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Biological Approach Booklet 2021

The biological approach to understanding behavior investigates correlations between the brain, genes, hormones, and behavior. Various techniques like MRI, fMRI, EEG, and PET scans are used to study how the brain relates to behavior. The relationship is complex, with biology and behavior influencing each other mutually. Research in this area raises ethical issues and improves our understanding of human behavior.

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Abigail HART
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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
92 views41 pages

Biological Approach Booklet 2021

The biological approach to understanding behavior investigates correlations between the brain, genes, hormones, and behavior. Various techniques like MRI, fMRI, EEG, and PET scans are used to study how the brain relates to behavior. The relationship is complex, with biology and behavior influencing each other mutually. Research in this area raises ethical issues and improves our understanding of human behavior.

Uploaded by

Abigail HART
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
You are on page 1/ 41

Name __________________________

Biological
Approach to
Understanding
Behaviour

IB
Psychology
Dane Court
IB learner profile
Throughout this booklet you’ll spot the following icons. These are there to illustrate examples of
information that match with the IB learner profile. By looking at information and considering these
particular skills, you are developing as a learner, but also as a more well-rounded person.

We understand the importance of balancing different aspects of our lives –


intellectual, physical, and emotional – to achieve well-being for ourselves and
others. We recognise our interdependence with other people and with the world
in which we live.

We show empathy, compassion, and respect. We have a commitment to service, and


we act to make a positive difference in the lives of others and in the world around us.

We express ourselves confidently and creatively in more than one


language and in many ways. We collaborate effectively, listening carefully to the
perspectives of other individuals and groups.

We nurture our curiosity, developing skills for inquiry and research. We know how to
learn independently and with others. We learn with enthusiasm and sustain our love
of learning throughout life.

We develop and use conceptual understanding, exploring knowledge across a


range of disciplines. We engage with issues and ideas that have local and global
significance.

We critically appreciate our own cultures and personal histories, as well as the values
and traditions of others. We seek and evaluate a range of points of view, and we are
willing to grow from the experience.

We act with integrity and honesty, with a strong sense of fairness and justice, and
with respect for the dignity and rights of people everywhere. We take
responsibility for our actions and their consequences.

We thoughtfully consider the world and our own ideas and experience. We work to
understand our own strengths and weaknesses in order to support our learning and
personal development.

We approach uncertainty with forethought and determination; we work


independently and cooperatively to explore new ideas and innovative strategies.
We are resourceful and resilient in the face of challenges and change.

We use critical and creative thinking skills to analyse and take responsible action on
complex problems. We exercise initiative in making reasoned, ethical decisions.

1|Page
Introduction
The biological approach to understanding behaviour is largely an investigation into correlations. Do
areas of the brain correlate with behaviour? When changes take place in the brain do changes take
place in behaviour or is the reverse the case? Could an individual’s behaviour be predicted from
their genes? Is human behaviour subject to natural selection?

The relationship between biology and behaviour is a complex one of mutual causality. The
technology available to investigate this relationship is becoming ever more sophisticated, while the
ethics of this line of inquiry are increasingly an area for public debate.

Course content

Topic Content
The relationship between the Techniques used to study the brain in relation to behaviour
brain and behaviour Localisation of function
Neuroplasticity
Neurotransmitters and their effects on behaviour
Hormones and Pheromones Hormones and their effects on behaviour
and their effects on Pheromones and their effects on behaviour
behaviour
The relationship between Genes and their effects on behaviour
genetics and behaviour Genetic similarity
Evolutionary explanation for behaviour
HL extension: The role of The value of animal models in
animal research in research to provide insight into
understanding human human behaviour
behaviour Ethical considerations in animal
research

Therefore you could get asked a variety of different questions.

Sample SAQs:
 Describe one technique used to study the brain in relation to behaviour
 Explain how one hormone may influence one human behaviour
 Outline one evolutionary explanation for behaviour
Sample LAQs:
 Discuss the role of neurotransmitters in influencing human behaviour
 To what extent do pheromones influence human behaviour?
 Evaluate research into genetic inheritance of behaviour

2|Page
Definitions
 Anterograde Amnesia – an inability to form new memories after a particular
event.
 Dizygotic twins – two offspring born of the same pregnancy from two ova that
were released from the ovary simultaneously and fertilised at the same time.
They may be of the same or opposite sex, and differ both physically and genetically, sharing
only 50% of their genes.
 EEG – Electroencephalogram, a technique to measure the electrical activity of the brain cells.
 Endocrine system – the collection of glands of an organism that secrete hormones directly into
the circulatory system to be carried towards distant target organs. The major endocrine
glands include the pineal gland, pituitary gland, pancreas, ovaries, testes, thyroid
gland, parathyroid gland, hypothalamus, gastrointestinal tract and adrenal glands.
 Epigenetics – a field of study that argues that in order for a behaviour to occur, genes must be
‘expressed’ via a complex chemical reaction to environmental or physiological changes that
allow a gene to ‘do its job’.
 Evolution – the process by which all living things have develop from simple life forms to their
current complex state through natural selection, adaptation, and reproduction.
 fMRI – Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging, a brain scan using magnets to align particles in
the body and measure the blood flow.
 Gene – the basic physical unit of heredity. A linear sequence of nucleotides along a segment of
DNA that provides the coded instructions for the expression of hereditary traits.
 Hormone – a chemical that is made by specialist cells, usually within an endocrine gland, and it
is released into the bloodstream to send a message to another part of the body. It is often
referred to as a ‘chemical messenger’. Hormones are found in all multicellular organisms and
their role is to provide an internal communication system between cells located in distant parts
of the body.
 Localisation – specific areas of the brain are responsible for specific functions, therefore if a
specific area of the brain is damaged a specific function will be impaired.
 Monozygotic twins – two offspring born of the same pregnancy and developed from a single
fertilized ovum that splits into equal halves during an early cleavage phase in embryonic
development, giving rise to separate foetuses. Such twins are always of the same sex, have the
same genetic constitution, possess identical blood groups, and closely resemble each other in
physical, psychological, and mental characteristics.
 MRI – Magnetic Resonance Imaging, a brain scan using magnets to align particles in the body.
 Neuron – a cell of the nervous system; any of the impulse cells that constitute the brain, spinal
cord, and nerves; neurons typically consist of a cell body (which contains a nucleus and receives
incoming nerve impulses), and an axon (which carries impulses away from the cell body ready
to pass on).
 Neuroplasticity – the ability of the brain to form and reorganise connections within the brain in
response to learning or experience, or following injury.
 Neurotransmission – the process of communication and passing of messages between neurons
as accomplished by the movement of chemical signals down the axon of a nerve and across a
synapse.
 Neurotransmitter – a chemical that transfers messages from synaptic buttons across the
synaptic gap to receptor sites on the next neuron.
 PET – Positron Emission Tomography, a brain scan involving a radioactive glucose injection to
measure its concentration in parts of the body to measure activity.
 Pheromone – a chemical substance produced and released into the environment by an animal,
especially a mammal or an insect, affecting the behaviour or physiology of others of its species.
 Retrograde Amnesia - memory loss of information before a particular event.

3|Page
The brain and its functions

4|Page
Techniques used to study the brain in relation to behaviour
MRI – Magnetic Resonance Imaging
During an MRI scan, you lie in a strong magnetic field and radio-frequency waves are
directed at your body. This produces detailed images of the inside of your body. Most
of the human body is made up of water molecules, which consist of hydrogen and oxygen atoms. At
the centre of each hydrogen atom there is an even smaller particle called a proton. Protons are like
tiny magnets and are very sensitive to magnetic fields. When you lie under the powerful scanner
magnets, the protons in your body line up in the same direction, in the same way that a magnet can
pull the needle of a compass. Short bursts of radio waves are then sent to certain areas of the body,
knocking the protons out of alignment. When the radio waves are turned off, the protons realign
and in doing so send out radio signals, which are picked up by receivers. These signals provide
information about the exact location of the protons in the body. They also help to distinguish
between the various types of tissue in the body, because the protons in different types of tissue
realign at different speeds and produce distinct signals. In the same way that millions of pixels on a
computer screen can create complex pictures, the signals from the millions of protons in the
body are combined to create a detailed image of the inside of the body.

An MRI scan is a painless and safe procedure. You may


find it uncomfortable if you have claustrophobia (fear of
enclosed spaces), but most people find this manageable
with support from the radiographer. Sometimes going
into the scanner feet first may be easier, although this is
not always possible. MRI scans do not involve exposing
the body to X-ray radiation. This means people who may
be particularly vulnerable to the effects of radiation, such
as pregnant women and babies, can use them if
necessary. However, not everyone can have an MRI scan.
For example, they are not always possible for people who
have certain types of implants fitted, such as
a pacemaker (a battery-operated device that helps
control an irregular heartbeat). Extensive research has
been carried out into whether the magnetic fields and
radio waves used during MRI scans could pose a risk to
the human body. No evidence has been found to suggest
that there is a risk, which means that MRI is one of the
safest medical procedures currently available.

Examples of research using MRI scans:


Corkin et al: MRI scans of HM
See page 8
Maguire et al: brain plasticity in London black cab drivers
See page 9
Draganski: neuroplasticity in response to juggling
See page 11

5|Page
fMRI – Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging
The main difference between a normal MRI scan and a functional MRI scan is the
results that can be obtained. Whereas a normal MRI scan gives pictures of the
structure of the brain, a functional MRI scan shows which parts of the brain are
activated when certain tasks are carried out such as language, memory and movement. fMRI
evaluates blood flow in the brain called the blood oxygenation level dependent (BOLD) contrast
technique. This means that brain activity can be picked up by the MRI scanner because of tiny
chemical changes in the blood. This particular type of scan can be extremely useful when planning
brain surgery as the areas of the brain used for important functions such as language, memory and
movement can be identified beforehand. This means that the operation can be planned to preserve
as much of these areas as possible.

There are no risks associated with fMRI scans. They are painless and generally quick with no lasting
effects. The scanner does not touch any part of you during the scan. All types of MRI scan are
unsuitable for people with any metal inside them (pacemakers, surgical clips or metallic implants)
because the scanner emits a strong magnetic field.

Examples of research using fMRI scans:


Fisher et al: the role of dopamine in attraction
See page 15

An interesting article on the fallibility of fMRI scans


Costandi, M. (2015) Why Brain Scans Are Not Always What They Seem. [Online]
Available from:
https://www.theguardian.com/science/neurophilosophy/2015/apr/09/bold-assumptions-fmri
[Accessed 19/07/21]

6|Page
Localisation of function
Localisation of function is the concept that different parts of the brain are responsible
for individual and discreet functions. If one particular area is damaged, then a specific
impairment of a function will result; therefore, much of the research on localisation is
the result of studies of patients with brain damage.

Scoville & Milner: case study of HM – the man with no memory


HM was born in 1926. At age 7 years, he was in a bicycle accident. He sustained a laceration of the
left supraorbital region and was unconscious for approximately five minutes. He experienced his first
minor seizure at 10 years old and his first generalized convulsion at age 16. It was assumed that the
seizures were a consequence of his head injury, but there was also a paternal history of epilepsy. HM
graduated from high school at age 21, having dropped out of school for several years for reasons
related to his epilepsy. After high school, he obtained a position as a motor winder but had to
relinquish that job because of the frequency and severity of his seizures. When high doses of the
available anticonvulsant medications did not provide adequate seizure control, HM’s family
consulted Dr. William Beecher Scoville at the Hartford Hospital about a brain operation to relieve his
epilepsy.

Scoville offered HM a procedure that had been performed previously only in psychotic patients. In
1953, when HM was 27 years old, he underwent “this frankly experimental operation” (Scoville and
Milner, 1957): a bilateral medial temporal lobe resection. At the time of operation, Scoville
estimated that the removal included 8 cm of medial temporal lobe tissue, including the temporal
pole, amygdaloid complex, and approximately two thirds of the hippocampal formation. The
operation reduced the frequency of HM’s seizures, but it also had an unexpected result: it produced
a severe amnesia.

Scoville worked alongside Milner to document the resultant behaviour. HM could remember much
of his childhood: he knew his name and family history and could remember the stock market crash
of 1929. However, he struggled to remember events from the 11 years before his surgery. He also
lost the ability to form new memories. Later, he would describe his condition as being “like waking
from a dream…every day is alone in itself”. He suffered from both Anterograde and Retrograde
amnesia.

7|Page
At the time of HM’s operation, it was thought that memory functions were spread throughout the
brain. The fact that HM suffered one kind of amnesia so acutely as a result of damage to one part of
his brain, and yet retained his intellectual abilities, prompted researchers to reassess this
assumption. It was clear that the temporal lobe must be vital for memory function. At that stage, the
scientists could not identify which structure within the lobe was specifically responsible, as several
different structures had been affected by the operation, but patient HM helped to lay the
foundations of this vital research, suggesting that memory must have a significantly localised area of
function within the brain, such as structures that he had had removed (hippocampus).

Corkin et al: MRI scans of HM


Conducted MRI scans of HM’s brain in 1992 and 1993 with both scanning sessions producing similar
results as to the extent of the temporal lobe lesion. These MRI scans enabled psychologists to
update Scoville’s original notes about HM’s operation with precise anatomical localisation of the
surgical lesion. Damage was extensive, generally matching Scoville’s description. However, it was not
as bad as originally documented by Scoville who originally described that 8cm was removed from the
temporal lobe, it actually appears to be about 7cm. This includes the complete removal of HM’s
amygdala and the anterior 2 cm of his hippocampus. The remaining posterior 2cm of HM’s
hippocampus was visible but appeared atrophic. These findings reinforce the view that lesions of the
hippocampal formation and adjacent cortical structures can produce global and enduring amnesia.

Evaluation
 The study was a case study. The strength of this study is that it was longitudinal - over 50
years! This means that change could be observed over time. In addition, case studies
use method triangulation.
 The limitation of case studies is that they cannot be easily replicated. However, there are
several other case studies of patients like HM – e.g. Clive Wearing - which replicate findings.
 Some of the study was retrospective in nature. This means that we do not have a lot of data
on HM's actual cognitive abilities before the accident.
 The medication taken to treat epilepsy may have resulted in some of the damage, but this is
not highly relevant as it is the damage to specific parts of the brain that is important.
 High ecological validity, no variables were manipulated, and HM was observed in his natural
environment.
 Milner's research met high ethical standards of consent, confidentiality and protection from
harm.

8|Page
Maguire et al: neuroplasticity in London black cab drivers
Maguire et al (2000) were attempting to demonstrate the
plasticity of the brain by studying the hippocampus of London
taxi drivers because they were interested to see if the
hippocampus would change because of the taxi drivers’ high
dependence on navigational skills. London taxi drivers have to
undertake extensive training known as ‘The Knowledge’ and
during this time they have to acquire a vast spatial memory of
the roads of central London.

The participants for this study were 16 healthy, right-handed


male licensed London taxi drivers. The taxi drivers were
compared with the scans of 50 healthy right-handed males
who did not drive taxis. All of the participants had been
licensed London taxi drivers for more than one and a half
years. The average time spent training to be a taxi driver
before passing the licensing tests fully was 2 years. All of the
taxi drivers were described as having healthy general medical,
neurological, and psychiatric profiles. The scans of the 50
control participants were selected from the structural MRI scan database at the same unit where the
taxi drivers were scanned. Participants below 32 and above 62 years of age were excluded as were
females, left-handed males, and those with any health problems. MRI scans were then measured
using two different techniques: voxel-based morphemetry (VBM) and pixel counting.

Voxel-based morphology (VBM) was used in this study to measure the density of grey matter in the
brain. VBM provides a three dimensional measurement of volume of an area. Pixel counting was
carried out on the scans of the 16 taxi drivers and 16 age-matched controls taken from the 50
control participants. Pixel counting consists of counting the pixels in the images provided by the MRI
scans. Areas were calculated by taking images of slices of the whole length of the hippocampus.

The first main findings of the research were that the posterior hippocampi of taxi drivers were
significantly larger relative to those of control subjects and that the anterior hippocampal region was
larger in control subjects than in taxi drivers. The second main finding was that hippocampal volume
correlated with the amount of time spent as a taxi driver (positively in the right posterior and
negatively in the right anterior hippocampus).

Maguire et al argue that this study demonstrates the plasticity of the hippocampus in response to
environmental demands; that the posterior hippocampus stores a spatial representation of the
environment and that in the London taxi drivers the volume of the posterior hippocampus expanded
because of their dependence on navigation skills. This finding indicates the possibility of local
plasticity in the structure of the healthy adult human brain as a function of increasing exposure to an
environmental stimulus. This study demonstrates localisation of function because the brain has
displayed plasticity in a very localised area in response to the learning and environmental experience
of the taxi drivers, therefore the posterior of the hippocampus must be the area localised for this
form of memory.

Evaluation
 The study was a quasi-experiment, so no cause and effect relationship can be established.
The researchers were unable to manipulate the independent variable; it was naturally
occurring.
 A single-blind control was used to avoid researcher bias.

9|Page
 Some might argue that those with larger hippocampi might be more spatially talented and
thus chose to be taxi drivers; however, this is disproven by the correlation between the size
of the hippocampus and the number of years driving.
 You cannot argue that the MRI has low ecological validity because the participants were not
asked to do anything while in the scanner. They simply had their brain anatomy measured.
 Although the study appears to have sampling bias, it is a reality that the vast majority of
London cabbies are male. However, it still does make it difficult to generalize the findings.
 The study is ethically sound as the MRI does not pose any health risks to the participants and
all gave consent.

APPLY IT:
What are the implications for the rehabilitation of patients that have suffered brain
injury or disease?

An interesting article on the history of localisation of function in the brain


Folzenlogen, Z. & Ormond, D.R. (2019) A brief history of cortical functional localisation
and its relevance to neuroscience. Journal of Neurosurgery. [Online] Available from:
https://thejns.org/focus/view/journals/neurosurg-focus/47/3/article-pE2.xml
[Accessed 19/07/21]

Neuroplasticity
Biologists used to believe that at a certain age, the brain was done growing and changing. Research
in the 1960s and 70s started to indicate that the brain is a dynamic organ that continues to grow and
decline as a result of interacting both the environment and cognition. The ability of the brain to
change its neural structures in order to adopt to change is called neuroplasticity. There are two
aspects of neuroplasticity that are important - dendritic branching and pruning.
One form of neuroplasticity is the strengthening of synapses. This is due to a process called Long
Term Potentiation. LTP argues that the repetition of a task results in neuroplasticity. LTP also leads
to dendritic branching or dendritic arborisation which leads to an increase in neural density. A lack of
potentiation as a result of discontinued behaviour may lead to neural pruning - the process by which
extra neurons and synaptic connections are eliminated.

Maguire et al: brain plasticity in London black cab drivers


See page 9

10 | P a g e
Draganski: neuroplasticity in response to juggling
The aim of the study was to see whether learning a new skill - in this case,
juggling - would have an effect on the brains of participants. The
participants for this study were 24 volunteers between the ages of 20 and
24. There were 21 females and 3 males. All participants were non-
jugglers at the start of the study. Each participant had an MRI scan at the
start of the study to serve as a base rate for grey matter and brain
structure.

Participants were allocated to one of two conditions - the jugglers and the
non-jugglers. Those that were in the juggling condition were taught a
three-ball cascade juggling routine. They were asked to practice this
routine and to notify the researchers when they had mastered it. At that
point the jugglers had a second MRI scan. After the scan, they were told
not to juggle anymore and then a third and final scan was carried out
three months later. The non-juggling group served as a control group for
the duration of the study.

To analyse the MRI scans, the researchers used voxel-based morphometry


(VBM) to determine if there was significant differences in neural density
(grey matter) in the brains of jugglers vs. non-jugglers. From the baseline scans taken before the
study began, they found no significant regional differences in grey matter between the two
conditions. However, at the end of the first part of the study, the jugglers showed a significantly
larger amount of grey matter in the mid-temporal area in both hemispheres - an area associated
with visual memory. Three months after the participants stopped juggling - when many were no
longer able to carry out the routine - the amount of grey matter in these parts of the brain had
decreased.

There was no change over the duration of the study in the non-juggling sample. Interestingly, it
appears that juggling relies more on visual memory - that is, the perception and spatial anticipation
of moving objects - than on “procedural memory” which would more likely show change in the
cerebellum or basal ganglia.

Evaluation
 The study used a pre-test, post-test design to show differences in neural density over time.
 The study was experimental, thus helping to argue for a cause and effect relationship.
 There was a control group that didn't juggle that served as a control group.
 The sample size was very small - so it is possible that by using averages of growth, the data
may not be reliable.
 The study has potential problems with internal validity as the participants were in their
home environments for a good part of the study.
 The study would need to be replicated to establish its reliability.

APPLY IT:
What does this research suggest about learning and revision?

11 | P a g e
Rosenzweig, Bennet & Diamond: the role of environmental stimulation on brain
plasticity
Rosenzweig et al (1972) aimed to investigate whether a rich or impoverished
environment can affect development of neurons in the cerebral cortex. Rats were
placed in either:
 an enriched environment (EC) whereby 10–12
rats were placed in a cage, provided with
numerous different stimulus objects to explore
and play with. This group received maze training
 an impoverished condition (IC) where each rat
was kept in an individual cage, experiencing
isolation and no stimulation
The rats typically spent 30 to 60 days in their respective
environments before they were killed so the researchers
could study changes in brain anatomy.

They found that the anatomy of the brain was different for rats in the EC and the IC. In particular,
the brains of EC rats had increased thickness and higher weight of the cortex. EC rats had developed
more acetylcholine receptors in the cerebral cortex. A follow-up to this research indicated that just
30 minutes a day in an enriched environment produced the same changes in the brain in rats as had
been observed in the original experiment where rats were exposed to the EC condition for a much
longer period of time.
Since brain plasticity is assumed to follow the same pattern in both animals and humans, the
implications of the study are that the human brain should also be affected by environmental factors
such as intellectual and social stimulation. It is now known that poverty is a major risk factor in
children’s cognitive development as poverty is related to a number of risk factors such as poor
nutrition, lack of access to good education and poor health.

Evaluation
 One variable that was not clear in the enriched environment is whether it was the
environment (the toys) or the social activity. Putting rats alone in large cages with toys for
two hours a day showed no effect. The single rat tended not to play with the objects and
instead rested and groomed himself. The enriched environment produced cerebral changes
in a single rat only if the rat was stimulated to interact with the objects.
 The experiment was a highly controlled laboratory experiment so it was possible to establish
a cause and effect relationship.
 The experiment used animals, so it may be difficult to generalise to humans unless research
with humans provides the same results.
 In the enriched environment, it could have been exercise that made a difference, rather than
‘stimulation’. It is still not clear from the enriched environment how the variables of social
interaction, environmental stimulation and exercise may interact.
 The research results have been replicated many times.
 There is the ethical consideration of undue stress or harm to the animals in the study. Not
only were some rats isolated and put into an impoverished environment, but they were
killed at the end of the study. A cost-benefit analysis should demonstrate that the goals of
the study are worth the harm done to the animals.

APPLY IT:
How might this research be applied in the design and marketing of children’s toys?

12 | P a g e
Neuroplasticity – additional terminology
Neural networks: the connected pathways of neurons (nerve cells) in
the brain responsible for specific functioning and messages. These
pathways are developed through repetition and neural pruning,
subject to both genetic and environmental influence. That is to say
that they are built according to a genetic blueprint, but can be
strengthened through experience.

Neural pruning: sometimes known as synaptic pruning, is a natural


process that occurs in the brain between early childhood and
adulthood. During neural/synaptic pruning, the brain eliminates extra synapses. It is thought to be
the brain’s way of removing connections in the brain that are no
longer needed. Synaptic pruning is our body’s way of
maintaining more efficient brain function as we get older and
learn new complex information. It is a natural process in the
brain that happens at different developmental stages.
Children’s brains grow rapidly and in the flood of new learning,
neural pathways and networks are created that are useful in
some stages but not others. At the initial stages of acquiring
new skills, neurons grow thickly and rapidly. But eventually, as
some behaviours are found to be more useful and used more
often, some of the pathways die out. It is this process of
strengthening and ‘pruning’ that allows us to continue learning
and maturing through our lifetime.

An interesting article on neuroplasticity and its role in rehabilitation


Physiopedia. (2021). Neuroplasticity. [Online] Available from:
https://www.physio-pedia.com/Neuroplasticity [Accessed 19/07/21]

Neurotransmitters and their effects on behaviour


The brain is made up of millions of cells. Unlike other cells, which are often quite
round and evenly shaped, neurons are usually shaped like trees with an owl’s hole in
the middle. The owl’s hole would be where the cell body is located, and from there the dendrites
branch out like the top of a tree, and the single axon travels out like the trunk. The dendrites receive
information from other neurons and pass it down to the cell body where the information is
processed. This information is then passed along the axon. At the end of the axon are located the
‘roots’ of the neuron, known as terminal branches. These terminal branches extend to where they
can directly pass messages on to the dendrites of other neurons. Such messages are passed from the
little round knobs at the end of the terminal branches, called terminal buttons. Chemical
messengers, known as neurotransmitters, leave the terminal buttons and go into the synaptic

13 | P a g e
gap/space between a terminal button of one cell and a dendrite of the next neuron. Once in the
synaptic gap, the neurotransmitters float around until they connect to a receptor site on the
dendrite of the other neuron. The relay of a message from one neuron to another is called
neurotransmission.

The message that is transmitted through the


neuron is an electrical impulse which is
produced when neurons are stimulated.
When the electrical signal reaches the
terminal buttons, it triggers the release of
neurotransmitters. Neurotransmitters are
produced in the cell body of neurons and
then carried through the cell, down the
axon, to the terminal buttons. Here the
neurotransmitters are stored in vesicles
until the electrical changes within the cell
cause the vesicles to release the
neurotransmitters into the synaptic gap.

When describing the process of neurotransmission, it is helpful to refer to the presynaptic neuron
(the neuron from which the chemical messenger is sent into the synapse) and the postsynaptic
neuron (the neuron after the synaptic gap that contains the receptor sites for the
neurotransmitters). A postsynaptic neuron needs a large quantity of a particular neurotransmitter to
attach to its receptor sites before it can ‘hear’ the message that the presynaptic neuron is sending.
When a neurotransmitter attaches to the receptor sites of the postsynaptic neuron, specific changes
take place that depend on which neurotransmitter is involved, i.e. different effects and behaviour
can therefore be produced.

Any neurotransmitters that are not picked up by the receptor sites are either reabsorbed by the
presynaptic neuron ready to use again, or broken down by an enzyme secreted by the postsynaptic
neuron.

Dopamine
Dopamine is a monoamine neurotransmitter. Scientific interest in dopamine is usually centred
around the fact that it is involved in the brain’s reward circuit. For this reason, dopamine is strongly
implicated in connection with highly addictive substances. Research indicates that dopamine is the
primary neurotransmitter affected by stimulants like amphetamines and cocaine.
Behaviour effects: The main effects of dopamine involve movement and the internal reward system.
Dopamine affects areas of the brain that are responsible for the control of voluntary movement.
When these regions are damaged, the result can be loss of movement control like that seen in
sufferers of Parkinson’s Disease. The other function involves the reward system, including
connections with the amygdala, which is involved in emotional responding, and the hippocampus,
which is involved in memory processing. The combination of these elements results in a circuit that
increases the probability that whatever behaviour triggers activity in it will consequently be
repeated. When presented with this evidence, it is not difficult to believe that drugs that trigger
dopamine release will produce pleasurable responses and be likely to be used again.

14 | P a g e
Fisher et al: the role of dopamine in attraction
Fisher (2003) theorised that romantic love is hardwired into our brains by evolution. Romantic love is
not an emotion, but rather a motivation system – a need or craving – designed to enable lovers to
mate, with the dopamine-rich areas of the brain being especially crucial.

The aim of the study was to investigate the neural mechanisms associated with the attraction
system (romantic love). Ten female and seven male participants aged from 18 to 26 were recruited,
they reported being in love for an average of 7.5 months. The participants first filled out a
questionnaire (The Passionate Love Scale) to investigate how they felt about their relationship. Then
they were placed in an fMRI scanner. They first looked at a photograph of their beloved for 30
seconds, then performed a distraction task of counting backwards, then looked at a photograph of a
neutral acquaintance for 30 seconds. This was repeated six times.

The researchers got what Fisher calls ‘a beautiful picture


of the brain in love’ showing activity in the brain’s
reward system which is activated by a pleasant
stimulus. The researchers found that there was
increased activity in the VTA which is responsible for
pumping out dopamine associated with reward,
motivation and goal orientation. There was also
increased activity in the caudate nucleus which receives
the dopamine message and pairs that with sensory
stimuli. The results indicate the possibility of brain
circuits dedicated to attraction (romantic love). The same brain circuits have been associated with
addiction, which could support the hypothesis that ‘romantic love is an addiction’. Dopamine
increases desire and reward by triggering the same emotional rush of pleasure when you see or
think of the loved one as if you were taking a drug like cocaine. Dopamine can explain the highs of
romantic passion (high levels of dopamine) and the lows of rejection (low levels of dopamine).

They also found that the more passionate they were (determined by the questionnaire), the more
active the brain’s reward circuitry was. This therefore supported a correlation between the attitudes
towards the lover and brain activity. According to Fisher, romantic love is not an emotion, but rather
a motivation system - a need or a craving - designed to enable lovers to mate. Fisher claims that
specific brain systems have evolved to motivate individuals to mate. This could perhaps explain why
attraction is normally linked to increased energy, focused attention, obsessive following,
sleeplessness and loss of appetite. Dopamine is behind the intense motivation to win a specific
mating partner in the early stages of human romantic love. In this way, humans are very much like
other animals.

Evaluation
 This research uses fMRI scans to visualise the regions of the brain that are active. However,
it does not actually measure the levels of chemicals in the brain, there is just an assumption
that dopamine levels are high as the active regions are usually linked to dopamine activity.
 This is heteronormative research, meaning that it is only considering heterosexual couples.
This does not tell us anything about the role of dopamine in different sexualities. This is
important as Fisher suggests that this is an evolutionary product of facilitating mating. As
sexual reproduction is not biologically possible in a same-sex relationship, do our brains
function in the same way to form that relationship?
 7.5 months in love does not tell us about dopamine’s involvement in long term relationships.
 There is an attempt at ecological validity in using real relationships, but looking at a photo of
someone whilst lying in an fMRI scanner is not a realistic interaction.

15 | P a g e
APPLY IT:
What different activities might make a good first date based on this study?
How have you felt after a good date or after someone broke up with you?

Acetylcholine
Acetylcholine, often abbreviated to ACh, is the most common neurotransmitter. It is located in both
the central and peripheral nervous systems. It was the first neurotransmitter to be discovered, in
1914. ACh works as a neuromodulator acting on a variety of neurons throughout the nervous system
rather than engaging in direct synaptic transmission. It is produced in several locations within the
brain and it has been observed that some of these regions are damaged in the early stages
of Alzheimer's disease, which may contribute to the memory impairments which are an early
symptom of the disease. The drugs tacrine (brand name Cognex) and donepezil (trade name
Aricept), currently marketed as Alzheimer's drugs, are cholinesterase inhibitors, meaning that they
increase the effectiveness of ACh in the brain.
Behaviour effects: In the peripheral nervous system ACh plays a role in skeletal muscle movement, as
well as in the regulation of smooth muscle and cardiac muscle. In the central nervous system ACh is
believed to be involved in learning, memory, and mood.

Rogers & Kesner: the role of ACh in learning and memory


In the hippocampus, there is a high concentration of acetylcholine receptor sites. Researchers have
therefore questioned the role of this neurotransmitter in the consolidation of memories. The aim of
the study was to determine the role of acetylcholine in the formation of spatial memory. Rogers
& Kesner wanted to determine the role of acetylcholine in memory formation and retrieval. They
had 30 rats acclimate to a Hebb Williams maze by placing food in one of the corners. Once the rats
were familiar with the maze - and no longer were afraid of the environment - the experiment could
begin.

The rats were randomly allocated to one of two conditions. The rats were either injected with
scopolamine or with a saline solution ten minutes before running the maze. Scopolamine blocks the
acetylcholine receptor sites and thus inhibits any response. The saline solution was a placebo
injection. This was done to make sure that the fact of getting an injection alone was not responsible
for a change in memory. An injection could result in an increase in adrenaline which would be a
confounding variable. The injections were made directly
into the hippocampus.

Encoding of memory was assessed by the average


number of errors made on the first five trials of Day 1
compared to the last five trials of Day 1, whereas the
average number of errors made on the first five trials of
Day 2 compared to the last five trials of Day 1 was used
to assess retrieval.

The findings were that the scopolamine group took


longer and made more mistakes in the learning of the
maze - that is, there was a higher average number of
mistakes made on the last five trials on Day 1. However,
it did not appear to have an effect on retrieval of
memories that had already been created. It appears that
acetylcholine may play an important role in the consolidation of spatial memories.

16 | P a g e
Evaluation
 The researchers used a rigorously controlled experiment with a placebo condition to avoid
the effect of confounding (extraneous) variables.
 The study is able to establish a cause and effect relationship; however, it is a reductionist
approach to understanding memory. There are several different types of memory and the
process of memory consolidation is very complex.
 The research could one day lead to the development of treatments for people suffering from
dementia or Alzheimer's disease.
 Biologists believe that animals can serve as models for human physiology and behaviour;
however, there are questions about the extent to which findings can be generalized to
humans.

APPLY IT:
How can we link these results to the causes and treatment of Alzheimer’s disease?
Prior research by Martinez & Kesner tested scopolamine in the same way, but also
test physostigmine which improved the maze performance of the rats. Why?

Alzheimer’s disease
Alzheimer’s disease is the most common cause of dementia among older people.
Dementia is the loss of cognitive functioning—thinking, remembering, and
reasoning— to such an extent that it interferes with a person’s daily life and activities.
During the course of the normal aging process, concentrations of acetylcholine tend to
decrease, resulting in the sporadic lapses of short-term memory that many elderly individuals tend
to experience from time to time. This normal, non-debilitating decline in memory, referred to as
‘age-associated memory impairment’, should not be confused with Alzheimer's disease, in which
levels of acetylcholine can drop by up to 90%. This seems to be caused by the gradual death of brain
cells resulting in a progressive and significant loss of cognitive and behavioral function.

Research in the last two decades has revealed


that Alzheimer's disease begins in the brain cortex
(in particular, the medial temporal lobes) and
quickly attacks the hippocampus. The symptoms
of Alzheimer’s seem to be caused by the loss of
the brain cells and the deterioration of neurons
involved in the production of acetylcholine.
Acetylcholine is particularly prevalent in the
hippocampus. The hippocampus of ‘normal’
people contains high concentrations of
acetylcholine, but low concentrations are found
in people with Alzheimer’s disease. This seems to
be the outcome of severe brain tissue loss in
areas of the forebrain which are known to secrete
acetylcholine.

17 | P a g e
Neurotransmission – additional terminology
Excitatory synapse: Allows impulses to cross the synapse; increases messages/signal/behaviour
 E.g. Fisher – dopamine released, stimulating further neurons, leading to pleasurable feelings
of love (addiction)
 E.g. Rogers & Kesner – acetylcholine released, facilitates memory traces being stronger
Inhibitory synapse: Stops impulses from crossing the synapse; decreases messages/signal/behaviour
 E.g. Acetylcholine limiting the impact of interference in memory from previous recall
Agonist: Amplifies the effect of a neurotransmitter
 E.g. Rogers & Kesner – acetylcholine released, facilitates memory traces being stronger
 E.g. Cholinesterase inhibitors used as Alzheimer’s disease medication, like physostigmine,
prevents the clean-up of acetylcholine
Antagonist: Reduces the effect of a neurotransmitter
 E.g. Rogers & Kesner – scopolamine, blocks the acetylcholine receptor sites

An interesting article on the history of research into and discoveries of


neurotransmission
López-Muñoz, F. & Álamo, C. (2009). Historical evolution of the neurotransmission
concept. Journal of neural transmission. 116 (5) P.15-33. [Online] Available from:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/24261196_Historical_evolution_of_the_neurotransmissi
on_concept [Accessed 19/07/21]

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Hormones and their effects on behaviour
A hormone is a chemical that is made by specialist cells, usually within an endocrine
gland, and it is released into the bloodstream to send a message to another part of the
body. It is often referred to as a ‘chemical messenger’. Hormones are found in all
multicellular organisms and their role is to provide an internal communication system between cells
located in distant parts of the body.

In the human body, hormones are used for two types of communication. The first is for
communication between two endocrine glands, where one gland releases a hormone which
stimulates another target gland to change the levels of hormones that it is releasing. The second is
between an endocrine gland and a target organ, for example when the pancreas releases insulin
which causes muscle and fat cells to take up glucose from the bloodstream.

19 | P a g e
Testosterone
Testosterone is produced by the gonads (the testes in men and the ovaries in women), although
small quantities are also produced by the adrenal glands in both sexes. It is an androgen, meaning
that it stimulates the development of male characteristics. Present in much greater levels in men
than women, testosterone initiates the development of the male internal and external reproductive
organs during foetal development and is essential for the production of sperm in adult life. This
hormone also signals the body to make new blood cells, ensures that muscles and bones stay strong
during and after puberty and enhances libido both in men and women. Testosterone is linked to
many of the changes seen in boys during puberty (including an increase in height, body and pubic
hair growth, enlargement of the penis, testes and prostate gland, and changes in sexual and
aggressive behaviour).

Albert et al: testosterone and aggression levels in castrated alpha male rats
Wanting to investigate the effects of changing testosterone levels on the aggressiveness of male
rats, Albert et al (1986) identified the alpha male rats from numerous groups – the leader of the
colony that is typically the biggest and strongest. They measured the aggressiveness of these rats
when placed with a non-aggressive rat by recording behaviours such as biting and attacks. The alpha
male rats were then divided into four groups based on the surgery that they would receive:
1. Castration
2. Castration, followed by implanting of tubes with testosterone
3. Castration, followed by implanting of empty tubes
4. ‘Sham’ castration (cut open and sewn back up without removal of testes), followed by
implanting of empty tubes

Albert measured the change in displays of aggression


when non-aggressive rats were introduced to the cage.
Those rats that had the operation that reduced their
testosterone levels (i.e. groups 1 and 3) displayed a
reduced level of aggressiveness, but those that had
operations that kept testosterone levels intact (i.e.
groups 2 and 4) did not display any significant changes
in their aggressive behaviour. A second operation was
then carried out on the rats who had reduced
testosterone levels to increase the levels (e.g. group 3
had their tubes filled with testosterone). These alpha
rats showed returned levels of aggressiveness similar to
those in the ‘sham’ castration group. Moreover,
researchers observed that when a subordinate male
(i.e. not the alpha) is placed in the same cage as an
alpha rat that has been castrated, the lower becomes
the dominant in the cage. When a rat that had the
‘sham’ operation is put in a cage with a castrated rat,
the ‘sham’ operation rat shows higher levels of
aggression.

By comparing the before and after changes of aggression, as well as comparing the results of the
different operations, this experiment suggest that testosterone levels influence aggression. The
researchers concluded that the role of testosterone in aggression influences social dominance in
that those rats that have reduced testosterone lose their place as alpha males.

20 | P a g e
Evaluation
 A lab experiment with clear manipulation of the IV, using a pre- and post-comparison as well
as between subjects, this gives a greater validity as you are able to compare the changes
within an individual (controlling for individual differences) as well as between individuals
(testing on more individuals to confirm reliability).
 Concerns over animal ethics and ‘unnecessary harm’ caused.
 The generalisability from castrated rats to humans in questionable. Whilst anatomy and
physiology is similar, humans arguably do not utilise alpha males like rats do, so this social
structure would present different behaviours to that expected in human society.
 Sham castration is a particular concern for animal ethics, but serves a valuable purpose for
increasing validity by removing the operation as a confounding variable that could affect
displayed behaviour.

Dabbs et al: testosterone, crime, and prison behaviour among adult male prison inmates
Aimed to investigate whether testosterone levels vary in
relation to the different types of crimes, in particular
violent crime, that males commit? Dabbs (1995) measured
testosterone levels through saliva samples of 692 male
prisoners. The criminal records of these prisoners were
then reviewed and coded to identify the different crimes
committed, especially dividing between violent and non-
violent crimes. The prisoners who had committed personal
crimes of sex and violence had higher levels of testosterone
than those who had committed property crimes of
burglary, theft, and drugs. It was found that testosterone
levels predicted violent crimes like homicide and rape.
Inmates with higher testosterone levels also violated more
rules in prison, especially ones involving overt
confrontation. The findings indicate clear correlational
differences between low and high testosterone individuals
in the amount and pattern of their misbehaviour –
testosterone levels may affect the types of violent crimes
criminals commit. Follow-up research by Dabbs also found
that testosterone is related to criminal violence and
aggressive dominance in prison among women.

Evaluation
 Fry (2011) found that the testosterone levels in winners of wrestling matches had risen more
than losers. Mazur (1992) found that winners of chess tournaments show higher
testosterone levels than losers.
 Correlation does not imply causation. Conducting this type of research does not control
other variables to eliminate them as possible causes.
 There is a problem in the order of explanation – are testosterone levels high which make
people commit crime, or does committing violent crime cause testosterone levels to rise?
 What about those people that commit violence in society but are not arrested, could the
increased testosterone be a product of being violent and experiencing prison?
 This conclusion suggests a possible deterministic view, presenting the possibility of
treatment programmes to support offenders. However, should be intervene and treat
people with high testosterone levels before they offend?

21 | P a g e
APPLY IT:
How could it be argued that testosterone is not linked to aggression, but rather to
competitiveness or social dominance?

An interesting article on the problems of animal and human research into


testosterone’s link to aggression
Archer, J. & Carré, J. M. (2017) ‘Testosterone and Aggression’, in Bushman, B. J. (ed.)
Aggression and Violence: A Social Psychological Perspective. New York: Routledge, P.
90-104. [Online] Available from:
http://clok.uclan.ac.uk/16725/1/AAM%20Book%20chapter.pdf [Accessed 19/07/21]

Adrenaline (Epinephrine)
When a stressful situation occurs and your heart begins to race, your hands begin to
sweat, and you start looking for an escape, you have experienced a textbook case of
fight-or-flight response. This response stems from the hormone adrenaline. Also called
epinephrine, this hormone is a crucial part of the body's fight-or-flight response, but over-exposure
can be damaging to health. Adrenaline is produced in the medulla in the adrenal glands as well as
some of the central nervous system's neurons. Within a couple of minutes during a stressful
situation, adrenaline is quickly released into the blood, sending impulses to organs to create a
specific response. This reaction causes air passages to dilate to provide the muscles with the oxygen
they need to either fight danger or flee. Adrenaline also triggers the blood vessels to contract to re-
direct blood toward major muscle groups, including the heart and lungs. The body's ability to feel
pain also decreases as a result of adrenaline, which is why you can continue running from or fighting
danger even when injured. Adrenaline causes a noticeable increase in strength and performance, as
well as heightened awareness, in stressful times. After the stress has subsided, adrenaline’s effect
can last for up to an hour.

McGaugh & Cahill: adrenaline’s influence on emotional memories


When adrenaline reaches the brain it activates the amygdala to send a message that something
important or dangerous has happened. The amygdala is believed to play an important role in
emotional aspects of memory in that it attaches emotional significance to otherwise neutral stimuli.
Generally, researchers believe that an ‘emotional memory’ is better remembered and they argue
that this is because the amygdala is in communication with other brain regions when a memory is
created. The aim of McGaugh and Cahill (1995) was to study the role of emotion on the creation of
memories. Participants were divided into two groups and saw 12 slides which were accompanied by
a very different story. In the first condition, the participant heard a rather boring story about a
woman and her son who paid a visit to the son’s father in a hospital where they witnessed the staff
in a disaster preparation drill of a simulated accident victim. In the second condition the participant
heard a story where the boy was involved in a car accident where his feet were severed. He was

22 | P a g e
quickly brought to the hospital where the surgeons reattached the injured limbs. Then he stayed in
the hospital for some weeks and then went home with his mother. Two weeks after participating in
the experiment the participants were asked to come back and their memory for specific details of
the story were tested. The test was a recognition task that consisted of a series of questions about
the slides with three options for them to choose from. For example, what was the job of the father
of the boy in the story? A. A janitor B. A lab technician C. A surgeon.

The researchers then did a follow-up study. In the follow-up study the above procedure was
repeated, but this time the participants in the ‘traumatic story’ condition were injected with a beta-
blocker called propranolol. This is a drug which is used to treat heart disease because the beta-
blockers block target cells for the hormone so that the heart will pump more slowly and efficiently.
However, in this study it was used to prevent activation of the amygdala.

In the original version of the experiment the


researchers found that the participants who
had heard the more emotionally arousing
story demonstrated better recall of specific
details of the story. They could also recall
more details from the slides. In the follow-
up study they found that those that had
received the beta-blocker did no better than
the group that had heard the ‘mundane’
story. They therefore concluded that the
amygdala plays a significant role in the
creation of memories linked to emotional
arousal and that the rush of adrenaline
released upon experiencing an emotional
event is responsible for triggering the
activation of the amygdala.

Evaluation
 The fact that the researchers could block adrenaline in an experimental design gives rise to
a cause-and-effect relationship between adrenaline and activation of the amygdala to create
emotional significance of the story.
 The research has been applied to the treatment of PTSD patients. Pitman et al (2002) carried
out a study where patients coming into emergency rooms after traumatic events such as car
accidents were given beta-blockers for 19 days. One month after the traumatic event,
people who had the drug showed fewer symptoms of PTSD than similar patients who did not
receive the drugs.
 The study is artificial in nature and highly controlled. Therefore, there is a concern
about ecological validity.
 The study can be easily replicated because of its standardized procedure, allowing other
researchers to test the reliability of the results.
 As the recognition task only had three options, it is possible that this is not a valid test of
memory. However, there was a significant difference between the total recall of the
participants in the different test conditions, so the study demonstrates internal validity.

APPLY IT:
It is said that flashbulb memories and our fight-or-flight response are products of
evolution. How might adrenaline’s effect on memory present an evolutionary
advantage?

23 | P a g e
Meaney et al: the influence of stress hormones on memory
The aim of the study was to determine the effect of glucocorticoids (stress hormones)
on memory. More importantly, this study shows that the mother's touch or grooming
of her offspring, actually leads to gene expression which helps in the regulation of
stress. Those rats that are groomed, regulate stress better. This leads to lower levels
of life time cortisol levels which means that they have less memory impairment later in life. This is a
good example of an animal model used to study the effects of stress on humans. This is done not
only because of the genetic similarities between mice and humans, but also because their shorter
lifespan makes study possible.

Meaney and his team used an independent samples design. The rats were randomly allocated to one
of two conditions. In the treatment group, new-born rats were handled daily by the researchers for
three weeks - from the day of their birth until the day of weaning. During this time they were taken
away from their mothers for 15 minutes and placed in a plastic container lined with a paper towel.
They were then brushed for an intense 15 minutes to simulate the grooming of the mother rat. The
rats in the control group were taken away from their mother but there was no handling by the
researchers. This group served as the control condition. To test the effect of these elevated rates of
stress hormones over their lifetime, two-year old rats were put into a pool of milky water. In the
pool was a platform. Meaney and his team tracked the route of the rats as they sought out the
platform based on the rats' memories of previous attempts to escape the water. The researchers
found that high levels of glucocorticoids (stress hormones) in the early life of a rat resulted in
changes that affected the rats in old age. Increased exposure to adrenal glucocorticoids accelerated
hippocampal neuron loss and cognitive impairments in aging.

You can see that the rats taken away from their mothers
at a young age and were not groomed by the
researchers took a much more circuitous route to get to
the platform when they reached old age. Hippocampal
cell loss and pronounced spatial memory deficits
emerged with age in the neglected rats, but were almost
absent in the rats groomed by the researchers. It appears that the extra stroking that the rats
received led to an activation of genes which are responsible for the reaction to the stress response.
This is an example of epigenetics - the grooming process “turns on” the genes which help the young
rat cope with stress - which then leads to a longer and healthier life.

Here is an image of the rat's stress circuit. When the rat is


stressed, stress signals travel from the hypothalamus to the
pituitary gland and then to the adrenal glands. The adrenal
glands then release the hormone cortisol. Cortisol is released
from the adrenal glands and travels to hippocampus, where
it binds to glucocorticoid receptor sites. When cells in the
hippocampus detect cortisol, which binds to the receptor
sites, a message is sent to the hypothalamus that shuts down
the Fight of Flight response.

Long term exposure to cortisol causes neurons to admit more calcium through channels in their
membrane. This leads to over-stimulation which then leads to hippocampal cell death. This is a
problem when it comes to our ability to create memory as the hippocampus is the location of
acetylcholine receptor sites. Loss of hippocampal cells correlates with lower levels of acetylcholine.
Research shows that there is a correlation between high levels of glucocorticoids, low levels of
acetylcholine, and Alzheimer's.

24 | P a g e
Evaluation
 It is questionable to what extent we can generalize the findings from rats to human beings.
However, there is research that demonstrates lower levels of acetylcholine and higher levels
of glucocorticoids in Alzheimer's patients.
 When Meany did his research he did not yet understand the role of epigenetics in explaining
the results.
 The study was artificial - lacking ecological validity.
 This research led to new theories of the role of stress on cognitive functioning. Research by
Carion has found hippocampal atrophy in abused children; research has also found lower
hippocampal volume in veterans with PTSD.
 In order to measure hippocampal volume in rats, the animals had to be killed. There are
ethical concerns about the killing of animals in research.

An interesting article on the history of hormones and the development of scientific


research
Tata, J. R. (2005) One hundred years of hormones. EMBO reports. 6 (6) P.490-496.
[Online] Available from:
https://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pmc/articles/PMC1369102/pdf/6-7400444.pdf [Accessed 19/07/21]

Pheromones and their effects on behaviour


Chemical communications of sex and reproductive stage are ubiquitous in the animal
kingdom, facilitating sexual selection that arises through competition over mates or
for matings. Whereas humans are considered the most highly scented ape of all, in terms of
numbers and sizes of sebaceous and apocrine glands, our lack of a functional vomeronasal organ
(VNO) and an accessory olfactory bulb (structures encoding pheromones in most amphibians,
reptiles, and non-primate mammals) has long been considered to negate the possibility of human
pheromone communication. Androstadienone (AND) is the most prominent androstene present in
male semen, in armpit hair, and on armpit skin surface. Estratetraenol (EST) was first identified in
female urine.

Zhou et al: AND and EST as gender communicating pheromones


Previous research remains inconclusive whether any concrete sexual information is relayed by AND
or EST to the proper recipients, an important criterion for these two steroids to qualify as human sex
pheromones. Therefore Zhou et al (2014) aimed to investigate if AND and EST can alter
perception/behaviour. The experiment involved 4 groups: 24 heterosexual men, 24 heterosexual
women, 24 homosexual men, and 24 bisexual/homosexual women (based on ratings on The Kinsey
Scale). They each performed the same task at around the same time of day on three consecutive
days while being continuously exposed to either AND and clove oil, EST and clove oil, or a control
condition of just clove oil, one on each day, in a counterbalanced manner. The smells of the three
different chemical stimuli were imperceptibly different (previously tested). Participants viewed a
walking human shape known as a ‘point light walker’ (PLW). The gender of the human shape is

25 | P a g e
ambiguous - it is not clear if it’s male or female. Participants had to say whether they thought the
human shape was male or female.

Illustration of PLWs used in the Gender Identification


Task (A). For each participant, seven PLWs ranging in
equal steps, from feminine to masculine, were
employed, with 0 marking the approximate gender-
neutral point individually adjusted in the absence of
olfactory stimuli.
(B) Moving trajectories of a representative female PLW
(top panel) and a representative male PLW (bottom
panel) during a walking cycle.
 Smelling AND increased ‘male’ responses in
heterosexual females in comparison to the
control condition, but did not significantly
affect gender judgments in heterosexual
males.
 Smelling AND increased ‘male’ responses in
homosexual males in comparison to the
control group, but did not significantly affect gender judgments in bisexual/homosexual
females
 Smelling EST increased ‘female’ responses in heterosexual males in comparison to the
control condition, but did not significantly affect gender judgments in heterosexual females.
 Smelling EST failed to show an effect in both homosexual males and bisexual/ homosexual
females in comparison to the control condition.
These results show strong evidence that AND and EST are used as pheromones to communicate
masculine and feminine information, respectively, in a gender and sexual orientation dependent
manner. On average, the two substances induced an approximately 8% change in the gender
judgments of heterosexuals and homosexual males at the most ambiguous gender-neutral point of
the PLWs. The size of the effects is actually comparable to that of gender adaptation using visually
presented faces or bodies, which is quite noteworthy in view of the dominance of vision in daily
gender perception.

Evaluation
 Inclusion of different sexualities increases the generalisability of the results and moves
beyond a mere reproduction-focused explanation.
 The study is reductionist, limiting behaviour down to responses to pheromone chemicals.
However, human behaviour is far more complex and surely requires a more holistic attitude.
For example, your ‘odourprint’ - the unique smell you give off - is made up of hundreds of
unidentified chemicals, including bacteria (e.g. in the armpits) that mixes with your bodily
chemicals. Furthermore, humans have over 400 odour receptors and each odour receptor
has genetic variants, meaning that each person processes odours differently. Given this
complexity, it is very difficult to test how just one chemical - such as a pheromone - could
make a significant difference in attraction.
 The level of pheromones used was many times higher than would be encountered in
everyday life, so is the study really indicative of people’s natural reactions.
 The pheromones came from areas of the body (semen, urine) that we wouldn't normally be
exposed to when meeting someone for the first time. So it isn’t necessarily possible to say
that people would be affected in this way in real life as they are presumably exposed to
different stimuli than the study tests.

26 | P a g e
 Identifying the gender of a ‘point light walker’ is a highly artificial task lacking ecological
validity. It's not clear how these pheromones would influence real-world behaviour.
 Hare conducted a similar experiment to check Zhou’s results for AND
and EST, but found no significant effects participant sex or pheromones
on the difference scores in a gender classification task, attractiveness
ratings, or unfaithfulness ratings.

“It is unlikely that problems with our experimental design interfered with
measurements of the effects of AND and EST. Our treatment
concentrations were identical to those deployed by Zhou et al, far
exceeding concentrations present in human armpits but matching the
standard set by pioneering studies of AND and EST and used in virtually all studies of the
chemicals. Other aspects of our experiment (e.g. repeated measures, exposure to gender-
neutral stimuli) broadly matched those of Zhou et al. Other aspects of the experimental
design are equally unlikely to have driven the discrepancy. It has been reported that AND and
EST take effect within minutes and are potent for at least one hour, and participants were
alone for the duration of the testing period, so any chemicals secreted by the researchers
were unlikely to have interfered with the experiment. Differences in experimental protocol
between this study and that of Zhou et al are unlikely to explain the discrepancy in results
between our studies. Nonetheless, we recognize that our gender assignment task was
relatively underpowered, given the small number of stimuli used.” (Hare et al, 2017)

Wedekind et al: chemo-signalling in female attraction to males


Suggests that pheromones that are released as part of
human body odour play an important role in attraction.
He tested the role of genes related to the immune
system (major histocompatibility complex – MHC) in
mate selection. MHC genes are co-dominant, meaning
that both sets of inherited genes have an effect on the
child’s immune system; so the more diverse the MHC
genes of the parents, the stronger the immune system of
the offspring. It would obviously be beneficial, therefore,
to have evolved systems of recognising individuals with
different MHC genes, and preferably selecting them to breed with.

For his study, Wedekind recruited a group of 49 women and 44 men, with a wide range of MHC
genes. Wedekind gave each man a clean t-shirt and asked him to wear it for two nights. To ensure a
strong body odour (and therefore plenty of unmasked pheromone), he gave the men supplies of
odour-free soap and aftershave, and asked them to remain as ‘odour neutral’ as possible. They were
also forbidden to eat spicy food. After the men returned the shirts Wedekind put each one in a
plastic-lined cardboard box with a sniffing hole on top. The women were scheduled to return at the
midpoint of their menstrual cycle, when a woman’s sense of smell is at its best, and each was
presented with a different set of seven boxes. Three of the seven boxes contained t-shirts from
MHC-dissimilar men, and one contained an unworn t-shirt as a control. The women were asked to
rate each of the seven t-shirts as pleasant or unpleasant. Overall the women Wedekind tested were
more likely to prefer the scent of men with dissimilar MHC. However, their preference was reversed
if they were taking oral contraceptives.

When mice are pregnant they prefer the familiar odour of MHC-similar males. By nesting with
relatives the mothers get help nursing the pups as well as protection from strange and potentially
dangerous males. This finding may help to explain the difference in women taking contraceptives –

27 | P a g e
which raise oestrogen levels in their bodies- to those who were pregnant, who also preferred the
odour of MHC-similar males.

This study therefore suggests that humans have evolved to utilise pheromones, or at the very least
chemo-signalling, for sexual partner preference. Pheromones are released by the male body which
are picked up via the female nasal system and play an important role in attraction and mate
selection in order to convey benefits to potential offspring.

Evaluation
 The study clearly seems to support an evolutionary argument for mate selection in humans.
The study has been successfully replicated by Jacob et al (2002). Yamazaki et al. (1976)
showed this to be the case for male mice, which show a preference for females of different
MHC.
 Research shows that couples who suffer from repeated spontaneous abortions often share a
higher proportion of their MHC than control couples in many different populations (Beer et
al. 1985). Also, newborn babies of such couples often have a reduced birth mass (Reznikoff-
Etievant et al. 1991). So the ability to detect MHC could play a key role in a woman’s search
for the “best mate.” Of course, such a “decision” is not a conscious one.
 In spite of all the evidence, there are some that argue that the theory is too reductionist –
that is, it over-simplifies the behaviour of human mate selection by bringing it down to the
MHC – ignoring cognitive and socio-cultural factors.
 The design of the study was a double-blind experiment. This means that neither the
researchers nor the participants were aware of which t-shirt they were being exposed to at
any point in the study. This was done in order to minimize demand characteristics.
 The study also met ethical standards as consent was obtained from all participants and they
were debriefed. The sample, however, may not be considered representative as the
participants were similar in age and culture.

APPLY IT:
How might this research influence the way that deodorant and perfume companies
advertise their products?

An interesting article on the controversy of pheromone research


Benson, E. (2002) Pheromones, in context: In a field plagued by murky results and
marketing hype, a few things are finally becoming clear. [Online] Available from:
http://www.apa.org/monitor/oct02/pheromones.aspx [Accessed 19/07/21]

28 | P a g e
Genes and their effects on behaviour
Each cell in the human body contains about 25,000 to 35,000 genes, which carry
information that determine your phenotypes. These are the characteristics that you
display, having inherited them from your parents; therefore, your parents pass on
some of their characteristics to you through their genes. Genes are carried on thread-like structures
called chromosomes. Chromosomes come in pairs and there are thousands of genes in one
chromosome.

In humans, a cell nucleus contains 46 individual chromosomes (23 pairs). Half of these chromosomes
come from one parent and half come from the other. 22 of the pairs appear identical, the other two
chromosomes are called sex chromosomes – X and Y. Females have two X chromosomes, males have
one X and one Y. However, not all living things have 46 chromosomes inside their cells. For instance,
a fruit fly cell only has four chromosomes!

Genes carry the blueprints for making proteins in the cell. Proteins are the building
blocks for everything in your body. Like chromosomes, genes come in pairs. Each of
your biological parents has two copies of each of their genes, and each parent
passes along just one copy to make up the genes that you have and therefore your
phenotypes. However, some genes are dominant and will take priority over
recessive genes.

Modern biologists do not simply argue that a gene ‘causes’ a behaviour; instead, they recognize
what is known as the gene-environment interaction. This a field of study known as epigenetics. We
do not need to understand the exact process of gene expression for IB psychology, but it is
important to know that environmental factors such as stress, exercise, or diet may result in genetic
expression, or the lack of genetic expression. This also means that an individual may have a gene
that could lead to a behaviour, but if the gene is never expressed, then this behaviour will not occur.

Caspi et al: genetic links to depression after stressful events


Diathesis-stress theories of depression predict that an individual's reaction to stressful events
depends on their genetic make-up. If an individual has a specific genotype, then interaction with the
environment may cause these genes to be expressed. Caspi et al (2003) aimed to investigate
whether there is evidence for a gene-environment interaction for a mutation of the serotonin
transporter gene - 5-HTT (involved in the reuptake of serotonin in brain synapses), i.e. is the 5HTT
gene linked to a higher or lower risk of depression in an individual in response to stressful events?
Caspi and his team looked at a sample of 847 New Zealand 26-year-olds. All were members of a
cohort that had been assessed for mental health on an every-other-year basis until they were 21.
The researchers split their participants into three groups, depending on the length of the alleles on
their 5HTT gene:
 two short alleles
 one short and one long allele
 two long alleles
Stressful life events occurring after the 21st birthday and before the 26th birthday were assessed
using a life-history calendar which asked them about the frequency of 14 different events - including
financial, employment, health and relationship stressors. Past-year depression was assessed using
the Diagnostic Interview Schedule. A correlation was tested for between stressful life events and
depression, between the length of the alleles and depression, and an interaction between perceived
stress and the length of the alleles. A further test was done to see if life events could predict an
increase in depression over time among individuals with one or two short alleles. The participants
with two short alleles in the 5HTT gene reported more depression symptoms in response to stressful
life events than either of the other two groups. Those participants with two long alleles reported

29 | P a g e
fewer depression symptoms. Moreover, childhood maltreatment was predictive of depression in
adulthood only in adults with either one or two short alleles. Caspi et al concluded that the 5HTT
gene could indicate a vulnerability to depression after stress, speculating whether the gene could
moderate individual responses to environmental factors. The long alleles seem to protect against
suffering depression as a result of stress.

In a later study by Wilhelm et al (2006), the researchers looked at DNA samples from 127 people
who are part of a longitudinal prospective study looking at mental health. The sample had been
monitored for over 25 years. At five-year intervals, scientists recorded any major life events and
signs of depression. They found that 80 percent of those with two short 5-HTT genes became
depressed after three or more negative life events in a year, whereas those with two long genes
appeared resilient - only 30 percent developed the illness in similar situations. They also found that
childhood maltreatment predicted adult depression only among individuals carrying a short allele
and not among those carrying the longer allele. However, much more research is needed before a
clear relationship between a gene and a depression can be established.

Evaluation
 The study is correlational, so no cause and effect relationship can be determined.
 The study makes the assumption that serotonin causes depression.
 Information about life-events was self-reported. It may be the salience of the negative life
events which plays a role in depression - that is, those that recalled them more easily may
have a tendency toward depression. Those who are more resilient, may not recall negative
life events as easily.
 The theory acknowledges the interaction between both biological and environmental factors
in depression. This is a more holistic approach, not reductionist.
 Later studies have not been able to show similar results. Risch et al (2009) carried out a
meta-analysis of attempted replications and found that the results were not able to be
replicated. d It appears that the study has low reliability.
 There were some participants who did not carry the gene mutation who became depressed;
therefore, we cannot say that gene expression alone can cause depression.

APPLY IT:
How might you feel if you were told that you have the 5HTT gene with two short
alleles?

Cases et al: transgenic mice lacking MAOA


Animal models have allowed researchers to study the role of genes and neurochemistry in human
aggression. One of the ways that this happens is when a behaviour is observed in humans and a
polymorphism (genetic mutation) is noted when the individual's genome is sequenced. Researchers
then attempt to replicate that mutation in an animal model to see if the results are the same.
Modern research often uses transgenic mice – that is, mice that have been artificially modified at a
genetic level to include a foreign sequence, or transgene. This often involves the insertion of a
human gene into the mouse’s genome to create a humanised mouse. Cases et al utilised transgenic
mice to study the potential link between a human genetic mutation and aggressive behaviour
started with research done by Brunner (1996). Brunner studied a Dutch family in which several of
the male family members were mildly mentally retarded and were prone to impulsive behaviour -

30 | P a g e
including aggression, abnormal sexual behaviour, and arson. When
assessed by clinical psychiatrists, there was no specific psychiatric
diagnosis.
Brunner and his team were able to sample genetic material from
the family. The researchers found a variation in the gene that
produces monoamine oxidase A (MAOA), an enzyme responsible
for the metabolism of serotonin, a neurotransmitter that functions
as a mood booster. Through the media, the gene quickly became
known as "the warrior gene."

Cases et al (1995) carried out a study on the genetic origins of


aggression. For their study, they used a transgenic mouse where
the gene that regulates the production of monoamine oxidase A
(MAOA), an enzyme that breaks down serotonin and
norepinephrine, was ‘knocked out’ or deleted. Between days 11
and 16, the transgenic mice showed several signs of low MAOA,
including frantic running, violent shaking during sleep and a tendency to bite the experimenter. In
adult males, they observed signs of offensive aggressive behaviour - including bite wounds.

To test the effect of the genetic variation, the researchers carried out
‘resident-intruder’ tests, where a mouse was introduced into the cage of
another mouse. With control mice, when the ‘intruder’ was introduced, the
mice would ‘check out’ the other mouse, sniffing and engaging with the
mouse. In the transgenic mice, the mice adopted a threatening hunched
position and would engage in aggressive behaviour. This was also true in
the case where the intruder was a female mouse.

Autopsies of the brains of the mice showed that serotonin levels were six to
nine times higher than the control mice, a result of the lack of functional
metabolising of serotonin. The study showed that the genetic variation led
to an MAOA deficiency, which led to impaired serotonin metabolism, which
led to the mice exhibiting strong aggressive behaviour. The researchers
concluded that when human males lack MAOA and demonstrate aggressive
behaviour, the behaviour cannot be attributed to social factors. Instead,
the MAOA deficiency is a predisposition toward aggressive behaviour which
may be expressed through interaction with social and environmental factors.

Evaluation
 Research such as Caspi et al (2002), McDermott et al (2009) and Tiihonen et al (2014) on
MAOA and the 5HTT gene in humans all appear to confirm the animal model. It appears that
the findings in animal research reflect what we see in human behaviour.
 Although the research confirms human research, it is still questionable whether an animal
model truly reflects the types of aggression that we see in humans.
 It is believed that the majority of people who have the MAOA polymorphism do not exhibit
aggressive behaviour. This does not mean that the gene does not have this potential effect
on human behaviour, but it means that there must be a gene x environment interaction for
the behaviour to occur.
 The study is experimental, so a cause and effect relationship can be established. This type of
cause and effect relationship could not be studied in human participants.
 There are ethical concerns about using animals in such a manner, leading to permanent
damage.

31 | P a g e
Genetic similarity
The following table illustrates the average percentage of shared genetic similarity between different
family members.

Relationship Average % genes shared


Monozygotic twin 100%
Parent/child
Dizygotic twin 50%
Sibling
Grandparent/grandchild
Aunt/uncle
25%
Niece/nephew
Half sibling
First cousin 12.5%
Adopted parent/child 0%

Methods of genetic research


There are four main methods used to study the influence of genetics on behaviour, three of which
rely upon genetic similarity in order to establish evidence for the role of genes. As such, these three
methods, and the relevant studies, should form the basis for an answer on genetic similarity.

 Twin studies
Monozygotic twins share 100% of their genotype as they have developed from a singular
fertilised egg that split into two separate zygotes, whilst dizygotic twins share 50% of their
genotype as they have developed from two separate fertilised eggs that happened to be
released at the same time. If the concordance rate for a particular behaviour is higher for
monozygotic twins than dizygotic, we can attribute it to genetic influences.
 Kinship (Family) studies
Different family members share varying percentages of their genotype. By comparing the
concordance rates for specific behaviours across the different family members and degrees
of relatedness, you can get a picture of the involvement of genetics. If the concordance rate
for a particular behaviour is higher for a most closely related family member than a more
distant one, we can attribute it to genetic factors.
 Adoption studies
Adopted parents and children share 0% of their genotype, whilst biological parents and
siblings will share 50%. You can establish an idea for the amount of involvement of genetic
and environmental factors by comparing the concordance rates for adopted and biological
relatives. If there is a higher concordance rate for adopted family, we can attribute it to
environmental factors. If there is a higher concordance rate for biological relatives, we can
attribute it to genetic factors.
 Molecular genetics (NOT utilising genetic similarity, but included for completeness)
These are based on using modern technology for genetic mapping and identifying the alleles
of particular genes in a particular individual. Genetic variants are then correlated with
observed behaviour. These methods are usually used to identify specific genes responsible
for specific behaviour – the ‘gene for depression’, ‘gene for aggression’, etc.

32 | P a g e
Hamer: homosexuality on the X chromosome
The role of genetics in the study of human same-sexual behaviour has been very
influential. Prior to research that indicated that sexual orientation may have its roots
in our genetic coding, homosexuality was considered a mental illness. In many
countries homosexuality was illegal; thankfully this is no longer the case in most, but there are 69
countries in the world where this is still the case (as of May 2021).

Hamer (1993) carried out research as part of the National Cancer Institute’s study of cancers to
determine why cancers such as Kaposi’s sarcoma afflict unusually large numbers of homosexuals.
What they found showed that homosexual men seemed to share similar genes and that many
homosexual men appear to inherit a gene from their mothers that influences sexual orientation. The
findings support earlier studies which suggested that inherited genetic factors play a role in
determining sexual orientation. “Being gay is not simply a choice or purely a decision. People have
no control over the genes they inherit and there is no way to change them,” said Hamer.

Hamer began by studying the family histories of 114 gay men and found more homosexual brothers,
uncles and male cousins than would be expected in the general population. Some families had three
generations of homosexual relatives. Since the uncles and cousins aren’t raised in the same
household but share genetic information, genetic links were suggested.

A follow up kinship study looked at the DNA from 40 pairs of homosexual brothers and found 33 of
them shared genetic markers on the X chromosome in a region known as Xq28. There was no such
similar sharing in the same region among heterosexual men. Hamer concluded that this region is
important for both heterosexual and homosexual development and that there are very small and
subtle differences between the genes of each group. However, the finding does not explain all
homosexuality – 7 out of the 40 pairs of homosexual brothers studied did not have the common
genetic factors. Further study needs to be conducted to determine whether a similar genetic link
occurs in families of homosexual women. There is a large concern among homosexual people that
the discovery of a gay gene will be misused to suggest that homosexuality is something that needs to
be ‘corrected’.

Evaluation
 Replications and similar studies of the Xq28 genetic region have had mixed success at
replicating Hamer’s findings, throwing confusion as to the reliability of this finding.
 There were very limited controls present in this research owing to the wide variety of life
styles across the sample. As such there are significant concerns over the validity of the
research.
 A very small sample, which included 7/40 participants who did not fit the pattern, limits the
generalisability of a genetic explanation.
 There are significant ethical benefits and concerns to the identification of genetic links to
homosexuality.

APPLY IT:
Why might a gay person be happy for a genetic explanation for homosexuality?
Why might a gay person hate a genetic explanation for homosexuality?
Why might a homophobic person be happy for a genetic explanation for
homosexuality?
Why might a homophobic person hate a genetic explanation for homosexuality?

33 | P a g e
Bailey & Pillard: twin study into genetic links in homosexuality
Bailey & Pillard’s (1991) study is one of the more frequently cited studies of the
genetic basis of sexual orientation. The researchers recruited monozygotic (MZ) and
dizygotic (DZ) twins as well as adoptive brothers through gay publications. All of the
participants in the sample were voluntary and male. All twins in the study were raised together –
which means that we can reasonably assume that the environment was highly similar. The sexual
orientation of relatives was assessed either by asking relatives directly or when this was impossible,
asking the gay participant who had volunteered for the study. In addition, the researchers used
questionnaires to assess the participants’ level of Childhood Gender Non-conformity (CGN).
Childhood gender nonconformity is a phenomenon in which pre-pubescent children do not conform
to expected gender-related patterns, and/or identify with the opposite gender. Gender non-
conformity in children can have many forms, reflecting various ways in which a child relates to his or
her gender. These behaviours include, but are not limited to:
 Cross-gender clothing and grooming preferences;
 Playing with toys generally associated with the opposite sex;
 Preference for playmates of the opposite sex;
 Identification with characters of the opposite sex in stories, cartoons or films.

Bailey & Pillard found that 52% of MZ twins were both self-identified homosexuals, 22% of DZ twins
were so, and 11% of non-related adopted brothers were so. A later study showed that non-twin
brothers had a rate of 9.2%. This evidence shows that the more closely genetically linked a pair is,
the more likely they both are to exhibit gay or straight tendencies. The researchers found that the
participants’ self-reported history of childhood gender non-conformity did not predict
homosexuality in any of the three samples. Thus, childhood gender nonconformity does not appear
to be correlated with the development of homosexuality. However, monozygotic pairs were very
similar in their level of childhood gender nonconformity.

Evaluation
 The fact that it is not a random sample means that the study is open to ascertainment bias.
As a result, the sample is not representative.
o This is a problem in many twin studies which hope to establish a genetic link for
behaviour. The fact that all of the people who contacted the researchers already had
a gay member of the family, skews the data.
o To understand this better, think about doing a study on the primary sex ratio in
humans. If we asked all the women present to report the number of male and
female siblings in their family, the women will report collectively a higher ratio of
females. This method of data collection would be biased towards families in which
there is at least one woman (themselves), includes many families in which they are
only-children, and excludes families with no female and multiple males. So, by using
a sample where everyone already has one gay male in the family, the sample is no
longer representative.
 The study relies on self-reported data. Even zygosity was determined by asking the
participants. So, a person could say that his twin was MZ, but there was no evidence
provided to verify this. Often the sexuality of the brother was reported by the gay twin, but
without verification from the brother.
 The participants were asked to report on their level of Childhood Gender Non-
conformity. There is the problem that this information is retrospective in nature - that is,
they are trying to recall what their behaviour was like as children. Memories are open to
distortion, especially as the stereotype of the ‘gay child’ may influence their perceptions of
what they were like as children.

34 | P a g e
 The construct of homosexuality is difficult to standardise. It is difficult to know what exactly
it means to be ‘homosexual’ and whether it would be interpreted equally by all who answer
the questionnaires.
 The sample sizes of such studies tend to be very small. There is a limited number of MZ and
DZ twins. And they limited the sample to males. And then they had to look for those sets of
male twins where at least one brother was self-identified as gay. This is a limited pool and
thus questions the generalisability arise.
 There is the question of reductionism. Although genetics may play a role in our sexual
orientation, the question is to what extent do environmental influences also play a role in
our sexual orientation? Most probably our sexual orientation is not attributable to a single
gene, nor solely to biological factors. It is most probably an interaction between biological
and environmental factors.

An interesting article on the reliability of gay gene research


Servick, K. (2014) Study of gay brothers may confirm X chromosome link to
homosexuality. [Online] Available from:
http://news.sciencemag.org/biology/2014/11/study-gay-brothers-may-confirm-x-
chromosome-link-homosexuality [Accessed 15/06/15]

Bouchard and McGue: meta-analysis of IQ correlations between relatives


Previously Bouchard had published the Minnesota twin study in 1979, a longitudinal
study on twins within the state of Minnesota investigating the biological perspective
of intelligence, seeking to determine exactly how much of our behaviour and thinking
is based on what is inherited from our parents. Following this, Bouchard worked with McGue to
collate the data from 111 studies on IQ correlations between family relatives, to gather information
on concordance rates for IQ MZ twins raised together and apart, DZ twins raised together, siblings
raised together and apart, parent and offspring raised together and apart, and finally adopted
parent and child. The median correlations (concordance rates) they obtained can be seen in the
table below:

Expected Family relationship % of shared genes Median correlation


similarity (concordance rate)
1 MZ twins raised together 100 0.85
2 MZ twins raised apart 100 0.67
3 DZ twins raised together 50 0.58
3 Siblings raised together 50 0.45
3 Parent and offspring raised together 50 0.39
4 Siblings raised apart 50 0.24
4 Parent and offspring raised apart 50 0.22
5 Adopted parent and offspring 0 0.18

35 | P a g e
A basic conclusion can be reached that approximately 70% of observed variation in the sample’s IQ
could be attributed to genetic variation. However, this also shows that a large proportion of a
person’s intelligence (approximately 30%)
is based on environmental factors, since
the environment in which the twin is
raised when they are a MZA will clearly
influence how well the twin does in school
and how efficient they are at learning
things.

For a more advanced conclusion, these


median correlations can be put through
the Falconer model to conduct statistical
analysis of the extent to which behaviour
is a product of genetics and/or the
environment. If you put two of the values
(MZT and DZT) into the formula:
2 x (0.85 - 0.58) = 2 x 0.27 = 54%
In other words, intelligence, based on the
results of this review and the Falconer
model, is 54% inherited.

Evaluation
 Separated monozygotic twins shared the same prenatal environment; if those nine months
are crucial in determining how the brain is wired, environment is already having a significant
impact before birth. This would also help to explain why dizygotic twins (who are no more
alike genetically than any brother or sister) have IQs more alike than ordinary siblings.
 Separated monozygotic twins are rarely separated at the moment of birth; the twins in the
Minnesota study had an average 5 months together before they were separated. If the first
6 months of life are indeed important, environment could still be contributing to their
similar personality traits. Equally, after their reunion, the twins averaged nearly two years
together before they participated in the study.
 It is important to remember that correlational data cannot establish a cause-and-effect
relationship between variables.
 The twins within many of the studies were a self-selected sample so could pose
generalisability concerns as they may have only volunteered to take part because of how
similar they perceived themselves to be; those who did not volunteer may have yielded
substantially different results.
 As a meta-analysis, the point is to collect the findings from multiple studies and find the
consistency within the research. As such, the reliability is greatly increased.

APPLY IT:
How might your genes and environment have advantaged you?
How have you fought back against genetic or environmental disadvantage?

36 | P a g e
An extract from a text book about using the Falconer model to analyse genetic
heritability
Popov, A., Parker, L. & Seath, D. (2017) Genetic heritability: the Falconer model.
Psychology Course Companion. Oxford: Oxford University Press. P.98-99. Available
from:
https://drive.google.com/file/d/1ORE1oxJ9REzGf3zqRphsaIV_1KgdpejW/view?usp=sharing
[Accessed: 16/07/21]

Evolutionary explanation for behaviour


Darwin's theory of evolution explains how species of living things have changed over
geological time. Scientists believe this is the reason why all living things on Earth exist today. Many
species have become extinct in the past and the extinction of species continues to happen. The basic
idea behind the theory of evolution is that all the different species have developed over time from
simple life forms. These simple life forms first developed more than three billion years ago - the
Earth is about 4.5 billion years old.

Charles Darwin was an English naturalist. He studied variation in plants and animals during a five-
year voyage around the world in the 19th century. Darwin later studied hundreds more animal and
plant species. After nearly 30 years of research, in 1858 he proposed his theory of evolution by
natural selection. He explained his ideas about evolution in a book called On the Origin of Species,
which was published in 1859. Darwin's ideas caused a lot of controversy which continues to this day,
because his ideas may be seen as conflicting with religious views about the creation of the world and
creatures in it.

Key points of evolution by natural selection:


 individuals in a species show a wide range of variation
 this variation is because of differences in their genes
 individuals with characteristics most suited to the environment are more likely to survive
and reproduce
 genes that allow these individuals to be successful are passed to their offspring
Individuals that are poorly adapted to their environment are less likely to survive and reproduce.
This means that their genes are less likely to be passed to the next generation. Given enough time, a
species will gradually evolve.

37 | P a g e
Buss: the evolution of desire
Buss (1994) stated that males have, to some extent,
evolved in such a way as to be sufficiently attractive to
women for reproduction to be a possibility. The key
principle of male attractiveness is that certain
characteristics are favoured, i.e. those that will confer
benefits to the female or her offspring. According to Buss,
the key component for humans is control over economic
resources within the particular context the male lives in.
This is likely to require territory and tools. This is
particularly important for a human female because of the
length of time required to carry and raise a child.
Therefore, Buss’ work clearly reinforces the Parental
Investment Theory.

In order to recognise such control over resources, it seems


that women in the vast majority of the 37 countries
researched by Buss, through two questionnaires, rate the social status of a man as a more important
factor in mate choice than males do, even when the women have significant resources themselves.
Other characteristics rated highly in Buss’ survey of the USA include:
 Age a few years greater than the female;
 Ambition;
 Dependability;
 Intelligence;
 Height;
 Good health as signalled by energy and lack of disfigurement.

Acts of love and commitment, and signs of willingness to channel his resources to her (through gift-
giving for example) also contribute to a woman’s mate choice. Kindness and sincerity feature highly,
as evidences by what women write in personal columns when advertising for a partner. Thus the key
features of males that women find attractive are passed on to descendants and those who do not
possess the key attractive characteristics are less likely to be able to reproduce.
Men, on the other hand, are attracted to youth and health as they are the most transparent
predictors of reproductive ability. Again, research in a variety of cultures supports this idea: men
express a preference for a female partner at least two years younger, with more extreme
preferences expressed in Nigeria and several other African countries. In the USA, Buss reports that
on their first marriage men are roughly three years older than their partner, at second marriage five
years older, and by their third marriage men are eight years older than their partner. Universally
valued physical characteristics identified across cultures include clear smooth skin, full lips, lustrous
hair, and the absence of facial scarring or acne. Facial and bodily symmetry is also universally valued,

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perhaps because it is another indicator of good health. Body shape appears to be important, but
only in terms of its relationship with social status – men in cultures where food is scarcer report
more interest in plumper women as this indicates secure and reliable access to food, and thereby an
indicator of good health.

Evaluation
 Large sample size - 10,047 participants. People were surveyed from many countries so their
results should reflect the wider population and what others think about mate choice.
 Using 2 different questionnaires may reduce likelihood of demand characteristics; each had
to be filled in a different way – 1st was rating, 2nd was ranking. Also, using a questionnaire is
a direct way to find out about mate preferences.
 Structured questionnaire allowed quantitative data to be gathered so comparisons could be
made between cultures, the data was straightforward to analyse and also more scientific
than if data was gathered from an unstructured interview for example.
 Sampling procedures were not consistent, the samples were not representative of the
populations looked at, opportunity sampling and self-selecting sampling do not obtain a
representative sample.
 Homosexual relationships were not included in any analysis. If mate selection is based on
evolutionary advantage to reproduction, how does this explain homosexual attraction?
 The samples in some countries were small, only 28 men and 27 women represented Iran.
There was also a gender bias, e.g. in Nigeria, 117 males were surveyed and only 55 females.
Generalisations about mate preference can’t be made from this small and biased sample.
 A questionnaire may not be a valid measure of how we select mates in real life, for example
older males do not always seek younger females, and so asking people about their mate
choice is different to measuring how they behave in real life situations, therefore there is a
low ecological validity.
 Internal validity could be lowered because the South African Zulu sample was rural and
questions were read aloud to some participants so there could have been experimenter bias,
as they could have cued for them how to respond e.g. nodded heads when answering in line
with expectations etc.
 Support for determinism that we are controlled by our genes and will adopt a strategy for
mate preference which will maximise our chances of passing on genes to the next
generation. Therefore neglects free will.
 Internal validity lowered, as original data was not always sent from each country, instead the
raw results were put onto coding sheets and then sent to the U.S.A., and so there could be
problems with the transfer of data from one sheet to another.

APPLY IT:
How might different genders talk about themselves in dating adverts to promote
more interest?

Wedekind et al: pheromones in female attraction to males


See page 27

Fisher et al: the role of dopamine in attraction


See page 15

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An interesting article on the current debate about evolutionary theory
Laland, K. et al (2014) Does evolutionary theory need a rethink? [Online] Available
from: https://www.nature.com/news/does-evolutionary-theory-need-a-rethink-
1.16080 [Accessed 27/09/17]

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