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Chapter 2
Analysis for Flexural Strength of Reinforced Concrete
MECHANICS OF BENDING

Flexural strength is an indirect measure of the tensile strength of concrete. It is a measure of the
maximum stress on the tension face of an unreinforced concrete beam or slab at the point of failure in
bending. It is measured by loading 150 x 150-mm (or (100 x
100-mm) concrete beams with a span length at least three
times the depth.

The flexural strength is expressed as Modulus of

Rupture (MR) in MPa and is determined by standard test
methods ASTM C78 (third-point loading) or ASTM C293
(center-point loading). The specimen size and type of
loading does impact the measured flexural strength and
comparisons or requirements should be based on the same
beam size and loading configuration. The MR measured by
third-point loading (ASTM C78) is lower than that
determined by center-point loading (ASTM C293),
sometimes by as much as 15 percent. It is also observed that
a lower flexural strength will be measured with larger beam
specimens.
Figure 1. Flexure Strength Test

Flexural strength is about 10 to 15 percent of compressive strength depending on the mixture

proportions and type, size and volume of coarse aggregate used. For the design of building members, an
estimate of the MR is obtained by:

Eq.1

Where “Fr” is the MR; f’c is the specified compressive strength. When MR is critical to design, the best
estimate is established from laboratory tests for specific mixtures and materials used.

Reinforced concrete beams are nonhomogeneous in that they are made of two entirely different
materials. The methods used in the analysis of reinforced concrete beams are therefore different from those
used in the design or investigation of beams composed entirely of steel, wood, or any other structural material.
The fundamental principles involved are, however, essentially the same.

The area of reinforcing as a percentage of the total cross-sectional area of a beam is quite small (usually
2% or less), and its effect on the beam properties is almost negligible as long as the beam is uncracked.
Therefore, an approximate calculation of the bending stresses in such a beam can be obtained based on the
gross properties of the beam’s cross section. The stress in the concrete at any point a distance y from the
neutral axis of the cross section can be determined from the following flexure formula:

Eq.2

where f = bending stress at a distance y from neutral axis

M = external bending moment at section

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I = moment of inertia of cross section about neutral axis

The maximum bending stress occurs at the outer fibers and is equal to:

Eq.3

where c = distance from neutral axis to outer fiber

S = I/c = section modulus of cross section

A. Stresses Elastic and Section Uncracked

As long as the tensile stress in the concrete is smaller than the modulus of rupture, so that no tension
cracks develop, the strain and stress distribution is essentially the same as in an elastic, homogeneous
beam. The only difference is the presence of another material, the steel reinforcement. In the elastic
range, for any given value of strain, the stress in the steel is n (modular ratio, Es/EC) times that of the
concrete. In the same section, it was shown that one can take account of this fact in calculations by
replacing the actual steel-and-concrete cross section with a fictitious section thought of as consisting
of concrete only. In this “transformed section,” the actual area of the reinforcement is replaced with
an equivalent concrete area equal to nAs located at the level of the steel.

Figure 2. Uncracked transformed beam section.

Once the transformed section has been obtained, the usual methods of analysis of elastic
homogeneous beams apply. That is, the section properties (location of neutral axis, moment of inertia,
section modulus, etc.) are calculated in the usual manner, and stresses are computed with Eqs. 2 to 3.

Sample Problem 1:

Solution: With a value n = Es/Ec = 29,000,000/3,600,000 = 8, one has to add to the rectangular outline an area
(n − 1) A= 7 × 2.37 = 16.59 in2 , rounded slightly and distributed, to obtain the uncracked, transformed section.
Conventional calculations show that the location of the neutral axis of this section is given by ȳ = 13.2 in. from
the top of the section, and its moment of inertia about this axis is 14,740 in4 . For M = 45 ft-kips = 540,000 in-
lb, the concrete compression stress at the top fiber is:

and, similarly, the concrete tension stress at the bottom fiber, 11.8 in. from the neutral axis, is

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Figure 3. Transformed Beam Section

Since this value is below the given tensile bending strength of the concrete, 475 psi, no tension cracks will
form, and calculation by the uncracked, transformed section is justified. The stress in the steel:

By comparing fc and fs with the concrete cylinder strength and the yield point, respectively, it is seen that at
this stage the actual stresses are quite small compared with the available strengths of the two materials.

B. Stresses Elastic and Section Cracked

When the tensile stress fct exceeds the modulus of rupture, cracks form. If the concrete compressive
stress is less than approximately 1/2 fc′ and the steel stress has not reached the yield point, both
materials continue to behave elastically, or very nearly so.
To compute stresses, and strains if desired, the device of the transformed section can still be used.
One need only take account of the fact that all of the concrete that is stressed in tension is assumed
cracked, and therefore effectively absent. As shown in Fig. 4, the transformed section then consists of
the concrete in compression on one side of the axis and n times the steel area on the other. The
distance to the neutral axis, in this stage, is conventionally expressed as a fraction kd of the effective
depth d. (Once the concrete is cracked, any material located below the steel is ineffective, which is
why d is the effective depth of the beam.) To determine the location of the neutral axis, the moment
of the tension area about the axis is set equal to the moment of the compression area, which gives

Eq.4

Figure 4. Cracked transformed section and stresses on the section.

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The total compression force C and the total tension force T are:

Eq.5 Eq.6

The requirement that these two forces be equal numerically has been taken care of by the manner in
which the location of the neutral axis has been determined. Equilibrium requires that the couple
constituted by the two forces C and T be equal numerically to the external bending moment M.
Hence, taking moments about compression resultant C gives

Eq.7
where jd is the internal lever arm between C and T. From Eq. 7, the steel stress is

Eq.8
taking moments about T gives:

Eq.9
from which the concrete stress is:

Eq.10
In using Eqs. (5) through (10), it is convenient to have equations by which k and j may be found
directly, to establish the neutral axis distance kd and the internal lever arm jd. First defining the
reinforcement ratio as:

Eq.11
then substituting A s = ρbd into Eq. (4) and solving for k, one obtains:

Eq.12
From Fig. 4b it is seen that jd = d – kd/3, or

Eq.13
Values of k and j for elastic cracked section analysis, for common reinforcement ratios and modular
ratios.
Sample Problem 2
The beam of Sample Problem 1 is subject to a bending moment M = 90 ft-kips (rather than 45 ft-kips
as previously). Calculate the relevant properties and stresses.
Solution. If the section were to remain uncracked, the tensile stress in the concrete would now be
twice its previous value, that is, 864 psi. Since this exceeds by far the modulus of rupture of the given
concrete (475 psi), cracks will have formed and the analysis must be adapted consistent with Fig. 4 ,
with the known quantities b, n, and As inserted, gives the distance to the neutral axis kd = 7.6 in., or
k = 7.6/23 = 0.33. From Eq. (13), j = 1 − 0.33/3 = 0.89. With these values the steel stress is obtained
from Eq. (8) as fs = 22,300 psi, and the maximum concrete stress from Eq. (10) as fc = 1390 psi.

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Comparing the results with the pertinent values for the same beam when subject to one-half the
moment, as previously calculated, one notices that (1) the neutral axis has migrated upward so that
its distance from the top fiber has changed from 13.2 to 7.6 in.; (2) even though the bending moment
has only been doubled, the steel stress has increased from 2870 to 22,300 psi, or about 7.8 times, and
the concrete compression stress has increased from 484 to 1390 psi, or 2.9 times; (3) the moment of
inertia of the cracked transformed section is easily computed to be 5910 in4 , compared with
14,740 in4 for the uncracked section.

C. Flexural Strength

Fig. 5 represents the distribution of internal stresses and strains when the beam is about to fail. One
desires a method to calculate that moment Mn (nominal moment) at which the beam will fail either
by tension yielding of the steel or by crushing of the concrete in the outer compression fiber. For the
first mode of failure, the criterion is that the steel stress equal the yield point, f s = fy . It has been
mentioned before that an exact criterion for concrete compression failure is not yet known, but that
for rectangular beams, strains of 0.003 to 0.004 have been measured immediately preceding failure.

Figure 5. Stress and strain distributions at ultimate load.

In a rectangular beam, the area that is in compression is bc, and the total compression force on this area can be expressed as C = fav
bc, where fav is the average compression stress on the area bc. Evidently, the average compressive stress that can developed before
failure occurs becomes larger, the higher the cylinder strength fc′ the concrete. Let:

Eq.14

Then

Eq.15

For a given distance c to the neutral axis, the location of C can be defined as some fraction β of this distance.
Thus, as indicated in Fig. 5, for a concrete of given strength it is necessary to know only α and β to completely
define the effect of the concrete compressive stresses.

Equilibrium requires that:

Eq.16

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Also, the bending moment, being the couple of the forces C and T, can be written as either:

Eq.17

Eq.18

For failure initiated by yielding of the tension steel, f s = fy. Substituting this value in Eq. (16), one obtains the
distance to the neutral axis:

Eq.19

Alternatively, using As = ρbd, the neutral axis distance is:

Eq.20

Giving the distance to the neutral axis when tension failure occurs. The nominal moment Mn is then
obtained from Eq. (17) with the value for c just determined, and f s = fy; that is,

Eq.21

With the specific, experimentally obtained values for α and β given previously, this becomes:

Eq.22

Balanced reinforcement ratio:

Eq.23

Or Eq 24

Where = compressive strain limit

= yield strain

ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF TENSION-REINFORCED RECTANGULAR BEAMS

Referring to Fig. 6, the nominal flexural strength Mn is obtained by summing moments about the centroid of
the compression force C.

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Figure 6. Singly reinforced rectangular beam.

Eq.25

The depth of the equivalent stress block a can be found based on equilibrium, C = T. Hence,

0.85 fc ab = As fy, giving:

Eq.26

It is convenient for design to combine Eqs. (25) and (26) as follows. Noting that A s = ρbd, Eq. (26) can be
rewritten as:

Eq.27

This is then substituted into Eq. (25) to obtain:

Eq.28

This basic equation can be simplified further as follows:

Eq.29

In which

Eq.30

The flexural resistance factor R depends only on the reinforcement ratio and the strengths of the materials.

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In accordance with the safety provisions of the ACI Code, the nominal flexural strength M n is reduced by
imposing the strength reduction factor ϕ to obtain the design strength ϕMn

Eq.31

Or Eq.32

Eq.33

Sample Problem 3

Determine the nominal moment M n at which the beam of Examples 1 and 2 will fail.

Solution. For this beam the reinforcement ratio ρ = As/( bd) = 2.37/(10 × 23) = 0.0103. The
balanced reinforcement ratio is found from Eq. (23) or (24) to be 0.0284. Since the amount of
steel in the beam is less than that which would cause failure by crushing of the concrete, the
beam will fail in tension by yielding of the steel. Its nominal moment, from Eq. (22), is:

When the beam reaches Mn, the distance to its neutral axis, from Eq. (20), is

Sample Problem 4

Using the equivalent rectangular stress distribution, directly calculate the nominal
strength of the beam previously analyzed in Sample 3. Recall that b = 10 in., d = 23
in., As = 2.37 in2., fc′ = 4000 psi, fy = 60,000 psi, and β1 = 0.85.

Solution.

The distribution of stresses, internal forces, and strains is shown in Fig. 6. The
maximum reinforcement ratio is calculated from Eq. below:

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and comparison with the actual reinforcement ratio of 0.0103 confirms that the
member is under reinforced and will fail by yielding of the steel. Alternatively,
recalling that c = 4.94 in.,

which is less than 0.375, the value of c/dt corresponding to = 0.005, also
confirming that the member is under reinforced. Hence, 0.85fc′ ab = As f y, or
a = 2.37 × 60,000/(0.85 × 4000 × 10) = 4.18. The nominal moment is

Sample Problem 5

Calculate the design moment capacity ϕMn for the beam analyzed earlier in Example 4.

Solution.

Comparing ρ with ρ 0.005 or c/dt for the beam with the value of c/d t corresponding to
demonstrates that . Therefore, ϕ = 0.90 and the design capacity is

Minimum Reinforcement Ratio

In rectangular sections, if the modulus of rupture is taken as usual, then an analysis equating the cracking
moment to the flexural strength results in

Eq.34

For T beams of typical proportions that are bent with the flange in compression, analysis will confirm that
the minimum steel area should be:

Eq.35

For T beams that are bent with the flange in tension, from a similar analysis, the minimum steel area is

Eq.36

According to ACI Code 9.6.1, at any section where tensile reinforcement is required by analysis, with some
exceptions as noted below, the area As provided must not be less than

Eq.37

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Eq.38

Sample Problem 6

Flexural strength of a given member. A rectangular beam has width 12 in. and effective depth
17.5 in. It is reinforced with four No. 9 (No. 29) , 4.00 in2 bars in one row. If fy = 60,000 psi
and fc′ = 4000 psi, what is the nominal flexural strength, and what is the maximum moment
that can be utilized in design, according to the ACI Code?

Solution.

Assuming that the beam is under reinforced and using Eq. (26):

The depth of the neutral axis is c = a/β 1 = 5.88/0.85 = 6.92, giving

which is between 0.429 and 0.375, the values corresponding, respectively, to = 0.004 and = 0.005.
Thus, the beam is, as assumed, under reinforced, and from Eq. (25):

The fact that the beam is unreinforced could also have been established by calculating
ρ = 4.00/(12 × 17.5) = 0.190, which just exceeds ρ 0.005, which is calculated using :

Because the net tensile strain t is between 0.004 and 0.005, ϕ must be calculated:

Using linear interpolation, ϕ = 0.87, and the design strength is taken as:

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ANALYSIS AND DESIGN OF BEAMS WITH TENSION AND COMPRESSION STEEL

Figure 7. Doubly reinforced rectangular beam.

It can be assumed that the compression steel stress is equal to the yield stress, but this must be confirmed; if
it has not yielded, the design must be adjusted. The design procedure can be outlined as follows:

1. Calculate the maximum moment that can be resisted by the under reinforced section with
ρ = ρ 0.005 to ensure that ϕ = 0.90. The corresponding tensile steel area is As = ρbd, and, as usual,

With

2. Find the excess moment, if any, that must be resisted, and set M 2 = Mn , as calculated in step 1.

Now As from step 1 is defined as As2, that is, that part of the tension steel area in the doubly reinforced
beam that works with the compression force in the concrete. In Fig. 7e,, As – As’ = As2.

3. Tentatively assume that f s′ = fy . Then

Alternatively, if the compression reinforcement is known not to yield, go to step 6.

4. Add an additional amount of tensile steel A s1 = As′ . Thus, the total tensile steel area As is As2 from
step 2 plus As1.
5. Analyze the doubly reinforced beam to see if fs′ = fy; that is, check the tensile reinforcement ratio
against
6. If , then the compression steel stress is less than fy and the compression steel area must be
increased to provide the needed force. This can be done as follows. The stress block depth is found
from the requirement of horizontal equilibrium (Fig. 7),

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and the neutral axis depth is

since
The revised compression steel area, acting at f s′ , must provide the same force as the trial steel area
that was assumed to act at fy . Therefore,

The tensile steel area need not be revised, because it acts at f y as assumed.

Sample Problem 7- Flexural strength of a given member

A rectangular beam, shown in the figure has a width of 12 in. and an effective depth to the
centroid of the tension reinforcement of 24 in. The tension reinforcement consists of six No. 10
(No. 32) bars in two rows. For simplicity in calculating , dt will be taken as d. Compression
reinforcement consisting of two No. 8 (No. 25) bars is placed 2.5 in. from the compression face
of the beam. If fy = 60,000 psi and fc′ = 5000 psi, what is the design moment capacity of the
beam?

Solution.

Check the beam first as a singly reinforced beam to see if the compression bars can be
disregarded. From :

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The actual ρ = 0.0265 is larger than ρ 0.005, so the beam must be analyzed as doubly
reinforced. From Eq. :

with β 1 = 0.80,

The tensile reinforcement ratio is greater than this, so the compression bars will yield when
the beam fails. The maximum reinforcement ratio thus can be found from Eq:

The actual tensile reinforcement ratio is below the maximum value, as required. Then,

and thus,

and from Eq.:

The design strength is:

Sample Problem 8- Design of a doubly reinforced beam.

A rectangular beam that must carry a service live load of 2.47 kips/ft and a calculated dead load
of 1.05 kips/ft on an 18 ft simple span is limited in cross section for architectural reasons to 10
in. width and 20 in. total depth. If fy = 60,000 psi and fc′ = 4000 psi, what steel area(s) must be
provided?

Solution.

The service loads are first increased by load factors to obtain the factored load of

1.2 × 1.05 + 1.6 × 2.47 = 5.21 kips/ft.

Then M u = 5.21 × 182/8 = 211 ft-kips = 2530 in-kips.

To satisfy spacing and cover requirements ,assume that the tension steel centroid will be 4 in. above
the bottom face of the beam and that compression steel, if required, will be placed 2.5 in. below the
beam’s top surface. Then d = 16 in. and d ′ = 2.5 in.

First, check the capacity of the section if singly reinforced. Table A.4 shows that ρ 0.005, the maximum
value of ρ for ϕ = 0.90, to be 0.0181. While the maximum permissible reinforcement ratio is higher,

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So A s = 10 × 16 × 0.0181 = 2.90 in2. Then with

Alternatively, using

R = 913 ,the nominal moment is Mn = 913 × 10 ×162/1000 = 2340 in-kips. Because the
corresponding design moment ϕM n = 2100 in-kips is less than the required capacity 2530 in-kips,
compression steel is needed as well as additional tension steel.

The remaining moment to be carried by the compression steel couple is

As d is less than the value required to develop the compression reinforcement yield stress , a
reduced stress in the compression reinforcement will be used.

Try fs′ = 50 ksi for the compression reinforcement to obtain the required area of compression steel.

The total area of tensile reinforcement at 60 ksi is

Two No. 6 (No. 19) bars will be used for the compression reinforcement and four No. 9 (No. 29) bars will
provide the tensile steel area, as shown in the figure. To place the tension bars in a 10 in. beam width, two
rows of two bars each are used.
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A final check is made to ensure that the selection of reinforcement does not create a lower compressive
stress than the assumed 50 ksi.

which is greater than assumed. Check ϕ , using d t = 17.25 in. and compute the revised Mu. For simplicity,
the area of tensile reinforcement is not modified.

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