ENGI 8690 / 9114: Reservoir Engineering

Chapter 1: Reservoir Engineering Fundamentals

by

Amer Aborig
Process Engineering
Memorial University of Newfoundland

[email protected]
Learning Objective
Be familiar with petroleum reservoir classification

Understanding the phase behavior

Know the rock and fluid properties

Know the basic equation of fluid flow through porous media, Darcy’s Law

Know the Radial Diffusivity Equation and its application at different reservoir condition

2
Classification Of Reservoirs And Reservoir Fluids

Petroleum reservoirs are broadly classified as oil or gas reservoirs.

These broad classifications are further subdivided depending on:

• The composition of the reservoir hydrocarbon mixture

• Initial reservoir pressure and temperature
• Pressure and temperature of the surface production

The conditions under which these phases exist are a matter of considerable practical
importance.

3
Pressure-Temperature Diagram
These multicomponent pressure-temperature
diagrams are essentially used to:

• Classify reservoirs
• Classify the naturally occurring hydrocarbon
systems
• Describe the phase behavior of the reservoir
fluid

4
Pressure-Temperature Diagram
Cricondentherm (Tct)—The Cricondentherm is defined as the maximum temperature above
which liquid cannot be formed regardless of pressure . The corresponding pressure is termed
the Cricondentherm pressure pc

Cricondenbar (pcb)—The Cricondenbar is the maximum pressure above which no gas can be
formed regardless of temperature. The corresponding temperature is called the Cricondenbar
temperature Tcb

Critical point—The critical point for a multicomponent mixture is referred to as the state of
pressure and temperature at which all intensive properties of the gas and liquid phases are equal.
At the critical point, the corresponding pressure and temperature are called the critical pressure
pc and critical temperature Tc of the mixture.

5
Pressure-Temperature Diagram
Phase envelope (two-phase region)—The region enclosed by the bubble-point curve and the dew-
point curve, wherein gas and liquid coexist in equilibrium, is identified as the phase envelope of the
hydrocarbon system.

Quality lines—The dashed lines within the phase diagram are called quality lines. They describe
the pressure and temperature conditions for equal volumes of liquids. Note that the quality lines
converge at the critical point.

Bubble-point curve—The bubble-point curve is defined as the line separating the liquid-phase
region from the two-phase region.

Dew-point curve—The dew-point curve is defined as the line separating the vapor-phase region
from the two-phase region

6
Reservoir Classification
In general, reservoirs are conveniently classified on the basis of the location of the point
representing the initial reservoir pressure pi and temperature T with respect to the pressure-
temperature diagram of the reservoir fluid. Accordingly, reservoirs can be classified into basically
two types.

These are:
Oil reservoirs—If the reservoir temperature T is less than the critical temperature Tc of the
reservoir fluid, the reservoir is classified as an oil reservoir

Gas reservoirs—If the reservoir temperature is greater than the critical temperature of the
hydrocarbon fluid, the reservoir is considered a gas reservoir

7
Oil Reservoirs
Depending upon initial reservoir pressure pi, oil reservoirs can be sub-classified into the following
categories:

1. Undersaturated oil reservoir. If the initial reservoir pressure pi is greater than the bubble-point
pressure pb of the reservoir fluid, the reservoir is labeled an undersaturated
oil reservoir.

2. Saturated oil reservoir. When the initial reservoir pressure is equal to the bubble-point pressure
of the reservoir fluid, the reservoir is called a saturated oil reservoir.

3. Gas-cap reservoir. If the initial reservoir pressure is below the bubble point pressure of the
reservoir fluid, the reservoir is termed a gas-cap or two-phase reservoir, in which the gas or vapor
phase is underlain by an oil phase.

8
Crude oils

Crude oils cover a wide range in physical properties and chemical compositions, and it is often
important to be able to group them into broad categories of related oils.

In general, crude oils are commonly classified into the following types:
• Ordinary black oil
• Low-shrinkage crude oil
• High-shrinkage (volatile) crude oil

9
Ordinary black oils

GOR between 200 and 700 scf/STB

oil gravities of 15° to 40° API.

The stock tank oil is usually brown to dark green in

color

10
Low-
Low-shrinkage oil

Oil formation volume factor less than 1.2 bbl/STB

Gas-oil ratio less than 200 scf/STB
Oil gravity less than 35° API
Black or deeply colored
Substantial liquid recovery at separator conditions

11
Volatile crude oil

• Oil formation volume factor less than 2 bbl/STB

• Gas-oil ratios between 2,000 and 3,200 scf/STB
• Oil gravities between 45° and 55° API

12
Gas Reservoirs

If the reservoir temperature is above the critical temperature of the hydrocarbon system, the
reservoir is classified as a natural gas reservoir. On the basis of their phase diagrams and the
prevailing reservoir conditions, natural gases can be classified into four categories:

• Retrograde gas-condensate
• Wet gas
• Dry gas

13
Retrograde gas-
gas-condensate reservoir

Gas-oil ratios between 8,000 and 70,000 scf/STB

Condensate gravity above 50° API

Stock-tank liquid is usually water-white or

slightly colored

14
Wet-
Wet-gas reservoir

As the produced gas flows to the surface, however, the

pressure and temperature of the gas will decline.

If the gas enters the two-phase region, a liquid phase

will condense out of the gas and be produced from the
surface separators.

• Gas oil ratios between 60,000 and 100,000 scf/STB

• Stock-tank oil gravity above 60° API
• Liquid is water-white in color
• Separator conditions, i.e., separator pressure and
temperature, lie within the two-phase region

15
Dry-
Dry-gas reservoir

The hydrocarbon mixture exists as a gas both in

the reservoir and in the surface facilities

Usually a system having a gas-oil ratio greater

than 100,000 scf/STB is considered to be a
dry gas

16
Properties of Natural Gases
Knowledge of pressure-volume-temperature (PVT) relationships and other physical and
chemical properties of gases is essential for solving problems in natural gas reservoir
engineering.

These properties include: • Specific volume, v

• Apparent molecular weight, Ma • Isothermal gas compressibility coefficient, cg
• Specific gravity, Ɣg • Gas formation volume factor, Bg
• Compressibility factor, z • Gas expansion factor, Eg
• Density, ρg • Viscosity, µg

17
Behavior Of Ideal Gases
This relationship for perfect gases is called the ideal gas law and is expressed mathematically by
the following equation

Density:

18
Apparent Molecular Weight Standard Volume

If yi represents the mole fraction of the i-th component

in a gas mixture, the apparent molecular weight is
defined mathematically by the following equation

19
Density Specific Volume

Specific Gravity

20
Exercise 1.1
A gas well is producing a natural gas with the following composition

Assuming an ideal gas behavior, calculate:

a. Apparent molecular weight
b. Specific gravity
c. Gas density at 2,000 psia and 150°F
d. Specific volume at 2,000 psia and 150°F

21
Exercise 1.1 Solution

a. Apparent molecular weight, Ma = 18.42 D. Specific volume

b. Specific gravity

c. Density

22
Behavior Of Real Gases
Real gases behave differently from ideal gases. The magnitude of deviations of real gases from
the conditions of the ideal gas law increases with increasing pressure and temperature and
varies widely with the composition of the gas.

In order to express a more exact relationship between the variables p, V, and T, a correction
factor called the gas compressibility factor, gas deviation factor, or simply the z-factor, must be
introduced

23
Z- Factor
Studies of the gas compressibility factors for natural gases of various compositions have shown
that compressibility factors can be generalized with sufficient accuracies for most engineering
purposes when they are expressed in terms of the following two dimensionless properties:

24
Exercise 1.2
A gas reservoir has the following gas composition: the initial reservoir pressure and temperature
are 3,000 psia and 180°F, respectively.

Calculate the gas compressibility factor under initial reservoir conditions.

25
 Compressibility Factors for Natural Gases as a
Function of Pseudo-reduced Pressure and
Temperature

Standing & Katz, Trans AIME, 1942 26

Exercise 1.2 Solution

Determine the z-factor from Standing Chart

z = 0.85

27
Compressibility Of Natural Gases

Differentiating the above equation with respect to pressure at constant temperature T gives

28
Gas Formation Volume Factor

The gas formation volume factor is used to relate the volume of gas, as measured at reservoir
conditions, to the volume of the gas as measured at standard conditions, i.e., 60°F and 14.7 psia.

Assuming that the standard conditions are represented by

psc =14.7 psia and Tsc = 520, the above expression can be
reduced to the following relationship:

29
Gas Expansion Factor
The reciprocal of the gas formation volume factor is called the gas expansion factor and is
designated by the symbol Eg

Gas Viscosity

The viscosity of a fluid is a measure of the internal fluid friction (resistance) to flow

30
Properties Of Crude Oil Systems
The physical and chemical properties of crude oils vary considerably and are dependent on the
concentration of the various types of hydrocarbons and minor constituents present.

An accurate description of physical properties of crude oils is of a considerable importance in the

fields of both applied and theoretical science and especially in the solution of petroleum reservoir
engineering problems

• Isothermal compressibility coefficient

• Fluid gravity
• Oil density
• Gas solubility
• Total formation volume factor
• Bubble-point pressure
• Crude oil viscosity
• Oil formation volume factor

31
Crude Oil Gravity
The crude oil density is defined as the mass of a unit volume of the crude at a specified pressure
and temperature. It is usually expressed in pounds per cubic foot.

The specific gravity of a crude oil is defined as the ratio of the density of the oil to that of water.
Both densities are measured at 60°F and atmospheric pressure

The API gravities of crude oils usually range from 47° API for
the lighter crude oils to 10° API for the heavier asphaltic
crude oils.

32
Gas Solubility
The gas solubility Rs is defined as the number of
standard cubic feet of gas that will dissolve in one
stock-tank barrel of crude oil at certain pressure
and temperature.

The solubility of a natural gas in a crude oil is a

strong function of the pressure, temperature, API
gravity, and gas gravity

33
Production of reservoir hydrocarbons above
bubble point

As the reservoir pressure drops gas does

not come out of solution until the bubble
point is reached, over this pressure range
therefore the gas in solution is
constant.

At the bubble point pressure,

corresponding to the reservoir
temperature, two phases are produced,
gas and oil.

The gas remaining in solution therefore

decreases.

34
 Production of reservoir hydrocarbons below
bubble point

Below the bubble point when produced gas at the

surface comes from two sources, the solution gas
associated with the oil entering the wellbore plus
free gas which has come out of solution in the
reservoir and migrated to the wellbore.

35
Bubble-
Bubble-Point Pressure

The bubble-point pressure Pb of a hydrocarbon system is defined as the highest pressure at which
a bubble of gas is first liberated from the oil.

This important property can be measured experimentally for a crude oil system by conducting a
constant-composition expansion test.

the bubble-point pressure is a strong function of gas solubility Rs, gas gravity Ɣg, oil gravity API,
and temperature T,

There are many correlation available in the literature to estimate the bubble point and other fluid properties.

36
Oil Formation Volume Factor
The oil formation volume factor, Bo, is defined as the ratio of
the volume of oil (plus the gas in solution) at the prevailing
reservoir temperature and pressure to the volume of oil at
standard conditions.

Bo is always greater than or equal to unity. The oil formation

volume factor can be expressed mathematically as:

Where

Bo = oil formation volume factor, bbl/STB

(Vo)p,T = volume of oil under reservoir pressure p and temperature T, bbl
(Vo)sc = volume of oil is measured under standard conditions, STB

37
Total Formation Volume Factor
The total formation volume factor, denoted Bt, is defined as the ratio of the total volume of the
hydrocarbon mixture (i.e., oil and gas, if present), at the prevailing pressure and temperature per
unit volume of the
stock-tank oil

Because naturally occurring hydrocarbon systems usually exist in either one or two phases, the
term two-phase formation volume factor has become synonymous with the total formation
volume.

where
Bt = total formation volume factor, bbl/STB
(Vo)p,T = volume of the oil at p and T, bbl
(Vg)p,T = volume of the liberated gas at p and T, bbl
(Vo)sc = volume of the oil at standard conditions, STB

38
Oil Compressibility

The volume changes of oil above the bubble point are very significant in the context of recovery of
undersaturated oil.

The oil formation volume factor variations above the bubble point reflect these changes but they
are more fundamentally embodied in the co-efficient of compressibility of the oil, or oil
compressibility.

The equation for oil compressibility is in terms of formation volume factors this equation yields

39
Oil Viscosity

The viscosity of oil at reservoir temperature and

pressure is less than the viscosity of the dead oil
because of the dissolved gases and the higher
temperature.

Different correlations are available to calculate

the oil viscosities.

40
Water Properties
Compressibility, Cw
The compressibility of water, as well as the compressibility of other liquids, will vary
slightly, according to the pressure and temperature imposed on the water.

Increasing the pressure will reduce the compressibility of water and increasing the
temperature will increase the compressibility of water.

The compressibility of fresh water at one atmosphere pressure and 60ºF is 3.3 x 10-6
bbl/bbl/psi.

Formation Volume Factor, Bw

Similar like oil formation volume factor. Typical values 1.01 bbl/STB, often ignored for
simplification.
41
PVT Analysis
Provides data for field evaluation and design
Reservoir parameters calculations
Well flow calculations
Surface facilities

Correlation between pressure and volume at reservoir temperature.

Various physical constants in reservoir calculations; viscosity, density, compressibility.
Effect of separator conditions on Bo & GOR. etc.
Chemical composition of the volatile components.

42
Fluid Sampling
Clearly the sample has to representative of the reservoir contents or the drainage area.
Desirable to take samples early in the life of the reservoir.
Either sub-surface or surface sampling.

Sub-Surface Sampling Surface Sampling

Can only be representative when Samples of oil and gas taken from
pressure at sampling point is above separator connected with the well.
or equal to the saturation pressure.
Fluids recombined in the laboratory on
At pressure close to saturation the basis of the produced GOR
pressure serious possibility of
sample integrity being lost.

43
PVT Tests
To provide data for reservoir calculations

To provide physical property data for well flow calculations

For surface facility design

The reservoir calculations are the main driving force for the various tests.

Flash vaporization or relative volume test.

Differential vaporization test.
Separator tests.

44
Flash Vaporization ( Relative Volume ) Test

Determination of the correlation between pressure and volume at reservoir temperature.

The system never changes during the test.
The gas remains in equilibrium with the oil through out the test.
The behavior below the bubble point does not reflect reservoir behavior, where gas has
greater mobility than the oil.

This test determines the Bubble Point pressure corresponding to the reservoir temperature.

45
Flash Vaporization ( Relative Volume ) Test
Liberated gas remains in equilibrium with oil

By plotting P versus V, a break in the slope is obtained at the Bubble

Point pressure.

46
Flash Vaporization (Relative Volume ) Test
Main objectives:
Reservoir bubble point pressure.
Together with information from separator tests,
formation volume factor above bubble point.

• Above bubble point compressibility of oil at reservoir

temperature can be determined.
• No free gas

V2 − V1
c=
V2 ( P1 − P2 )
V2 =volume at pressure P2
V1 =volume at pressure P1 47
Differential Vaporization
Below bubble point in reservoir gas liquid separation in the
reservoir is a constant changing system.
A test has been design to attempt to simulate this process.
In the differential vaporization test liberated gas is
removed from the cell step wise.
At each step below bubble point, volumes densities , gas
expansion and compressibility determined.
Bubble point as starting point.

48
Differential Vaporization

8-10 pressure reduction steps at

reservoir temperature.

Final step to 60oF.

Remaining oil Residual Oil

49
Differential Vaporization vs. Flash Vaporization
Flash liberation considered to take place between reservoir and surface.

Differential liberation considered to be representative of the process in the reservoir below

bubble point pressure.

Differential tests carried out to obtain oil formation volume factors and GOR’s to predict
behavior below bubble point pressure.

50
Separator Tests
Objective to determine impact of separator conditions on Bo, GOR, and produced fluid
physical properties.
Not the interest of facility designers.
Carried out to give an indication of oil shrinkage and GOR when fluids produced to surface.
There are not unique values for Bo & GOR. They depend on separator conditions.
Starting point for the test is the bubble point pressure.
Fluid produced at surface conditions. Stock tank oil

51
Separator Tests

PVT Cell pressure kept at bubble point

52
Summary of results provided by an oil sample PVT test

Gas formation volume factor or gas expansion factor

Gas compressibility factor.
Specific gravity of gas
Liquid density
Viscosity of liquids as a function of pressure.
Oil formation volume factor
Solution gas- oil ratio. Shrinkage of separator oil to tank oil
Hydrocarbon analysis of reservoir and produced fluids

53
Sample PVT Report

Cell Volume at Bubble Point

=
Cell Volume at other pressure

54
Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks

Factors which effect capacity and flow of fluids are:

porosity
permeability
capillary pressure
For economic viability for oil & gas production reservoir
compressibility
rock must exceed a:
fluid saturation minimum porosity
minimum thickness
minimum permeability
minimum area

55
Characteristics of Reservoir Rocks
For fluid production the rock must be permeable.
Sufficient large and interconnecting pores.
A permeable rock is porous.
Porous does not necessarily imply permeable.
Volcanic rocks, porous but pores not interconnecting.
Shale, porous BUT pores very small.

Pore spaces in the reservoir rock provide the container for accumulation of fluids.
Most commercial reservoirs occur in :
ʌ sandstones
ʌ limestone
ʌ dolomite

56
Porosity
The porosity of a rock is a measure of the storage capacity (pore volume) that is capable of holding
fluids. Quantitatively, the porosity is the ratio of the pore volume to the total volume (bulk volume).

Absolute porosity : The absolute porosity is Effective porosity: The effective porosity is the
defined as the ratio of the total pore space percentage of interconnected pore space with
in the rock to that of the bulk volume respect to the bulk volume

57
Porosity

58
Porosity-Range of values

Reservoir Porosity can range from 50% to 1.5%

Typical values are:
35 - 45% Unconsolidated (young) Sands
20 - 35% Consolidated Sandstone
15 - 20% Strong (low permeability) Sandstone
5 - 20% Limestone
10 - 30% Dolomites
5 - 40% Chalk
Isolated pores cannot contribute
to recoverable reserves

59
Saturation
Saturation is defined as that fraction, or percent, of the pore volume occupied by a particular
fluid (oil, gas, or water). This property is expressed mathematically by the following relationship

All saturation values are based on pore volume

and not on the gross reservoir volume

The saturation of each individual phase ranges between zero to 100%.

By definition, the sum of the saturations is 100%, therefore

60
 Residual oil saturation, Sor
During the displacing process of the crude oil system from the porous media by water or gas
injection (or encroachment), there will be some remaining oil left.

This saturation value is called the residual oil saturation, Sor.

Movable oil saturation, Som

Movable oil saturation Som is another saturation of interest and is defined as the fraction of pore
volume occupied by movable oil as expressed by the following equation

Swc = Connate water saturation

=1− − Sor = Residual oil saturation

61
Critical gas saturation, Sgc

As the reservoir pressure declines below the bubble-point pressure, gas evolves from the oil
phase and consequently the saturation of the gas increases as the reservoir pressure declines.

The gas phase remains immobile until its saturation exceeds a certain saturation, called critical
gas saturation, above which gas begins to move.

Connate water saturation, Swc

The critical water saturation, connate water saturation, and irreducible water saturation are
extensively used interchangeably to define the maximum water saturation at which the water
phase will remain immobile.

62
Average Saturation
Proper averaging of saturation data requires that the saturation values be weighted by both the
interval thickness hi and interval porosity (ϕ). The average saturation of each reservoir fluid is
calculated from the following equations:

63
Example 1.3
Calculate average oil and connate water saturation from the following measurements:

64
Example 1.3 solution

65
Wettability
Wettability is defined as the tendency of one fluid to spread on or adhere to a solid surface in the
presence of other immiscible fluids.

The tendency of a liquid to spread over the surface of a solid is an indication of the wetting
characteristics of the liquid for the solid.

This spreading tendency can be expressed more conveniently by measuring the angle of contact at
the liquid-solid surface.

The wettability of reservoir rocks to the

fluids is important in that the
distribution of the fluids in the porous
media is a function of wettability.

66
Surface And Interfacial Tension

In dealing with multiphase systems, it is necessary to consider the effect of the forces at the
interface when two immiscible fluids are in contact.

When these two fluids are liquid and gas, the term surface tension is used to describe the
forces acting on the interface.

When the interface is between two liquids, the acting forces are called interfacial tension.

The surface or interfacial tension has the units of force per unit of length, e.g., dynes/cm, and
is usually denoted by the symbol σ.

67
Capillary Pressure
The capillary forces in a petroleum reservoir are the result of the combined effect of the surface and
interfacial tensions of the rock and fluids, the pore size and geometry, and the wetting
characteristics of the system.

When two immiscible fluids are in contact, a discontinuity in pressure exists between the two
fluids, which depends upon the curvature of the interface separating the fluids. This pressure
difference in known as capillary pressure, and it is referred to by pc

Denoting the pressure in the wetting fluid by pw and that in the non wetting fluid by pnw, the
capillary pressure can be expressed as:

Capillary pressure = (pressure of the non wetting phase) - (pressure of the wetting phase)

68
Capillary pressure hysteresis

69
 Initial Saturation Distribution in a Reservoir
The capillary pressure-saturation data can
be converted into height-saturation data by

Four important concepts

Transition zone
Water-oil contact (WOC)
Gas-oil contact (GOC)
Free water level (FWL)
70
Drainage Curve

In a real porous rock with a given pore size distribution:

71
Initial Saturation Distribution in a Reservoir
There is a difference between the free water level (FWL) and the depth at which 100% water
saturation exists.
From a reservoir engineering standpoint, the free water level is defined by zero capillary pressure

If the largest pore is so large that there is no capillary rise in this size pore,
then the free water level and 100% water saturation level, i.e., WOC, will be
the same.

This concept can be expressed mathematically by the following relationship

Relationship between saturation profile and pore-size distribution

72
Exercise 1.4
The reservoir capillary pressure-saturation data of the Big Butte Oil reservoir is shown graphically in Figure.
Geophysical log interpretations and core analysis establish the WOC at 5,023 ft. The following additional data
are available:
• Oil density = 43.5 lb/cubic feet
• Water density = 64.1 lb/cubic feet
• Interfacial tension = 50 dynes/cm

Calculate:
• Connate water saturation (Swc)
• Depth to FWL
• Thickness of the transition zone
• Depth to reach 50% water saturation

73
Exercise 1.4 Solution

a. From Figure, connate-water saturation is 20%.

b. with a displacement pressure of 1.5 psi gives

c. Thickness of transition zone

d. Pc at 50% water saturation = 3.5 psia

Equivalent height above the FWL

Depth to 50% water saturation = 5033.5 − 24.5 = 5009 ft 74

Permeability

Permeability is a property of the porous medium that measures the capacity and ability of the
formation to transmit fluids.

The rock permeability, k, is a very important rock property because it controls the directional
movement and the flow rate of the reservoir fluids in the formation.

This rock characterization was first defined mathematically by Henry Darcy in 1856.

The equation that defines permeability in terms of measurable quantities is called Darcy’s
Law.

75
Permeability
Darcy’s Law
The rate of flow of fluid through a given rock varies directly with the pressure applied, the
area open to flow and varies inversely with the viscosity of the fluid flowing and the length of
the porous rock.
The constant of proportionality is termed as Permeability

Unit of permeability – Darcy

Permeability which will permit flow of one centipoise fluid to flow at linear velocity of one cm
per second under a pressure gradient of one atmosphere per centimeter

1 Darcy = 1000 md
Practical unit-millidarcy, mD, 10-3 Darcy

Formations vary from a fraction of a millidarcy to more than 10,000 millidarcy.

76
Permeability
Darcy’s Experiment
A sandpack through which water flowed
1
Q ∝ A, ∆h,
L

A ( h1 − h2 )
Q=k
L

77
Darcy’s Law
kA∆P
Q=
µL

In field unit,

78
Exercise 1.5
An incompressible fluid flows in a linear porous media with the following properties:

Calculate:

a. Flow rate in bbl/day

b. Apparent fluid velocity in ft/day

c. Actual fluid velocity in ft/day

79
Solution of Exercise 1.5
Calculate the cross-sectional area A

Calculate the flow rate

Calculate the apparent velocity

Calculate the actual fluid velocity

80
Darcy’s Law in Reservoir Engineering

For Radial Flow,

81
Radial flow model
For a radial flow, Darcy’s equation in a differential form can be written as:

Integrating Darcy’s equation gives:

82
Radial flow model
rearranging

and integrating

Solving for the flow rate, q, results in:

83
The Klinkenberg Effect
Klinkenberg (1941) discovered that permeability measurements made with air as the flowing
fluid showed different results from permeability measurements made with a liquid as the
flowing fluid.
The permeability of a core sample measured by flowing air is always greater than the permeability
obtained when a liquid is the flowing fluid

liquids had a zero velocity at the sand grain

surface, while gases exhibited some finite
velocity at the sand grain surface.

84
 Porosity-Permeability Relationship

This equation is known as Karman-Kozeny Equation

K is
• Proportional to porosity
• Proportional to square of particle size
• Inversely proportional to tortuosity
85
 Averaging Absolute Permeabilities
Weighted-Average Permeability
The average absolute permeability for a parallel-layered system can be expressed in the following form

QT = Q1 + Q 2 + Q3 A i ( P1 − P2 )
QT = k ∑
µL
k1A1 ( P1 − P2 )
Q1 =
µL

k=
∑ kA i i
QT =
k1A1 ( P1 − P2 )
+
k 2 A 2 ( P1 − P2 )
+
k 3 A 3 ( P1 − P2 )
∑A i
µL µL µL

kA =
∑ kh i i
Commonly used to average core analysis permeabilities.
∑h i

86
 Exercise 1.6
Given the following permeability data from a
core analysis report Solution

calculate the average permeability

of the reservoir

87
 Beds in Series-Linear flow
Reservoir may have been folded or faulted.
Horizontal layers now vertical.
Average permeability obtained by adding pressure drop across each bed.

( P1 − P4 ) = ( P1 − P2 ) + ( P2 − P3 ) + ( P3 − P4 )
QµL1 QµL 2 QµL3 QµL1
( P1 − P4 ) = + + =
k1A1 k 2 A 2 k 3A 3 kA1

L
k=
Li
∑k This is the harmonic average permeability
i

88
 Beds in Parallel-Radial Circular flow
Case of several layers flowing simultaneously in a well

2πh i k i ( Pe − Pw )
Qi =
r
µ ln e
rw

2πh T k ( Pe − Pw ) 2π ( Pe − Pw )
Q = ∑ Qi = = ( k1 h 1 + k 2 h 2 + k 3 h 3 )
re re
µ ln µ ln
rw rw

k=
∑ hk i i
The value to be compared through well flow tests
hT
89
Beds in Series-Radial flow
• Natural variations in permeability.
• Well bore damage.
• Cleaning techniques.
• Injection processes

2πk1h ( P1 − Pw ) 2πk 2 h ( Pe − P1 )
Q1 = Q2 =
r1 re
µ ln µ ln
rw r1

2πk avg h ( Pe − Pw )
Total flow: QT =
r
µ ln e
rw 90
Beds in Series-Radial flow

Total pressure drop: ( Pe − Pw ) = ( Pe − P1 ) + ( P1 − Pw )

re r r
QT µ ln Q 2µ ln e Q1µ ln 1
rw r1 rw
= +
2πk avg h 2πk 2 h 2πk1h

At steady state flow: QT = Q1 = Q 2 re

ln
rw
re re r1 k avg =
ln ln ln ln
r1 r
ln e
rw r1 rw rw r1
= + +
k avg k2 k1 k1 k2 91
Relative Permeability
The absolute permeability is a property of the porous medium and is a measure of the capacity of
the medium to transmit fluids.

When two or more fluids flow at the same time, the relative permeability of each phase at a specific
saturation is the ratio of the effective permeability of the phase to the absolute permeability

92
Two-
Two-phase Relative Permeability

Relative permeability curves for gas-oil system Relative permeability curves for water-oil system

93
 Drainage and Imbibition
Relative permeability characteristics are important in
the displacement of hydrocarbons by water, and in the
displacement of oil and water by gas.

Such displacements occur during primary and

secondary recovery operations, as well as during coring
and core recovery

Relative permeability data when presented in

graphical form are often referred to as drainage
or imbibition curves

Imbibition relative permeability is displacement where the

wetting phase saturation is increasing

Drainage relative permeability is where the non-wetting

phase saturation is increasing. Oil and Water Relative Permeability Curves for Water-Wet and Oil-Wet Systems
(Core Laboratories Inc)

94
Pore doublet model
The pore doublet model illustrating how oil can be trapped in a large pore. The forces to
displace this droplet have to overcome capillary forces and are too great to use pressure
through pumping

An important perspective in a displacement process is the

concept of mobility ratio.

This relates the mobility of the displacing fluid relative to that

of the displaced fluid

95
Basic Differential Equation for Radial Flow

The general form of the diffusivity equation for the radial flow of any single phase fluid in a
porous medium can be represented by

1 ∅ !
+ + =
0.000264'

Where
P= Pressure, psia
r = distance from wellbore, ft
∅ =porosity, fraction
= fluid viscosity
Ct= total compressibilities, 1/psi
k = permeability, mD
t= time, hour

96
Basic Differential Equation for Radial Flow
Assumption

1. Homogenous and isotropic porous media, kx=ky=kz =K

2. Uniform thickness
3. Rock and fluid properties are pressure independent, K, ∅ , = constant
4. Pressure gradient are small
5. Flow is radial
6. Darcy’s law applicable
7. Gravity force are negligible
8. No chemical interaction

97
Radial Diffusivity Equation for Single Phase Fluid Flow

General Equation 1 ∅ !
+ + =
0.000264'

The last term on the LHS of the equation cause this equation to be non-linear and very difficult to
solve. However, this term is very small for liquid phase flow. Therefore, it can be neglected and
reduced to
1 ∅ !
+ =
0.000264'

The basic analytical solution for differential equation under constant terminal rate solution will be as

To solve the above equation analytically, we need to specify one initial and two boundary conditions

98
 Radial Diffusivity Equation for Single Phase Fluid Flow

Initial Condition

) * + , -, = 0, . = 0 /0 0 1 2 + = +3 *

1st Boundary Condition

-2 - 0 / 4 , .= -2 - = /0 - > 0

'0 , Three basic case of interest

. = −0.001127 27
) , 8 9 Case 1: Infinite acting system -- “Infinite acting reservoir”
Case 2: Closed Boundary System- “Bounded Reservoir”
2nd Boundary Condition
Case 3: Constant Pressure at the Outer Boundary – “Steady
= ∞, + = +3 * state boundary condition”

99
1.Infinite Acting System
→∞ ≫ + = +3

The exact solution in this case, normally termed the “line source solution” has the following forms

. ) −∅ !
+( ,!) = +3 − 70.6 −?
'0 0.00105'

+( ,!) = pressure at time “t” (hrs) at any point “r” (ft) away from the wellbore

? = The Exponential Integral

. ) If A ≥ 0.01 then then, using exponential integral chart, by finding

+( ,!) = +3 − 70.6 −? −A –Ei (-X) value to plug it in the equation
'0

−∅ !
A= Which consist of rock and fluid properties
0.00105'

100
1.Infinite Acting System (Cont’d)
C* A < 0.01 0 - − ? −A = −2.303 log A − 0.5772

. ) '
+( ,!) = +3 − 162.6 1 − 3.23
'0 ∅ !

This is called logarithmic approximate solution

. ) '
H = ≫≫ + 8 9,I =+ J + J = +3 − 162.6 1 − 3.23
'0 ∅ !

. ) '
+ J = +3 − 162.6 1 − 3.23
'0 ∅ !

'0(+3 − + J )
. = 0.00615
'
) 1 − 3.23
∅ !

101
 Case 2:Closed Boundary System
,
= -2 - * , P
,
re
t4
, rw t3
=0 Pwf t1
t2
,
K

Two flow period will take place:

1. Transient flow period which is infinite acting behaviour and can be represented by At t=0, q=0, P =Pi

. ) '
+ J = +3 − 162.6 1 − 3.23

Pressure, psi
'0 ∅ ! No qin
No Qout
' . ) '
when ≪ 948 +( = +3 − 162.6 1 − 3.23
∅ !
,!)
'0 ∅ !
rw re

102
Case 2:Closed Boundary System(Cont’d)
Semi- Pseudo-steady state flow period

' . ) 0.00264'
> 948 +( ,!) = +3 − 141.2 2 + - OP − 3P4
∅ ! '0 ∅ !O

At wellbore, =

. ) 0.00264'
+ J = +3 − 141.2 2 + - OP − 3P4
'0 ∅ !O

103
Case 3: Constant Pressure at Outer Boundary:
Steady State Flow

,+ Good Example:
=0 -Q 2 -
, Strong Active water drive reservoir
+ = +3 = R -2 - = O Water Flooding

. ) '
+( ) = +3 − 141.2 1 − 3.23
'0 ∅ !

. ) O
+( ) = +3 − 141.2 ln
'0
. ) O
At wellbore, =+ J O = +O + J = +O − 141.2 ln
'0
'0(+O − + J )
Steady state equation . = 0.00615
)ln( O )

104
Skin Effect
Well skin effect is used to denote any
increase or decrease in the value of the
pressure drop at the wellbore as compared
to the ideal-flow pressure performance

. )
∆+U = 141.2
'0

Skin Factor
It is a number which is used to characterize the
degree of damage or stimulation in or around
the wellbore

V U
= −1 -
VU

105
Practical Solution of the Diffusivity Equation

Including skin factor

1. During Transient Flow Period : Logarithmic Approximation

W!
Y
∅X I 9
≤ 948

+[ !\[] = +3^O[] − ∆+U

. ) ' . )
+ J_[ !\[] = +3 − 162.6 1 − 3.23 − 141.2
'0 ∅ ! '0

. ) '
+ J_[ !\[] = +3 − 162.6 1 − 3.23 + 0.87
'0 ∅ !

106
Practical Solution of the Diffusivity Equation
2. During the semi steady state flow period

'
> 948
∅ ! O

. ) 0.000264' O . )
+ J_[ !\[] = +3 − 141.2 2 + - − 3P4 − 141.2
'0 ∅ !O '0

. ) 0.000264' O
+ J = +3 − 141.2 2 + - − 3P4 +
'0 ∅ !O

107
Practical Solution of the Diffusivity Equation

3. During the steady state flow period

'
> 4 ∗ 948
∅ ! O

. ) O . )
+ J_[ !\[] = +O − 141.2 - − 141.2
'0 '0

. ) O
+ J = +O − 141.2 - +
'0

Steady State Flow Equation '0(+O − + J )

. = 0.00708
O
) - +

108
Exercise 1.7

An oil well in the Nameless Field is producing at a stabilized rate of 600 STB/day at a stabilized
bottom-hole flowing pressure of 1,800 psi. Analysis of the pressure buildup test data indicates that the
pay zone is characterized by a permeability of 120 md and a uniform thickness of 25 ft.

The well drains an area of approximately 40 acres. The following additional data are available:

rw = 0.25 ft
A = 40 acres
Bo = 1.25 bbl/STB
µo = 2.5 cp

Calculate the pressure profile (distribution) and list the pressure drop across 1 ft intervals from rw to 1.25 ft, 4 to 5 ft,
19 to 20 ft, 99 to 100 ft, and 744 to 745 ft

109
 Solution of Exercise 1.7
We have, Calculate the pressure at the designated radii

'0(+O − + J )
. = 0.00708
O
) - +

Rearranging,
aXb
=+ J + c.ccdceWf
-
9

Inserting values,

gcc× .i×j. i
= 1800 + -
c.ccdce×j c× i j. i
Which indicates that, as we go towards the wellbore,
= 1800 + 88.28 - j. i the pressure drop gradually increases.
110
Solution of Exercise 1.7

Pressure profile around the wellbore

111
END

112
Sample Exercise 1.1

A gas reservoir has the following gas composition: the initial reservoir pressure and temperature
are 3,000 psia and 180°F,

Assuming real gas behavior, calculate the density of the gas phase under initial reservoir
conditions. Compare the results with that of ideal gas behavior.

113
Sample Exercise 1.2

A brine is used to measure the absolute permeability of a core plug.

The rock sample is 4 cm long and 3 cm2 in cross section. The brine has a viscosity of 1.0 cp and
is flowing a constant rate of 0.5 cm3/sec under a 2.0 atm pressure differential. Calculate the
absolute permeability.

114
Sample Exercise 1.3
A hydrocarbon reservoir is characterized by five distinct formation segments that are connected in
series. Each segment has the same formation thickness. The length and permeability of each
section of the five bed reservoir are given below:

Calculate the average permeability of the reservoir by assuming:

a. Linear flow system
b. Radial flow system

115
Sample Exercise 1.4
An oil well produced a 1000 STB/day under the following condition

= 1.2 + ) = 1.25 44 / l) K =200 mD h =50 ft

3 = 3000psi =0.25 ft S =0
! = 18 × 10mg ∅=16 %

Calculate the bottom hole flowing pressure Pwf after 30 days of production assuming the
following

1. Infinite acting system

2. Closed boundary system, where O= 1500 ft
3. Steady state constant boundary pressure at O =1500 ft

116
Sample Exercise 1.5

An incompressible fluid flows in a linear porous media with the following properties:

Calculate:
a. Flow rate in bbl/day
b. Apparent fluid velocity in ft/day
c. Actual fluid velocity in ft/day

117
Sample Exercise 1.6
An oil well in the Nameless Field is producing at a stabilized rate of 600 STB/day at a stabilized
bottom-hole flowing pressure of 1,800 psi.

Analysis of the pressure buildup test data indicates that the pay zone is characterized by a
permeability of 120 md and a uniform thickness of 25 ft.

The well drains an area of approximately 40 acres. The following additional data are available:

Calculate the pressure at 500 ft from the wellbore

118