraint
From table_name RegNo numeric 3 Primary key
Where conditions; Name Varchar 10 not null

Faculty_Advisor F.key referring Faculty

Select * from Emp;

Select Name, faculty_advisor

from Emp
where regNo = ‘101’;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ CONSTSRAINTS - FOREIGN KEY

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ CONSTSRAINTS - FOREIGN KEY
foreign key (Ak1 , Ak2, . . . , Akn ) references s: foreign key in a relation r specification says that values of
attributes (Ak1 , Ak2, . . . , Akn ) for any tuple in relation r must correspond to values of primary key attributes of
some tuple in relation s.

Enrollment can be done to only to those who are student, therefore SID column in Enrollment can have only values
which are present in SID in Student table → SID in Enrollment as Foreign key referencing Students

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 Referential Integrity Constraint
Ensures that a value that appears in one relation for a given set of attributes also appears for a
certain set of attributes in another relation.
Example: If “S101” is a Student Id appearing in one of the tuples in the Enrollment relation, then
there exists a tuple in the Students relation for “S101”.
Let A be a set of attributes. Let R and S be two relations that contain attributes A and
where A is the primary key of S. A is said to be a foreign key of R if for any values of A
appearing in R these values also appear in S.

Note: In relation R, attribute A can’t contain a value which is not existing in attribute A of relation S.
In the example above , at this instance A in R can’t have a value a6 or a7 etc.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ CONSTSRAINTS - FOREIGN KEY
Create Parent Tables First.
CREATE TABLE Students (SID varchar (9) PRIMARY KEY , Name varchar(25) not null, Age
integer);

CREATE TABLE Courses (CID varchar (9) PRIMARY KEY , C_Name varchar(25) not null,
Credits numeric(2), Duration numeric(2));
After Creating Parent Table/s, create Child tables
CREATE TABLE Enrollment
( SID varchar (9) NOT NULL,
CNo varchar (9),
FOREIGN KEY (sid) REFERENCES students(sid),
FOREIGN KEY (Cno) References Courses(CID),
Year numeric (2) not null,
Grade varchar (2), Primary key (SID, CNO, Year) );

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ CONSTSRAINTS - FOREIGN KEY

Parent(Master) Table:
CREATE TABLE Items( Item_name varchar(10), Comp_name varchar(10),
Price numeric(3),
PRIMARY KEY (Item_name, Comp_name) );

Child(Detail) Table
CREATE TABLE Transactions( It_name varchar(10), Comp_name varchar(10),
Tr_Date date, Qty numeric(3),
FOREIGN KEY(It_name, Comp_name) REFERENCES Items(Item_name,Comp_name));

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ CONSTSRAINTS - FOREIGN KEY
Properties:
A Foreign key can contain-
 Only values present in the corresponding Parent Column.
 NULL values, provided Foreign key is not defined with additional NOT NULL constraints.
Foreign key column can reference to any column (parent column) whose data type, width
is same and Parent column has to be defined with Primary key or Unique constraint.
A Parent Column has to exist before creation of Child Column with Foreign key
Constraint.

Restrictions: Any UPDATE/INSERT/DELETE of Records , ALTER or DROP Operation that

Violates any of the above properties is restricted and hence Rejected by the Database System.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..FOREIGN KEY – INSERT Restrictions

INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(105,’Rajesh’,’D4’); is Rejected

To execute above INSERT command, execute in following Order

INSERT INTO DEPT VALUES(‘D4’,’Physics’,125678);
Note-Parent record with parent column value D4 is added to DEPARTMENT and now we can add child
Employee record with D4(child column value) department
INSERT INTO EMP VALUES(105,’Rajesh’,’D4’); Now it is Accepted.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SOME EXERCISES
• Create the following tables with constraints.

EMP FACULTY
Attribute Datatype size Constraint
Attribute Datatype size Constraint
RegNo numeric 3 Primary key Faculty_ID numeric 3 Primary Key
Name Varchar 10 not null Name Varchar 10 not null
References with
Faculty_Advisor F.key referring Faculty Dept_ID Dept

DEPT

Attribute Datatypesize Constraint

DeptID varchar 3 Unique
Dname Varchar 10 Unique
HOD Varchar 10 Not null

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ SELECT
EMP
Select e.name, f.name Attribute Datatype size Constraint

from Emp as e RegNo numeric 3 Primary key

Natural join Faculty as f Name Varchar 10 not null

where e.regNo = ‘101’; Faculty_Advisor F.key referring Faculty

FACULTY
Attribute Datatype size Constraint
Faculty_ID numeric 3 Primary Key
Name Varchar 10 not null
References with
Dept_ID Dept

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - DEFAULT
The DEFAULT constraint is used to provide a default value for a column.
Example:
CREATE TABLE Persons (
ID numeric(3) NOT NULL,
LastName varchar(10) NOT NULL,
FirstName varchar(10),
Age numeric(2),
City varchar(15) DEFAULT 'Manipal' );

INSERT INTO Persons(ID, Lastname) values(100,'AAA');

Inserts value to ID=100 , Lastname=AAA , FirstName= NULL , Age=NULL & City takes value
Manipal automatically even though City value is not specified in the INSERT command.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - NAMING
• If user do not specifies Constraint Name while defining Constraints, System itself gives a name.
• System uses auto generate method to give unique constraints names (SYS_C0003461 etc.)
• All constraint names have to be unique.
• In case of constraint violation, it is easy to user to track the constraint if user defined constraint name is
given.
• Use CONSTRAINT name_of_constraint along with constraint definition in CRETAE or ALTER table.

* constraint definition – maybe Primary key, Foreign key, Check, Unique, Not Null etc.
Example:
CREATE TABLE table_name(
column_name1 datatype(size), column_name2 datatype(size) …. ,

CONSTRAINT name_of_constraint constraint definition ,);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Drop

The DROP TABLE statement allows you to remove or delete a table from the database.

DROP DATABASE to delete database.

Syntax:

DROP TABLE tablename;

DROP DATABASE databasename;

Example: DROP TABLE Emp;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs
The ALTER TABLE statement is used to add, modify, or drop/delete columns/constraints in a table.
The SQL ALTER TABLE statement is also used to rename a table.

Adding Column
Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name ADD (column_name1 column-definition,

column_name1 column-definition,…..) ;

Example: Add column Salary and Phone to Emp table.

ALTER TABLE Emp ADD (Salary numeric(7), Phone numeric(10));

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs

AFTER keyword to specify exact location to add new column.

Adding Column at Specific Location

Syntax:

ALTER TABLE table_name

ADD column_name1 column-definition after column_name2;

Example: Add column Salary and Phone to Emp table.

ALTER TABLE Emp ADD Salary numeric(7) after Phone;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs

Modifying Column datatype

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
MODIFY column column_name column_type;

Example: Modify column Name in Emp table.

ALTER TABLE Emp MODIFY column Name VARCHAR(25);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs

DROP a Column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP column_name;

Example: Add column Name to Emp table.

ALTER TABLE Emp

DROP COLUMN Name;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs

RENAME a Table

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME TO New_table_name;

Example: Add column Salary to Emp table.

ALTER TABLE Emp

RENAME TO Employee;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs

RENAME a Column

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME COLUMN old_column_name TO New_column_name;

Example: Rename column Salary to Emp_salary.

ALTER TABLE Emp

RENAME COLUMN salary TO emp_Salary;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs
Adding UNIQUE Constraint to a column

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name UNIQUE( column1,column2,..columnn ) );

Example: Add constraint to Students table make Phone column as Unique.

ALTER TABLE Student

ADD CONSTRAINT uniq_phone UNIQUE(Phone);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs

Removing Constraints
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
DROP CONSTRAINT constraint_name ;

Example: Assume that Person(Fname, Lname, Address) table is already created with (Fname,LName) as
Primary Key. Also a table Customer(Cust_Id, Cust_FName, Cust_Lname,Credits) is also created already.

• Now we want to remove foreign key constraint from (Cust_FName,Cust_Lname).

ALTER TABLE Customer

DROP CONSTRAINT Cust_FLName_FK;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs
Renaming Constraints
Enables to rename any currently existing constraint for a table.
New constraint name must not conflict with any existing constraint names for a user.
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
RENAME CONSTRAINT old_constraint_name TO new_constraint_name;

Example: Assume that Person(Fname, Lname, Address,Phone) table is already created with
(Fname,LName) as Primary Key and Unique constraint on Phone with constraint name –
‘PHONE_UNQ’. Rename the PHONE_UNQ to UNIQUE_PHONE.

ALTER TABLE Person

RENAME CONSTRAINT PHONE_UNQ TO UNIQUE_PHONE;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs
Adding PRIMARY KEY Constraint to a column

Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name PRIMARY KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n) ;

Example: Assume that Person(Fname, Lname, Address) table is already created. Add constraint to
Person table to make (FName,LName) column as Primary Key.
ALTER TABLE Person
ADD CONSTRAINT F_L_Name_PK PRIMARY KEY (FName, LName);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs
Adding FOREIGN KEY Constraint to a column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name
FOREIGN KEY (column1, column2, ... column_n)
REFERENCES parent_table (column1, column2, ... column_n);
Example: Assume that Person(Fname, Lname, Address) table is already created with (Fname, LName) as
Primary Key. Also a table Customer(Cust_Id, Cust_FName,Cust_Lname,Credits) is also created already. Now we
want to make (Cust_FName,Cust_Lname) as foreign key referencing Person

ALTER TABLE Customer

ADD CONSTRAINT C_FLName_FK FOREIGN KEY(Cust_FName, Cust_Lname) REFERENCES Person;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ COMMENT

Comments don’t execute in mysql

-- for single line comment

/* */ for multi-line comments;

insert into s11 values

/*('s11','s1',11),*/ -- drop table courses;
('s31','s3',13),*/ insert into s11 values('s221','s2',12);
('s42','s4',14);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S – CHECK In
check (P) where P is a predicate(condition)

Example: ensure that Type of Courses offered by a Department is any one of MCA, MTech, MS.

CREATE TABLE Department (

Department_name varchar (8) PRIMARY KEY,
Course_Type varchar (8) CHECK( Course_Type IN( 'MCA ',' MTech ',' BTech', 'MS')),
Numb_of_Semester numeric(1),
In_take_stud_num numeric(2),
Department_Phone numeric(10) NOT NULL UNIQUE );
Note: IN works like a Belongs to a set Operator
User_enetred_value ϵ { 'MCA ',' MTech ',' BTech', 'MS' }

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S – CHECK BETWEEN
Create table Instructor and ensure that Salary column accepts only values in the range 50000 to
200000 ( both upper and lower bound values are valid).

CREATE TABLE instructor (

ID varchar(5),
name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2) CHECK( Salary>=50000 AND Salary<=200000)
);

CREATE TABLE instructor (

ID varchar(5),
name varchar(20),
salary numeric(8,2) CHECK( Salary BETWEEN 50000 AND 200000)
);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S - Alter Table Constructs
Adding CHECK Constraint to a column
Syntax:
ALTER TABLE table_name
ADD CONSTRAINT constraint_name CHECK( p ) );
Where p - predicate

Example: Add constraint to Students table to check Mark2 column takes values only in
the range 0 to 100.

ALTER TABLE Student

ADD CONSTRAINT check_mark_range
CHECK (mark2>=0 AND mark2<=100);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S – CHECK LIKE %

% symbol is a wildcard character which ignores zero or any numeric of characters.

Example:

Create a table CANDIDATES(CandtID, Name, Branch) appearing for entrance exam at MIT. Candidate
numbers must be Unique & every candidate numeric must start with MIT.

CREATE TABLE CANDIDATE(

CandtId varchar(7) PRIMARY KEY CHECK (CandtId LIKE 'MIT%’),

Name varchar(10),

Branch varchar(10));

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S – CHECK LIKE %
Create a table CANDIDATES(CandtID, Name, Branch) appearing for entrance exam at MIT. Candidate
numbers must be Unique & every candidate numeric must start with MIT.

CREATE TABLE CANDIDATE(

CandtId varchar(7) PRIMARY KEY CHECK (CandtId LIKE 'MIT%’),
Name varchar(10),
Branch varchar(10));

INSERT INTO CANDIDATE VALUES('MIT1020', 'Raghu', 'CompSc’); accepted

INSERT INTO CANDIDATE VALUES('MIT', 'Raghu', 'CompSc’); accepted

INSERT INTO CANDIDATE VALUES(‘ABC1021', ‘Raj', 'CompSc’); rejected

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S – CHECK LIKE _

_ is a wildcard character which ignores 1 character(accepts exactly one any character).

Example:

Create a table PRODUCT(ProdID, Name, Price) to store products of JOI company. Product numbers must be of
the form JOI- followed by any 5 characters(use 5 under score character).

CREATE TABLE PRODUCT(

ProdID varchar(9) PRIMARY KEY CHECK (ProdID LIKE 'JOI-_____’),

Name varchar(10),

Price numeric(5));

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S – CHECK LIKE _

Create a table PRODUCT(ProdID, Name, Price) to store products of JOI company. Product numbers must be
of the form JOI- followed by any 5 characters(use 5 under score character).

CREATE TABLE PRODUCT(

ProdID varchar(9) PRIMARY KEY CHECK (ProdID LIKE 'JOI-_____’),
Name varchar(10),
Price numeric(5));

INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES('JOI-22232’, ’Mobile’,3344);; accepted.

INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES('JOI-’,’S.WATCH’,2344); rejected

INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES('JOI-222’,’Tab’,7344); rejected

INSERT INTO PRODUCT VALUES('JOI-222456’,’ROUTER’,9344); rejected

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 S Q L _ C O N S T S R A I N T S – CHECK UPPER()
Example:

Table CANDIDATES(CandtID, Name, Branch) for appearing entrance exam at MIT. Candidate
numbers must be Unique & every candidate numeric must start with MIT. User must enter Branch in
Capital letters only.
CREATE TABLE CANDIDATE(
CandtId varchar(7) PRIMARY KEY CHECK (CandtId LIKE 'MIT%’),
Name varchar(10),
Branch varchar(10) CHECK(Branch=UPPER(Branch)));
INSERT INTO CANDIDATE VALUES('MIT1021', 'Raghu', 'COMP.SC’); accepted

If user enters Branch as –’Comp.Sc’ , it is rejected with constraint error message.

INSERT INTO CANDIDATE VALUES('MIT1021', 'Raj', 'Comp Sc'); rejected

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 EXAMPLE Create following tables with constraint names.

CUSTOMER
Attribute Datatype size Constraint Constraint Name
CustNo numeric 3 Primary key Pkey_Cust_numeric
Unique , Can't UNQ_Phone;
Phone numeric 10 be Null Ph_NoNULL
email varchar 20 Unique
City varchar 20 BNG/MUB/CHN Valid_City

ACCOUNT

Attribute Datatype size Constraint Constraint Name

Accno numeric 3 Priamry key
Pkey_AccNo
CustNo Primary key; Foreign Key
Balance numeric 7 >1000 Min_Balance

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 EXAMPLE
Tables created without constraint Name:

CREATE TABLE Organization(

Dept_name varchar (8) PRIMARY KEY,

Head varchar(10));

CREATE TABLE Department (

Dname varchar (8) PRIMARY KEY,

Course_Type varchar (8) CHECK( Course_Type IN( 'MCA','MTech' ,'BTech','MS')),

Numb_of_Sem numeric(1) CHECK (Numb_of_Sem BETWEEN 1 AND 8),

In_take_stud numeric(2),

Dep_Phone numeric(10) NOT NULL UNIQUE );

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..EXAMPLE

Note the constraint name and error numbers displayed when data being inserted violates constraint

INSERT INTO organization VALUES('DCSA’,’KAK');

INSERT INTO Department VALUES(‘DCSA','mca',4,66,78899);

ORA-02290: check constraint (DSE123.SYS_C0010498) violated

INSERT INTO Department VALUES(‘DCSA','MCA',9,66,78899);

ORA-02290: check constraint (DSE123.SYS_C0010499) violated

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 EXAMPLE

• CREATE TABLE Organization(

Dept_name varchar (8) CONSTRAINT Dept_PK PRIMARY KEY,

Head varchar(10));

• CREATE TABLE Department (

Dname varchar (8) CONSTRAINT Dname_PK PRIMARY KEY,

Course_Type varchar (8) CONSTRAINT Course_Chk_Type CHECK( Course_Type IN( 'MCA','MTech ', 'BTech', 'MS')),

Numb_of_Sem numeric(1) CONSTRAINT Sem_Num CHECK(Numb_of_Sem BETWEEN 1 AND 8),

In_take_stud numeric(2),

Dep_Phone numeric(10) CONSTRAINT NoNul NOT NULL CONSTRAINT Unq_Ph UNIQUE);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..EXAMPLE

Note the constraint name displayed when data being inserted violates constraint

INSERT INTO organization VALUES(‘DCSA’,’KAK');

INSERT INTO Department VALUES(‘DCSA','mca',4,66,78899);

ORA-02290: check constraint (MCA2020.COURSE_CHK_TYPE) violated

INSERT INTO Department VALUES(‘DCSA','MCA',9,66,78899);

ORA-02290: check constraint (MCA2020.SEM_NUM) violated

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 INSERT
Inserts a new record at the end of given table.

Syntax-
INSERT INTO table_name VALUES (value1,value2,….)

Example: Insert a record to a table Course(Course_id, title, Dept_Name, Credits)

insert into course

values (’CS-437’, ’Database Systems’, ’Comp. Sci.’, 4);
There will be 1 to 1 mapping between values given and order in which columns are created in relation
Course.
1st value ‘CS-437’ is mapped to column Course_id,
2nd value ‘Database Systems’ is mapped to column title and so on.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..INSERT
Inserting values to fewer columns

Syntax-
INSERT INTO table_name(column1,column2,..) VALUES (value1,value2,….)

Example: Insert a record into Course table having values to Course_id, Dept_Name columns only.
Course(Course_id, title, Dept_Name, Credits)

insert into course (course_id,dept_name) values (’CS-438’, ’Comp. Sci.’);

It is equivalent to –
insert into course values (’CS-438’, NULL, ’Comp. Sci.’, NULL);

Note: NULL is not same as ‘NULL’

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..INSERT (DATE VALUE)
Example: Assume we have a table STUD (Rno, Name, Birth_Date)
Insert a record into STUD table.

INSERT INTO Stud VALUES(19011102, ‘Ajay’, TO_DATE(‘21-09-2001’,’DD-MM-YYYY’));

INSERT INTO Stud VALUES(19011102, 'Ajay', STR_TO_DATE('06-01-2019', '%d-%m-%Y'));

TO_DATE () is a oracle inbuilt function, which converts given date value (in the form character
value) into date type.
More details about formats we will discuss latter.
Date has a default format set.
Default format is : DD-MON-YY , then you can enter data as below without TO_DATE()
Example:
INSERT INTO Stud VALUES(19011103, ‘Aman’, ‘2001-2-10’);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 INSERT INTO… SELECT .. FROM…
• Some time instead of giving data for every tuple in the INSERT INTO command, we can insert tuples
on the basis of the result of a query.
• Using SELECT statement as sub query in the INSERT INTO, we can select (copy) some set of records
from a relation(source) and insert into another relation(Destination).
• Note that we need to take care of datatype and size compatibility.

STUD Rollno Name Course Dept MARKS Rno Course Marks Attendanc
101 Ajit Algorithms CS e
102 Ravi IoT IT

103 Anish Algorithms MCA

101 Ram ML MCA

Example: Insert Rollno and course information of students enrolled to MCA department into MARKS relation.

INSERT INTO MARKS(RNo, Course) SELECT Rollno, Course FROM STUD WHERE Dept=‘MCA’;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..INSERT
Inserting multiple records
Syntax-
INSERT INTO table1(column1,column2,..) SELECT column1,column2,.. FROM table2;

Example: Consider the tables Student(Id, Name, D_name, tot_cred) and Instructor(Id, Name,
Dept_name, Salary). Add all instructors to the student relation with tot_creds set to 0
insert into student
select ID, name, dept_name, 0
from instructor;
OR
insert into student(ID,name,D_name)
select ID, name, dept_name
from instructor;
The select from where statement is evaluated fully before any of its results are inserted into the relation

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 UPDATE

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 UPDATE

To modify any column/s value in a already existing record.

Syntax:
UPDATE table_name
SET column1=value1,column2=value2,…
WHERE condition involving any of column/s in the table ;

Example: Consider the table Instructor(Id, Name, Dept_name, Salary). Increase the salary of
instructor with ID I201 by 10%.

UPDATE Instructor SET Salary = Salary + Salary*0.1 WHERE Id=‘I201’;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..UPDATE
• Example: Consider the table Instructor(Id, Name, Dept_name, Salary). Increase salaries of
instructors whose salary is over $100,000 by 3%, and all others receive a 5% raise
• Write two update statements:

UPDATE instructor
SET salary = salary * 1.03
WHERE salary > 100000;

UPDATE instructor
SET salary = salary * 1.05
WHERE salary <= 100000;

• The order is important

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..UPDATE –USING CASE
• Same query(previous slide) as before but with case statement
UPDATE instructor
SET salary = CASE
WHEN salary <= 100000 THEN salary * 1.05
ELSE salary * 1.03
END;

Assume the table Emp(Empno, ename, deptnosal)

UPDATE emp SET sal=CASE
WHEN sal<=3000 THEN sal*1.1
WHEN sal<=5000 THEN sal*1.05
ELSE sal*1
END;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 DELETE

Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;
Example:
• Delete all instructors
delete from instructor

• Delete all instructors from the Finance department

delete from instructor
where dept_name= ’Finance’;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..DELETE
Syntax:
DELETE FROM table_name WHERE condition;

Note- Condition is involving some sub-query

Example:

• Delete all tuples in the instructor relation for those instructors associated with a department
located in the ‘Watson’ building.

Delete from instructor

where dept_name in (select dept_name
from department
where building = ’Watson’);

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN
• MySQL JOINS are used with SELECT statement.
• used to retrieve data from multiple tables (performed to fetch records from two or more tables).

• Types of MySQL joins:

o INNER JOIN (or simple join)
o OUTER JOIN
o LEFT OUTER JOIN (or LEFT JOIN)
o RIGHT OUTER JOIN (or RIGHT JOIN)
o CROSS JOIN

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN
INNER JOIN
• Return rows from both tables that satisfy the given condition.
• return all rows from multiple tables where the join condition is satisfied.
• most common type of join.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN
SELECT first_name, last_name, title
FROM members, movies
WHERE movies.id = members.movie_id;

SELECT first_name, last_name, title

FROM members as A
INNER JOIN movies as B
ON B.id = A.movie_id;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN
SELECT first_name, last_name, title
FROM members as A
INNER JOIN movies as B
ON B.id = A.movie_id;

SELECT first_name, last_name, title

FROM members
INNER JOIN movies
using (movie_id); // SAME column Names

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN
INNER JOIN
SELECT Orders.OrderID, Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderDate
FROM Orders
INNER JOIN Customers ON Orders.CustomerID = Customers.CustomerID;

OrderID CustomerID OrderDate

10308 2 1996-09-18
10309 37 1996-09-19
10310 77 1996-09-20

CustomerID CustomerName ContactName Country

1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y helados Ana Trujillo Mexico
3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mexico

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN
OUTER / LEFT JOIN
• Return rows from right table that satisfy the given condition; else NULL
• return all rows from left tables irrespective of join condition being satisfied.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN

SELECT A.`title` , B.`first_name` , B.`last_name`

FROM `movies` AS A
LEFT JOIN `members` AS B
ON B.`movie_id` = A.`id`

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1
OUTER / LEFT JOIN
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
LEFT JOIN Orders ON Customers.CustomerID = Orders.CustomerID
ORDER BY Customers.CustomerName;

Customer CustomerName ContactName Address City PostalCode Country

ID
1 Alfreds Futterkiste Maria Anders Obere Str. 57 Berlin 12209 Germany
2 Ana Trujillo Emparedados y Ana Trujillo Avda. de la Constitución México D.F. 05021 Mexico
helados 2222
3 Antonio Moreno Taquería Antonio Moreno Mataderos 2312 México D.F. 05023 Mexico

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN
OUTER / RIGHT JOIN
• Return rows from left table that satisfy the given condition; else NULL
• return all rows from right tables irrespective of join condition being satisfied.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN

SELECT A.`first_name` , A.`last_name`, B.`title`

FROM `members` AS A
RIGHT JOIN `movies` AS B
ON A.`movie_id` = B.`id`

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN
OUTER / RIGHT JOIN

SELECT Orders.OrderID, Employees.LastName, Employees.FirstName

FROM Orders
RIGHT JOIN Employees ON Orders.EmployeeID = Employees.EmployeeID
ORDER BY Orders.OrderID;

EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3 1 Davolio Nancy 12/8/1968 EmpID1.pic
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1 2 Fuller Andrew 2/19/1952 EmpID2.pic
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2
3 Leverling Janet 8/30/1963 EmpID3.pic

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN
CROSS JOIN
• Return all rows from both tables irrespective of join condition being satisfied.
• Duplicate data in either columns to match the display.
• simplest form of JOINs

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN

SELECT * FROM `movies`

CROSS JOIN `members`

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ JOIN
CROSS JOIN

SELECT Customers.CustomerName, Orders.OrderID

FROM Customers
CROSS JOIN Orders;

EmployeeID LastName FirstName BirthDate Photo

OrderID CustomerID EmployeeID OrderDate ShipperID
10308 2 7 1996-09-18 3 1 Davolio Nancy 12/8/1968 EmpID1.pic
10309 37 3 1996-09-19 1 2 Fuller Andrew 2/19/1952 EmpID2.pic
10310 77 8 1996-09-20 2
3 Leverling Janet 8/30/1963 EmpID3.pic

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ SELECT FUNCTIONS
CREATE TABLE Stud(
CandtId varchar(9) PRIMARY KEY, • select count(Mark) from Stud;
Name varchar(10),
• select sum(Mark) from Stud;
Mark int);

• select count(Mark) from Stud where

• INSERT INTO Stud VALUES(1, 'A', 10); CandtId between 1 and 3;
• INSERT INTO Stud VALUES(2, 'b', 20);
• INSERT INTO Stud VALUES(3, 'c', 30); • select sum(Mark) from Stud where

• INSERT INTO Stud VALUES(4, 'd', 40); CandtId between 3 and 4;

• INSERT INTO Stud VALUES(5, 'e', 50);

• select * from Stud;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ SELECT FUNCTIONS
Numeric/Math Functions
AVG, COUNT, MAX, MIN, SQRT, SUM
LOG, SIN, COS, TAN

String Functions
LEFT, RIGHT
LENGTH / CHAR_LENGTH / CHARACTER_LENGTH
CONCAT, REPLACE, REVERSE
LOWER, UPPER

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ SELECT FUNCTIONS

select lower(name) from Stud;

select upper(name) from Stud;

select left(name,2) from Stud;

select right(name,2) from Stud;

select concat(firstname, lastname) from Stud;

select * from Stud where Name like ‘%An%’;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 SQL _ ORDER BY
• used to sort the result-set in ascending or descending order.
• ascending order by default

SELECT column1, column2, ...

FROM table_name
SELECT * FROM Customers
ORDER BY column1, column2, ... ASC|DESC; ORDER BY Country ASC, CustomerName DESC;

SELECT * FROM Customers

ORDER BY Country;

select * from Stud order by mark desc;

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..FOREIGN KEY- UPDATE/DELETE Restrictions

UPDATE EMP SET DEPTNO=‘D5’ WHERE EMPNO=100; is Rejected.

UPDATE EMP SET DEPTNO=‘D3’ WHERE EMPNO=100; is Accepted.
DELETE FROM DEPARTMENT WHERE DNO=‘D1’ is Rejected

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..FOREIGN KEY- UPDATE/DELETE Restrictions

To execute previous DELETE command, execute in following Order

1st Delete from Child Table(EMP) and then 2nd Delete from Parent(DEPARTMENT)
This Deletion process can be automated by using Clause ON DELETE CASCADE / ON DELETE
SET NULL while creating Child Table
Similarly Altering Structure of DNO or Dropping DNO is Rejected.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..FOREIGN KEY- ON DELETE CASCADE/ON DELETE SET NULL
A foreign key with cascade delete means that if a record in parent table is deleted, then corresponding
records in child table will automatically be deleted (cascade delete).
Parent(Master) Table:
CREATE TABLE Department

( Dno varchar(2) PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(10),Budget numeric(9) );

Child(Detail) Table

CREATE TABLE Emp (Empno numeric(3) PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(10),

Deptno varchar(2) REFERENCES Department ON DELETE CASCADE);

Any Delete operation on Parent table Department first deletes dependent records in
EMP(child) table automatically.
Thus Delete operation restriction on Foreign key constraint is get resolved automatically.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..FOREIGN KEY- ON DELETE CASCADE/ON DELETE SET NULL
A foreign key with “ON DELETE SET NULL " means that if a record in parent table is deleted,
then corresponding records in child table will have foreign key fields set to null.
Records in child table will not be deleted.
Parent(Master) Table:
CREATE TABLE Department

(Dno varchar(2) PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(10),Budget numeric(9));

Child(Detail) Table

CREATE TABLE Emp( Empno numeric(3) PRIMARY KEY, Name varchar(10),

Deptno varchar(2) REFERENCES Department ON DELETE SET NULL );

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 ..FOREIGN KEY- ON DELETE CASCADE/ON DELETE SET NULL

When a record is deleted from Department(Parent) table it will not delete dependent
records in the EMP(child) table.

Instead it puts NULL values to corresponding foreign key column/s.

Thus removes dependency of corresponding records in child table on table records being
deleted in the Parent table.

Thus Delete operation restriction on Foreign key is get resolved automatically.

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC

 END

SSS Shameem May/Apr-2022 MSc_BA, DoC