States of matter 

Matter is any substance that occupies physical space.

The kinetic theory of matter states that matter is made of tiny particles (i.e. atoms and
molecules) and that they are always in constant motion.

There are three states of matter that you need to be aware of: Solids, liquids, and
gases. 

Solids have particles that are packed closely together. The atoms are arranged in a
regular pattern due to the strong attractive forces that exists between the particles.
These particles therefore cannot move. Instead, they vibrate constantly on the spot. 

By giving a solid energy (i.e. heating), the particles will begin to vibrate more
vigorously as they gain more energy. Eventually, the particles begin to separate as
they start to overcome attractive bonds. Eventually, the particles will have enough
separation to move past one another, but still kept relatively close (as attractive forces
between particles still exist). The solid has now officially become a liquid. 

Liquids therefore have particles that are loosely arranged (i.e. can move past one
another). They therefore take up the shape of the container in which they’re in. The
particles themselves are constantly moving in constant, random motion. 

By further heating the liquid, the particles gain even more energy! This will separate
the particles even more as they overcome most of the remaining forces of attraction
that exists. 
Gases therefore have particles that are very far apart. Again, the particles will be
moving in constant, random motion and also take up the shape of its container. Unlike
solids and liquids, gases can be compressed. 

Bear in mind that if you start to take energy away from a gas (i.e. cooling) then
individual particles will have less energy to overcome attractive forces, and will
eventually turn back into a liquid. Similarly, by cooling a liquid, it will turn into a
solid.

Here is a diagrammatic summary of the above: 

Transitioning from one state of matter to another 

There is a name for each of the respective changes from one state to another. The
diagram below is a good summary of these: 

* A change from liquid to gas can also be called evaporation. However evaporation
and boiling are two very different things. These two terms will be differentiated in
detail in another topic. Just memorize boiling for now. 
 

Brownian motion
One day, a scientist was observing a pollen grain suspended in water. He realized that
the pollen grain was actually constantly moving in random directions. It looked like
this: 

This made the scientist wonder why the pollen grain was moving in this fashion…
And he figured it out. 

Remember the kinetic theory of matter? Particles are always in constant motion. This
meant that the water molecules were actually bombarding the pollen grain in random
directions to cause the sort of movement observed above. 

Brownian motion is therefore defined as the erratic random movement of microscopic

particles in a fluid (i.e. pollen), as a result of continuous bombardment from
molecules of the fluid (i.e. water molecules).

Diffusion 
Diffusion is the net movement of particles from a region of their higher concentration
to a region of their lower concentration down a concentration gradient. 
The constant random movement of particles (and their kinetic energy) allows
diffusion to occur. Ultimately this means that particles will spread out from one place
to another. 

There are many things that can affect the rate of diffusion. Molecular mass is one of
these things. Heavier molecules will travel slower than lighter molecules. In other
words, the higher the molecular mass, the slower the rate of diffusion. 

Separation of substances 

Measurement 
CIE wants you to demonstrate the ability to name the appropriate apparatus for the
following: Time, temperature, mass, volume:  

1. Time
 Digital stop watch 
 Measures up to 0.01s
2. Temperature

1. Mercury-in-glass thermometer
 Measures up to nearest °C
3. Mass 
1. Electric top-pan balance 
 Measures up to 0.01g 
4. Volume 
1. Beaker 
 Used to estimate liquid volume 
2. Measuring cylinder
 Measures up to 0.1cm3 (More accurate than beaker)
3. Pipette 
 Measures fixed volumes of liquids accurately (i.e. 20cm 3)
 Measures up to 0.1cm3
4. Burette 
 Used for measuring variable volumes of liquids accurately 
 Measures up to 0.1cm3

Criteria of purity 
The purity of a substance is defined as the degree to which a substance is undiluted or
unmixed with other material. A pure substance therefore would be made of
a single substance. 

Purity assessment from melting point/boiling points 

The melting point of a substance is the temperature in which the substance melts.
Similarly, the boiling point of a substance is the temperature at which it boils. 

Interestingly, the boiling point and melting point of a substance can give us an
indication of how pure it is. The table below summarizes this quite well (Hodder
IGCSE Chemistry Revision Guide): 

Paper chromatography 

Paper chromatography is a separation technique that is used

to separate and identify the components in a mixture. 

How it works is fairly easy. Lets imagine you have an unknown liquid (Liquid A).
You want to find out whether or not this liquid is impure (i.e. a mixture) and if so,
how many substances are in this mixture and what exactly are they? 

Firstly, you simply get a drop of liquid A and place it onto the chromatography paper.
You then draw a horizontal line marking that drop (you’ll see why this is important
later). 
You then set up the chromatography paper inside a beaker so that the bottom of the
paper is just immersed inside the solvent (propanone or water). An example of this set
up may look like this: 

As time passes, the solvent will travel up the chromatography paper. As the solvent
moves up, the sample spot of liquid A will dissolve in the solvent. If liquid A was a
mixture, the various substances inside the mixture will begin to separate because they
have different solubilities. Some substances will travel up the paper slower than others
and reach a different end point. The end result may look like this: 
In this particular example, it is clear that the ink spot (liquid A) is a mixture. Why?
Because you can see that it has separated out into 3 different components (green,
purple, and yellow. If liquid A was pure then you would only see one component.

*If liquid A was colourless, then the process can be carried out exactly as before but a
locating agent will be required to “locate” all the separated spots later in order to
measure the Rf values

Finally, since we know that liquid A is a mixture, we can actually determine what
each of the substances are exactly. To do so, we need to calculate the Rf value of each
of the separated components on the chromatogram. 

Rf Value = Distance traveled by spot / Distance traveled by solvent  

So lets go back to the example above: 

The Rf value for: 

 Green spot: 5 / 6 = 0.83 

 Purple spot = 3/6 = 0.50 
 Yellow spot = 1/6 = 0.17 

All substances have a unique Rf value, and therefore you will be able to find out what
exactly the substance is if you have a reference table. In an examination, they will
always provide you with this. 

Methods of purification 
Filtration, centrifuging, decanting 

All of these these methods are used to separate an insoluble solid from a liquid. 

 Filtration is carried out by pouring the mixture into a funnel covered by a filter
paper. Whilst the liquid will pass through the filter, solids will get caught, thereby
separating them. 
  Centrifuging is a technique which uses a spinning tube. The spinning generates a
strong centripetal force which causes denser materials (i.e. solids) to travel
towards the bottom of the centrifuge tube at a faster rate than normal gravity.
 Decanting is the simple process of letting insoluble solids settle in the liquid
before gently pouring it out later.

Evaporation 

This is a simple process of separating the crystals of a solute from a solution. Simply
let the solvent evaporate off and it will leave the solids behind. 

Crystallization 

This technique is used to separate two soluble solids from a solution (given that they
have different solubilities). It works by dissolving the two solids in minimal water,
and then slowly cooling it. The less soluble salt will crystallize first. 

Simple distillation 

This method is used to separate a volatile liquid (easy to evaporate) from a solution

with a non-volatile solid. For example, salt water can be purified using this method.
The equipment set-up is as follows:  
The heat causes the water to vaporize, leaving the salt behind. The water vapor then
turns back into (pure) water as it passes through the condenser (which cools the vapor
down). 

Fractional distillation 

This method is used to separate the different liquids from a liquid mixture. For
example, a mixture of water and ethanol can be separated using this method. 

Fractional distillation works by using the fact that different liquids have different
boiling points. It is a bit more complicated than simple distillation but here is how it
works: 
 

For arguments sake, lets say the round flask contains a mixture of liquid A (boiling
point 50°C) and liquid B (boiling point 100°C).

As you heat the flask with the Bunsen burner, the temperature of the flask and the
fractionating column will begin to rise. It is really important to understand here that
the bottom of the long column is always going to be hotter than the top. This is simply
because we are heating from the bottom and it takes time for the heat to rise up. 

So lets imagine the round flask hits 50°C. What do you think will happen? Well,
liquid A will start to boil in the flask but the vapour won’t get far in the column before
cooling back down into liquid (back into the flask). This is because of the temperature
gradient in the column. 

The very bottom of the column might be 50°C but the top will be cooler than that,
meaning the gas will just condense back to a liquid before reaching the top. Therefore
the main point to take away here is that the gas can only go up as far as the
temperature in the column allows it to. 
Eventually however, the column will heat up sufficiently. When the top of the column
reaches 50°C, the vapour of liquid A will reach all the way to the top and get
condensed into liquid by the condenser. Once all of liquid A has entered the flask, we
simply need to replace it with an empty one. 

The column will then continue to heat up. Eventually, the top of the column will hit
100°C whereby liquid B will reach the top of the column and become liquefied by the
condenser and into our empty flask. 

By utilizing the differing boiling points of liquid A and B, we have successfully

separated it from the original mixture. 

Purification summary 
This is a handy summary from Hodder IGCSE Chemistry revision guide: 
Bonding
Atomic structure
Atoms are the smallest particle of a chemical element that can exist. Elements are
substances that are composed of just a single type of atom.

For example, the element carbon is made of only carbon atoms. Likewise, the element
oxygen is made of only oxygen atoms. You get the gist. 

The structure of an atom is made up of three sub-atomic particles: Protons, neutrons,

and electrons. 

The above diagram is an example of a helium atom. There are several important
things that you need to know about these sub-atomic particles.  

1. Location
 Protons & neutrons are always found in the nucleus 
 Electrons are found in shells, and they orbit the nucleus
2. Charge
 Protons have positive charge (+) 
 Neutrons have zero charge (0) 
 Electrons have negative charge (-) 
3. Mass 
 Protons have a relative mass of 1 
  Neutrons have a relative mass of 1
 Electrons have a negligible relative mass of 1/1840, which is essentially zero. 

The table below is a summary: 

Isotopes are atoms with the same proton number (i.e. same element) but have different
neutron numbers. 

Periodic table 
There are many chemical elements on earth, and the periodic table summarizes all of
them into a single table:
Not only does it tell us the full names of all existing elements (and their respective
shortened symbols), but it also gives us important information regarding the structure
of a single atom of that particular element.

Take helium for example: 

Firstly, it tells you the full name and shortened chemical symbol for the element. In
this case – Helium (He). This is fairly straight forward.  

Secondly, it tells you the proton number and the mass number of an helium atom.
Here are a couple of extremely important things to remember: 

 The proton number (aka atomic number) is the number of protons in the atom
 The mass number is the number total number of protons and neutrons (recall that
neutrons/protons have mass but electrons do not) 
 The number of electrons will always equal the number of protons 

An atom always has zero overall charge because the number of protons (+) will
always be canceled out by the same number of electrons (-). If there was an
imbalance, then the atom would become charged and at that point, it is not called an
atom. Instead, it is called an ion. This will be covered down below 

This means that just from the information provided by the periodic table, you can
calculate the number of protons, neutrons and electrons of the atoms of any particular
element! 

Lets take oxygen as an example this time: 

   An oxygen has 8 protons
 This means that it has 8 electrons
 Since its mass number (proton + neutron) is 16 it must mean that it has 8
neutrons 

Electron arrangement 
Recall that electrons are held in shells. Shells are represented as rings around the
nucleus.

It is really important understand that the maximum number of electrons that a single
shell can hold can vary. 

Take a look at this diagram below: 

As described above, the first (inner) shell can hold up to 2 electrons. The second and
third shell can hold up to 8 electrons. 

It is important to realize that electrons fill from the most inner shell

Example: Oxygen 

So lets take oxygen as an example again. Above, we established that a single oxygen
atom holds 8 protons, 8 neutrons and 8 electrons.

Remember, electrons always fill from the inner shell first. Since we know that the first
electron shell can only hold up to 2 electrons, it must mean that the rest of the
electrons (6 of them) are held in the 2nd shell. This is what an oxygen atom therefore
would look like diagrammatically: 
Knowing the electron arrangement of atoms are extremely important because it
defines the entire foundation of chemistry. Why do you think atoms react with one
another? It’s because all atoms have a goal. Do you know what that goal is? It’s
simple: To achieve a full outer shell of electrons. 

Reactivity of elements 
As mentioned above, all atoms have a simple goal of wanting to achieve a full outer
shell of electrons. If you look at the diagram of oxygen above, you will see that an
oxygen atom has 6 electrons in its most outer shell. So have a think about it… how
could oxygen achieve its goal? There are possible two main ways: 

1. Gain 2 electrons 
 If an oxygen atom just added two extra electrons into its outer shell, then it
would have 8, and therefore a full outer shell! 
2. Lose 6 electrons 
 If an oxygen atom lost all six of its outer electrons, then that shell would
simply disappear. That means the inner shell (with two electrons) will become
the most “outer shell”. This would also mean that indeed the atom would now
have a full outer shell since two electrons is the maximum (for that shell)!

You need to ask yourself. Would option 1 be easier or option 2? Indeed, gaining 2 is a
lot easier than losing 6 and therefore this is what happens in reality. Oxygen either
gains 2 extra electrons by sharing with other atoms or by a transfer process. This will
be covered in detail down below (chemical bonding). 

So really, the reason why chemicals react with each other to begin with is because
these reactions allow atoms to obtain full outer shells. 

Now you may notice that some elements in the periodic table already have full outer
shells. These are called noble gases and they are placed in the most right hand side of
the table (i.e. Helium, Neon, etc.). As you would expect, these noble gases are inert
(do not react) because they simply do not need to. They already have a full outer shell
and they are perfectly happy with how they are. 

 
Chemical bonding 

There are several types of chemical bonds that we will be looking at in this section.
We will be looking at ionic bonds, covalent bonds, and metallic bonds. Before we get
started though, lets get some definitions straight.

1. Elements are substances made of just one type of atom

2. Compounds on the other hand, are substances that are made from chemical
bonds between two or more different elements.
3. A mixture is a combination of two or more different substances in the absence of
chemical bonds. 

Ionic bonding [Metals & non-metals] 

Background 

When atoms lose or gain electrons to obtain a full outer shell, the neutral charge of the
atom will be disrupted since proton number will now be unequal to the electron
number. If this happens, the atom is now called an ion. The ion can have a positive
charge (cation) or a negative charge (anion). 

Metal atoms lose electrons to form cations and non-metal atoms gain electrons to

form anions. Since cations and anions have opposite charge, they are attracted to each
other via strong electrostatic forces. This is called ionic bonding: The bonding
between anions and cations via strong electrostatic forces of attraction. 

Here’s how it works

In ionic bonding, metallic elements will donate their outer electrons to non-metal
elements that need it. Both elements will therefore achieve full outer shells and turn
into cations & anions that get bonded by electrostatic forces. 

Example #1

*Group 1 is simply the first column of the periodic table. Likewise, group 7 is the 7th
column. More will be learnt about this in a separate topic. 

Elements of group 1 (metals) and group 7 (non-metals) in the periodic table form
ionic bonds. This is because group 1 elements need to lose 1 electron to be happy,
whilst group 7 elements need to gain 1 electron. This is a win-win situation! The
group 1 metal will simply donate an electron to the group 7 non-metal and this will
result in the formation of cations and anions that are bonded via ionic bonding. 

This is an example of sodium chloride: 

Example #2
Magnesium is a group 2 element and needs to remove 2 electrons to achieve a full
outer shell. Similar to the situation above, it can also form ionic bonds with fluorine (a
group 7 element) by donating its electrons. The only difference is that magnesium will
be donating to two chlorine atoms (giving 1 electron each). 

Final structure of an ionic compound 

Whilst the above diagrams are used to demonstrate ionic bonding diagrammatically, it
does NOT represent the final structure of an ionic compound. In fact, all ionic
compounds have a 3D lattice structure. 

In sodium chloride for example, many sodium cations and chloride anions will join
each other in regular arrangements (called a lattice) forming a 3-dimensional structure
full of cations and anions joined by ionic bonds. This is what the final structure would
look like:
Covalent bonds [Non-metals & non-metals]

Atoms can achieve a full outer electron shell via sharing electrons. A pair of electrons
(one from each atom) can be shared. This is a single covalent bond and it holds the
two atoms together.

Please note that atoms can be bonded via a single bond (sharing a single pair of
electrons), double bond (sharing two pairs) or a triple bond (sharing three pairs).
Moreover, covalent bonds will ONLY exist between two non-metals. 

The examples below show that by sharing electrons, all atoms in the bond
successfully achieve a noble gas configuration.

Simple examples

*Only the outer electrons are shown in these examples. This is perfectly acceptable in
your exams too.
Complex examples
 

Intermolecular vs intramolecular forces

Knowing the difference between inter-molecular forces and intra-molecular forces is

extremely important.

 When you are melting or boiling a substance, it is the inter-molecular forces that
you are breaking, NOT the intra-molecular attraction. 

Inter-molecular forces are attractive forces that exist between one molecule to another.
These are usually quite weak.

Intra-molecular forces are attractive forces that exists between atoms within the

molecule. These are usually extremely strong. 

 
 

Differences between ionic and covalent compounds

This table below is from the IGCSE Hodder Revision Guide. It details the main
differences between ionic and covalent compounds that CIE wants you to be aware
of. 

Macromolecules
Background 

All of the examples of covalent molecules that we have looked at above are simple
molecules. This means that atoms are bonded to one or few other atoms to make a
molecule or a compound that are attracted to one another via inter-molecular
forces (as described above). 

Macromolecules on the other hand are giant structures made of millions of atoms

all joined by covalent bonding. In other words, a huge number of atoms are joined
via intra-molecular forces which are extremely powerful (also mentioned above).  

There are three examples of macromolecules that you need to be aware of. We will go
through each of these.

Diamond 

This is a crystalline form of the element carbon. It has a three-dimensional structure in

which every carbon atom is covalently bonded to 4 other carbon atoms. 

This is a small part of the structure of a diamond: 

Graphite

This is another form of the element carbon. The atoms are covalently bonded in
layers, with each atom is strongly bonded to 3 other atoms in the same layer. 

An important thing to note is that when carbon forms 3 covalent bonds with other
carbon atoms, each carbon atom will actually have a spare electron left over (you do
not need to know the specifics of this). 

These free electrons are called the ‘sea of electrons’ and they are free to move within
the layers of graphite. It is also because of these electrons that the layers are held
together (weakly). 

Silicon (IV) Oxide 

One silicon atom is bonded to four oxygen atoms and each oxygen atom is bonded to
two silicon atoms. This structure is very similar to the structure of a diamond and
consequently, the properties are also very similar. Silicon (IV) Oxide in the form of
quartz exists as colourless crystals. They are very hard, have a high melting point, and
they do not conduct electricity. 
RED = Oxygen [2 bonds per atom] 
BLACK = Silicon [4 bonds per atom] 

Metallic bonding 

In metals, the atoms shed their outer electrons to become cations. The cations are
arranged in a regular lattice structure whereas the removed electrons are delocalized
and free to move throughout the structure (this is called the sea of electrons).

The lattice arrangement of cations are therefore surrounded by free electrons and since
cations and electrons have opposite charge, they attract each other which bonds the
structure together. 

Metallic bonding is therefore defined as the electrostatic forces of attraction between

cations and their surrounding sea of electrons. 
Moles
Formula of simple compounds 
To figure out the chemical formula of a given compound all you need to know are
the valencies of the atoms that make the compound. 

The valency is the amount of electrons an atom has to gain or lose in order to achieve
a full outer shell. 

You can figure out the valency of an atom via the periodic table.

The group of the element (on the periodic table) tells you how many electrons there
are in the atom’s outer shell. From this information, you can figure out how many
electrons it needs to gain or lose to achieve a full outer shell. Groups 1-3 (metals) will
LOSE electrons. Groups 5-7 (non-metals) will GAIN electrons. Group 4 can do
either. 

Also remember, many atoms will become ions due to the loss or gain of electrons in
ionic bonding. This means the valency of an atom will also tell you the charge of its
respective ion (i.e. Sodium ion = +1 charge. Chloride ion = -1 charge etc.) 

So once you know the valencies of the atoms, all you need to do is swap the numbers
around and cancel them out if they are equal. Take a look at the examples below, you
will understand what I mean:

Examples

1. What is the formula for Magnesium Chloride? 

 Mg (valency 2) + Chlorine (valency 1) 
 Swap the two numbers around 

 Formula is therefore 
2. What is the formula for Aluminium Oxide?
  Al (valency 3) + Oxygen (valency 2) 
 Swap the two numbers around
 Formula is therefore
3. What is the formula for Calcium Oxide?
 Ca (valency 2) + Oxygen (valency 2)
 In this case, because the valencies are equal, you must cancel them out 
 Formula is therefore just CaO 

Writing equations 
This skill will be briefly introduced here and developed further throughout the course.
All chemical reactions can be represented by equations. You need to know how to
write both word equations and symbol equations. 

Word equation

These are very simple. You simply write the equation in words. For example: 

Magnesium + Oxygen -> Magnesium Oxide  

Symbol equations 

This is the most common type. Atoms and compounds are represented by their
symbols. This is a bit more complex because the equation needs to balance. 

A balanced equation means that there are the same number of each type of atom on
both sides of the chemical equation. For example: 

As we learnt above, we know that the chemical formula for magnesium oxide is MgO
because magnesium and oxygen both have a valency of 2 which cancels out. 
Now if you look closely, the above equation is not balanced. Why? Because the left
hand side has two oxygen atoms, but the right hand side only has one. 

At this point you may ask. Why can’t the oxygen just be written as a single O instead
of O2? Then that would solve the issue. Unfortunately it doesn’t work that way
because some elements will always be found in molecules (i.e. two atoms bonded
together). Oxygen, nitrogen, chlorine, and hydrogen are all examples of this. 

Then can we change the formula of magnesium oxide into MgO2 to balance the
equation? No. We can’t do that. We know that the formula is MgO. You
can not change the original chemical formula of a compound.

So how the hell do we balance this thing? Well, we do so by adding numbers in front
of the reactant or products like so: 

Now if you look at it, the equation is balanced! 

 LHS = 2 Mg and 2 O 
 RHS = 2 Mg and 2 O 

State symbols 

State symbols represent the physical state in which the reactions or products are in a
chemical reaction. For example: 

 
Calculations 
Definitions 

Mole equations 

Many of the calculations that you’ll need to do will involve the concept of moles.
There are three important equations that you need to learn: 
You must memorize these three equations off by heart and also have the ability
to rearrange them. A lot of the calculation examples below will make use of these
equations so you must be comfortable with these. 

Moles and masses 

Example 1 – Calculate the relative formula mass of the following: (You can use the
periodic table)

Remember, the relative formula mass (Mr) is just a sum of all the different relative
atomic masses (Ar). The Ar is really just a fancier term for “mass number” and this
can easily be found in the periodic table! 

Example 2 – Calculate the mass of one mole of the following:

Remember, one mole is equivalent to 6X10^23 atoms, molecules or ions of the

substance. The mass of one mole of a substance is equal to the relative formula mass
(Mr)! 
 

Example 3 – Calculate the mass of each of the following:

Now that you know  the mass of one mole of any compound is equal to the relative
formula mass, you can calculate the mass of a given compound as long as you know
how many moles there are!

Example 4 – Calculate the mass of magnesium oxide formed when 3.0g of

magnesium reacts with excess oxygen

* Step 1: Write down a balanced chemical equation 

* Step 2: Calculate the amount of moles of the reactant
* Step 3: Calculate the amount of moles of the product 
* Step 4: Calculate the mass of product 

Firstly, write down a balanced equation: 

 3.0g of Mg = 3/24 = 0.125 moles (of Mg) 

 The mole ratio between Mg and MgO is 2:2 (or 1:1). Therefore, 0.125 moles of
Mg will form 0.125 moles of MgO. 

*The mole ratio is the ratio of ‘big numbers’ in front of the reactants and products
inside the equation. In this case, Mg and MgO both have a number 2 at the front.
Therefore the ratio is 2:2 (and thus 1:1). In this scenario, one mole of Mg will form
one mole of MgO. Theoretically, if the ratio was 1:2 that would mean one mole of
Mg would make 2 moles of MgO. 

 Since 0.125 moles of MgO is formed, the mass can be calculated via mole
equation 1
  0.125 X (24+16) = 5.0g of MgO has been produced from 3g of Mg in excess
oxygen. 

Moles and volumes

Example 1 – Calculate the amount of moles of oxygen molecules in the following

volumes of oxygen at rtp:

Example 2 – Calculate the amount of volume of oxygen at rtp for each of the
following masses of gas:

Do not be confused. This is simple! First figure out the number of moles of oxygen
(mass/Mr). Now simply apply mole equation 2 and you’re done! 

Example 3 – Calculate the volume of oxygen at rtp required to burn 1.4g of butene:

The balanced chemical equation will most likely be provided: 

*The way you approach this question is very similar to example 4 from ‘reacting
masses’ above. To calculate the volume of oxygen required, all you need to know is
the moles of oxygen that is required. We know that the mole ratio of butene to
oxygen is 1:6 so that means for every mole of butene, 6 moles of oxygen is required.
All we need to know, then, is the amount of moles in 1.4g of butene and that is easy! 

 1.4g of butene = 1.4 / (4X12 + 1X8) = 0.0259 moles 

 0.0259 moles of butene requires (0.025 X 6) moles of Oxygen due to 1:6 mole
ratio. This equates to 0.15 moles (of oxygen)
 0.15 X 24 = 3.6  is the volume of oxygen required 

Moles and concentrations 

Example 1 – Calculate the volume of sodium hydroxide, concentration 0.16

mol/dm^3, needed to neutralize 20cm^3 of sulphuric acid, concentration 0.2
mol/dm^3

The balanced chemical equation is as follows: 

*Using the mole equation above, start by calculating the amount of moles in sulphuric
acid. The mole ratio here is 1:2, meaning for every mole of sulphuric acid, double the
amount of sodium hydroxide will be required. Once you’ve figured out the required
amount of moles of sodium hydroxide, the volume can easily be obtained by
rearranging the formula. 

*Also remember, cm^3 needs to be converted into dm^3 by dividing by 1000 

  Moles (sulfuric acid) = 0.2 X (20/1000) = 0.004
 Moles (NaOH) = 0.004 X 2 = 0.008 
 Volume (NaOH) = 0.008/0.16 = 0.05

% Yield 

In a chemical reaction, the expected/calculated amount of product is the theoretical

yield. Unfortunately however, the product amount actually produced (actual yield) is
often lower than this theoretical amount. Taking a ratio of these two values gives us
the % yield. 

Example – Excess magnesium carbonate was added to 25cm^3 sulfuric acid,

concentration of 2.0mol/dm^3. The unreacted magnesium carbonate was removed by
filtration. The solution of magnesium sulfate was evaporated to give 6.7g of hydrated
magnesium sulfate crystals. Calculate the percentage yield 

Balanced chemical equation is as follows:

The question tells you that 6.7g of crystals were formed, so therefore this is the actual
yield. 

The theoretical yield can be calculated as follows: 

  Moles (H2SO4) = 25/1000 X 2 = 0.05
 Moles (MgSO4.7H2O) = 0.05 (Because mole ratio is 1:1)
 Relative formula mass (MgSO4.7H2O) = 246
 Mass = 0.05 X 246 = 12.3g (theoretical yield) 
 % yield = 6.7/12.3 = 0.545 (54.5%) 

*The original answer is in decimals. To convert decimals to percentage, multiply by

100

% Purity 

Example – 7.0g of impure calcium carbonate was heated and 2.42g of carbon dioxide
was collected. Calculate the percentage purity of the calcium carbonate

Chemical equation: 

The key thing here is that carbon dioxide can only be made from pure calcium
carbonate. The impurities in the original sample (of 7.0g) will not contribute to the
production of carbon dioxide. 

The percentage purity can therefore be calculated as follows: 

 Moles (CO2) = 2.42 / (12 + 32) = 0.055

 Moles (CaCO3) = 0.055 (Mole ratio 1:1) 
 Relative formula mass (CaCO3) = 100 
 Mass (Pure CaCO3) = 0.055 X 100 = 5.5g 
 Percentage purity = 5.5/7 = 0.786 (78.6%) 
 

Empirical and molecular formula 

Example – A hydrocarbon contains 92.3% carbon and 7.7% hydrogen.  It’s relative
molecular mass is 78. Calculate it’s empirical and molecular formulae

The ratio of carbon to hydrogen is therefore 1:1 


 Empirical formula (simplest ratio) is therefore CH
 The molecular formula is a multiple of the empirical formula. The Mr of the
hydrocarbon is 78 and the Mr of our empirical formula (CH) is 13, giving us a
multiple of 6. The molecular formula is thus:
Electricity and chemistry
Definitions 

Electrolysis 
Electrolysis is the breakdown of an ionic compound (molten or aqueous solution) by
the passage of electricity. 
 Fundamentals 

Reactions at the cathode or anode 

Electrons flow from the battery to the cathode. Cations (usually metal and hydrogen
ions) in the electrolyte are attracted to the cathode (negative electrode). Cations
accepted electrons from the cathode, and therefore metals and hydrogen are formed at
the cathode. For example: 

Electrons flow from the anode to the battery. Negative ions (non-metals except
hydrogen) are attracted to the anode (positive electrode). 

 If the anode is inert (i.e. carbon or platinum) the negative ions lose electrons to the
anode: 
 If the anode is not inert (i.e. silver, copper, or other reactive metals) the metal
atoms of the anode lose electrons and form positive ions. The anode will therefore
dissolve and become smaller: 

Ions of an electrolyte 

The electrolyte can either be molten or aqueous.

 A molten substance means that the substance has been melted down. The ions
therefore come only from the substance itself. 

 An aqueous solution means that the substance is dissolved in water. The water
molecules themselves can ionize so you will always find hydrogen and hydroxide
ions in addition to the ions from the solute.

The discharge of ions

As we looked at above, ions are discharged at the anode or cathode. 

In many cases, you will find that there are more than one cations or anions inside the
electrolyte. For example: 

 At the cathode you will find that the H+ will get discharged rather than Na+. 
 At the anode you will find that OH- will get discharged rather than Cl-. 

The electrochemical series tells us which ions discharge easier than others. The lower
ion of each series will be the one to get discharged. 
 *Important note: In a concentrated solution, Cl- will be discharged rather than OH-
despite what it says on the electrochemical series. In a dilute solution on the other
hand, OH- will be discharged instead. 

Important examples 

Follow the basic principles for each example. Firstly, figure out the ions inside the
electroyte. Secondly, figure out which ions will be discharged (from the
eletrochemical series). Write down the reactions at the electrodes and also figure out
what remains inside the final electrolyte. 

Molten sodium chloride (inert electrodes)

 Ions present: 

 Reactions in electrodes: 

 Sodium chloride is therefore decomposed 

Concentrated aqueous sodium chloride (inert electrodes)

 Ions present: 

 Reactions in electrodes: 

 Na+ and OH- remain in the electrolyte (which is sodium hydroxide)

*If the solution was dilute, then OH- would get discharged instead of the Cl-. This
means Na+ and Cl- would remain in the electrolyte and the solution will become more
and more concentrated (as water is used up). 

Concentrated hydrochloric acic (inert electrodes)

 Ions present: 

 Reactions in electrodes: 

 Acid therefore gets used up in the electrolyte  

Dilute sulfuric acid (inert electrodes) 

 Ions present: 

 Reactions in electrodes: 

 Acid gets more concentrated as water gets used up 

Aqueous copper (II) sulphate (Inert electrodes) 

 Ions present: 
 Reactions in electrodes: 

 H+ and SO4 ions remain in the solution (which is sulfuric acid)

Aqueous copper (II) sulphate (copper electrodes)

 Ions present: 

 The only difference is that the anode is not inert. This means that the metal anode
itself will react by losing electrons to form ions. 

 Copper deposited at the cathode becomes thicker. Copper is removed at the anode
and it gets thinner. The electrolyte remains the same since one electrode produces
copper ions whereas the other removes them. This process is used to electroplate
other metals with copper.

Commercial use of electrolysis

Electroplating 

This is used to plate one metal with another. The general arrangement for
electroplating is shown here: 
 The metals commonly used to electroplate are copper, chromium, nickel, and silver.
The two main reasons for electroplating are appearance and protection from
corrosion. 

Refining metals 

Metals can be refined or purified by electrolysis. The impure metal forms the anode,
the cathode is a small piece of pure metal and electrolyte is an aqueous metal salt. In
the refining of copper, the following reactions occur

Cathode: 

 Copper ions from solution lose their charge and copper is deposited 
 Anode: 

Anode: 

 Copper atoms lose their valency electrons and go into solution as ions

Overall pure copper is transferred from the anode to the cathode. The impurities from
the copper are left as ‘anode slime’ and the cathode becomes a large piece of pure
copper. 

Aluminium extraction  
 Critical information: 

 Main ore of aluminium is called bauxite 

 It is changed to pure aluminium oxide (alumina) 
 Graphite cathode and anode (therefore made of carbon) 
 Electrolyte is molten mixture of pure aluminium oxide dissolved in cryolite 
 The point in cryolite is to lower the temperature from approximately 2000 to
900 degrees. 
 Reactions at electrodes: 

 The carbon anodes burn away in oxygen and is replaced periodically 

Industrial use of sodium chloride 

As we looked at above, the use of concentrated sodium chloride can be used in

electrolysis to make hydrogen gas, chlorine gas, and sodium hydroxide. 

 Chlorine can be then used in making solvents, treating drinking water, bleach, etc. 
 Hydrogen is used in the haber process, making fuels in cells, making margarine
etc. 
 Sodium hydroxide is used in soap manufacture 

 
 Electric cables: Conductors and insulators
Copper and aluminium are commonly used as conductors in electric cables. You need
to know why they are good for this purpose. 

 Copper 
 Good conductor of electricity 
 Ductile 
 Easily purified 
 Aluminium  
 Good conductor 
 Resists corrosion 
 Low density, allowing high diameter cables to be used. This reduces resistance
and sagging.  

Plastics and ceramics are often used as insulators in electric cables. 

 Plastics 
 Do not conduct electricity 
 Flexible & easily molded 
 Non-biodegradable 
 Ceramics 
 Do not conduct electricity 
 High melting points allowing use at high temperatures 
 Not affected by water or oxygen 
 Can be molded into complex shapes

Chemical energetics
Energetics of a reaction
Definitions 

All chemical reactions fall into two catergories: Exothermic or endothermic. 

An exothermic reaction gives out heat. The total chemical energy of the reactants is
larger than the products. This difference in energy is transferred to surroundings as
heat. 
 An endothermic reaction takes in heat. The chemical energy of the reactants is smaller
than the products so this difference in energy is transferred from the surroundings to
the chemicals. 

*The activation energy is the minimum quantity of energy which the reacting species
must possess in order to undergo a specified reaction.

Bond breaking and bond making

The process of bond breaking is an endothermic process. Energy must be “taken in”

to break bonds apart. 

The process of bond making is an exothermic process. Energy (heat) is released when

this happens. 

Quite often they will give you an equation such as:

They will also give you the relevant bond energies: 

 C-H = 413 kJ/mol

 F-F = 158 kJ/mol 
 H-F = 565 kJ/mol 
 C-F = 495 kJ/mol 
 *An endothermic reaction has a (+) sign because energy is taken in. An exothermic
reaction has a (-) sign because energy is lost. For instance, if you break one mole of
C-H bonds it is denoted as +413. If you form one mole of C-H bonds, then it is
denoted as -413. 

From the information above, can you figure out whether the overall reaction is
exothermic or endothermic? 

Answer: 

Energy transfer 
The most common way of producing heat energy is by burning fossil fuels – natural
gas, coal, petroleum products 

Hydrogen as fuel

The combustion of hydrogen is highly exothermic. It is only used as a rocket fuel, in

experimental vehicles, and fuel cells. There are advantages and disadvantages of
hydrogen fuel. 

 Advantages 
 Very energy rich 
 No pollutants are formed
 Nitrogen oxides not formed (these are environmentally harmful i.e. acid rain) 

 Disadvantages 
  Expensive to produce 
 Difficult (and expensive) to store 

Hydrogen fuel cells 

Much like the set-up for electrolysis, you have an anode (+) and cathode (-). Reactants
are supplied to each electrode. The fuel (containing hydrogen) is supplied to the anode
and the air (containing oxygen) is supplied to the cathode. 

At the anode, hydrogen molecules lose electrons to form ions in the electrolyte: 

At the cathode, oxygen gains electrons: 

The ions formed react to product water:

The overall equation is: 

 
The overall equation above demonstrating the formation of water is essentially an
exothermic reaction (i.e. energy is released). 

When hydrogen reacts with oxygen to form water in a fuel cell, electrical energy is
produced. 

Chemical Reactions
Physical vs chemical changes 
It is important for you to understand the difference
between chemical and physical changes. Some changes are obvious, but
there are some basic ideas you should know.

Physical changes are usually about physical  states of matter . Chemical changes

happen on a molecular level when you have two or more molecules that interact.
Chemical changes happen when  atomic bonds are broken or created during
chemical  reactions . 

Collision theory 
At an atomic level, a chemical reaction will occur when two conditions are met. Two
particles need to collide and they must have enough energy to react. This means the
reaction rate will depend on these two factors: Collision rate & particle energy. 

If two atoms collide but they don’t have enough energy, then the reaction will not
occur. If the particles have enough energy but they don’t collide, then again, the
reaction will not occur. 

It is very important to realize that there are certain things such as concentration,
pressure, temperature, catalysts, and particle size that affect the collision rate &
particle energies, and therefore directly affect the chemical reaction rate. 
 

Factors affecting rate of reaction

We briefly mentioned above the several factors that affect reaction rates. We will be
going through each of these in a bit more detail. 

Firstly however, It is important to note that the best definition for the rate of reaction
is: 

This means that the rate is dependent on concentration (i.e. amount of substance in a

specified volume) rather than just the amount of substance. 

Concentration 

When the concentration is increased, the rate of reaction is also increased due to
higher collision rates (since there are more particles per unit volume). 

Pressure

The pressure only affects reactions with gases. An increased pressure means gas
molecules are closer together. This increases the collision rate and thus the reaction
rate. 

Temperature 

When the temperature is increased, the rate of chemical reaction will increase due to
larger amounts of energies of individual particles and a higher collision rate (since
particles are moving quicker). 

Particle size 
This only affects reactions involving solids. Smaller particle sizes mean that there is a
larger surface area for collisions to occur, which in turn, increases the reaction rate. 

This diagram below demonstrates this concept well: 

Catalysts 

A catalyst increases the rate of a reaction but remains chemically unchanged.

Enzymes are biological catalysts. 

Experimental methods 
CIE expects you to understand how to devise suitable experiments to investigate each
of the above variables on reaction rates. 

Most experimental techniques should be learnt in the lab as a part of your curriculum.
We will touch on the details of experimental techniques in a separate section. 

 
Photochemical reactions 
Reduction of silver (I) Halide 

This is the basis of photography. A photographic film i coated with a layer of silver (I)
bromide. When exposed to light, silver ions accept electrons from bromide ions and
form silver atoms. This is called reduction (more details down the page)

Parts of the film that have been exposed to light turn black, while unexposed portions
remain white, The rate of reaction depends on intensity (i.e. brightness) of the light. 

Photosynthesis 

Green plants make carbohydrates via this reaction.:

The reaction is catalysed by chlorophyll (the green pigment in plants) and occurs only
in sunlight. Again, the rate of reaction is dependent on light intensity. 

Reversible reactions 
A reversible reaction is a chemical reaction where the reactants form products that, in
turn, react together to give the reactants back.

When hydrated copper (II) sulphate is heated, it decomposes. This is the forward
reaction which is endothermic. 
When the products are cooled and mixed, the reverse reaction occurs. This reaction is
exothermic. 

Therefore the overall reversible reaction can be written into one equation:  

Equilibrium 

As we saw above, in a reversible reaction, the reactants make the products and the
products make the reactants. 

Eventually, the reaction will reach an equilibrium whereby the rate of the forward
reaction and the reverse reaction are equal. This means that the concentrations of
reactants and products will stay exactly the same (unless the conditions are changed). 

The concentrations of reactants and products in an equilibrium is called the position of

equilibrium.

 If the position of equilibrium moves to the right, it means that in the “new”
equilibrium, the concentration  of products has increased whereas the
concentration of reactants has decreased.
 If the position of equilibrium moves to the left, it means that in the new
equilibrium, the concentration of reactants has increased and the concentration of
products have decreased. 

For example: 
If the equilibrium shifts to the RIGHT that means more C is being made from A and
B. Therefore, the concentration of C increases whilst the concentration of A and B
decreases. 

If the equilibrium shifts to the LEFT that means more A and B is being made from C.
Therefore, the concentration of C decreases whilst the concentration of A and B
increases. 

There are certain conditions that affect the position of equilibrium. 

***Very important note*** 

The position of equilibrium will shift in the direction that OPPOSES the change in
condition.
For example, increasing the concentration of product C will shift the equilibrium to
the left (to try and reduce the concentration). Bear this in mind when reading through
the separate conditions below. 

1. Concentration
 Increasing the concentration of the product will shift the equilibrium
to the left (to reduce the product concentration). Decreasing the
product concentration will shift the equilibrium to the right (to
produce more). 
 Increasing the concentration of the reactant will shift the equilibrium
to the right. Decreasing the reactant will shift it to the left.
2. Temperature  
 In a  reversible reaction, one reaction is exothermic and the other is
equally endothermic. 
 Increasing the temperature will therefore shift the equilibrium towards
the endothermic reaction (to reduce heat)
 Decreasing the temperature will shift the equilibrium towards the
exothermic reaction (to increase heat) 
3. Pressure 
 This factor is only relevant for reacts that involve gases. Please refer
to this example
  Note that the total number of gas molecules in the LHS = 4 and the
RHS = 2
 Increasing the pressure will move the equilibrium to the side with a
smaller number of gas molecules (i.e. Right in this example) 
 Decreasing the pressure will move the equilibrium to the side with a
larger number of gas molecules (i.e. Left in this example). 
4. Catalysts 
 CIE loves to trick you with this so be careful 
 Catalysts do NOT affect the position of equilibrium. It affects the rate
of reaction only. 
 

Redox
Oxygen gain/loss

Redox is shortened for ‘reduction’ and ‘oxidation’. This can be explained via the gain
or loss of oxygen. 

 Oxidation is the gain of oxygen

 Reduction is the loss of oxygen

For example: 

In the equation above, CuO has been reduced because it has “lost” an oxygen to

become Cu. 

Meanwhile, the hydrogen has been oxidized because it has “gained” an electron to

become H2O. 

Electron transfer
The concept of reduction and oxygen can also be explained in terms of electron gain
or loss. 

 Oxidation is the loss of electrons 

 Reduction is the gain of electrons  

For example: 

In the example above, the magnesium atom loses electrons to become an ion so

therefore it has been oxidized. 

The chlorine molecule on the other hand, gains two electrons to become chloride ions
and therefore it has been reduced. 

Acids, bases, and salts

Definitions 
The pH scale 

The pH scale is a measure of acidity or alkalinity of water soluble substances. 

As you can see above, the scale range from 0 to 14. Water has a pH of 7 and it is
therefore neutral. The lower the pH, the more acidic it is and the higher the pH the
more basic it is.

 The lower the pH, the more acidic the solution is with higher the concentration of
hydrogen ions (H+) in aqueous

 The higher the pH, the more basic the solution is with a higher concentration of
hydroxide ions (OH-) in aqueous

pH indicators 

Litmus paper, & methyl orange are used as pH indictors which allow us to determine
whether a solution is acidic, basic, or neutral. 

 Litmus paper 
 Turns red in acid 
 Turns blue in alkali (soluble base) 
 No change in water

 Methyl orange 
 Turns red in acid 
 Turns yellow in alkali (soluble base)
 Orange in water (original colour) 

Simple definition of acid & base

So what exactly are acids and bases?

The most basic definition of an acid is a substance that generates hydrogen H+ ions
(or protons) in aqueous. 

The most basic definition of a base is a substance that generates hydroxide ions (OH-)
in aqueous. 
  Bases are generally metal oxides or hydroxides
 Bases that are soluble in water are called alkalis 

A more complex definition of acids and bases is associated with proton (H+) transfer.
An acid is defined as a proton donor whereas a base is defined as a proton acceptor. It
is required of you to be able to provide this definition in an examination. 

Neutralization

Neutralization is the process by which an acid and base react to form water. Using the
definitions above, it is easy to imagine this process. The H+ ions from the acid gets
“neutralized” by the OH- ions from the base. 

Properties of acids
Now that you understand that acids are chemicals that release H+ ions in water, lets
take a look at some reactions that CIE wants you to learn. 

Acid + Metal 

In chemistry, a salt is just another word for an ionic compound. An acid-metal

reaction will always form hydrogen and the respective salt. 

Acids + bases
Acids + carbonates

Properties of bases 
There are two main reactions that you need to learn here. 

Bases + acids (again)

Bases + ammonium salts

 

Strength of an acid or base 

Strong acids and bases

Remember, acids release H+ ions in aqueous solution and bases release OH- ions. The
concentration of these respective ions dictate the strength of the acid or base. 

 A strong acid will have a high concentration of H+ ions (i.e. low pH) 

 A strong base will have a high concentration of OH- ions (i.e. high pH) 

A strong acid or base will therefore release a lot of hydrogen ions or hydroxide ions
respectively. This is because the molecules are completely ionized in aqueous solution
(denoted by single arrow). 

Hydrochloric acid is an example of a strong acid: 

Sodium hydroxide is an example of a strong base: 

Weak acids and bases 

 A weak acid will have a low concentration of H+ ions 

 A weak base will have a low concentration of OH- 

A weak acid or base will therefore release small amounts of hydrogen ions or
hydroxide ions respectively. This is because the molecules are partially ionized in
aqueous solution (denoted by double arrow). 
Ethanoic acid is an example of a weak acid: 

Ammonia is an example of a weak base: 

Types of oxides  
From a given oxide, CIE want you to derive whether the oxide is an acid, base,
neutral, or amphoteric. 

Most metal oxides are basic. Soluble bases are called alkalis and they turn litmus
paper blue. Insoluble bases will not affect litmus paper. As discussed above, these
basic oxides will undergo a neutralization reaction with acids.

Non-metal oxides are usually neutral or acidic 

 Neutral oxides such as water, nitrogen (II) oxide, and carbon monoxide
do not react with acids or bases 
 Acidic oxides such as sulphur dioxide, sulphur trioxide, carbon dioxide, and
oxides of phosphorus will turn litmus paper red and neutralize bases 

Amphoteric oxides react with either a base or acid to form salt and water. This means
that these oxides have the properties of a base and acid. Examples are zinc
oxide/hydroxide and aluminium oxide/hydroxide. You need to learn these two
examples: 

Behaving as a base
Behaving as an acid

Salt preparation 
 Titration 
 This is used to prepare a soluble salt from a soluble base (i.e. alkali) and an
acid. This method is used to make salts of group 1 metals and ammonium
salts. 

 Neutralization of insoluble base by acid 

 An excess of the base is added to an acid, and the excess is removed via
filtration. The filtrate is partially evaporated to obtain crystals of the salt.
Soluble salts of most metals that are not group 1 are made by this method. 

 Metal reacting with acid 

 This method is basically the same as above. It can make magnesium, zinc,
aluminium, and iron (II) salts. However it cannot be used to prepare salts of
reactive metals (such as sodium and potassium) due to the violent reaction. 

 Preparing insoluble salts via precipitation

 Here is a list of the insoluble compounds that you need to know. Salts not on
this list are considered soluble. 
 All carbonates except aluminium carbonate and all group 1 carbonates 
  All hydroxides except calcium, strontium, barium, and group 1
hydroxides 
 Barium, calcium, and lead sulphates 
 All chlorides, bromides, and iodides of silver and lead

To make barium sulphate for example (an insoluble salt), two solutions must be
mixed. One solution must contain a soluble barium salt (i.e. barium chloride) and the
other containing a soluble sulphate (i.e. sodium sulphate). The precipitate of barium
sulphate is filtered off, washed, and dried.

Ion & gas identification

You should be familiar with ion and gas identification as a part of your practical work.
But this table will assist you: 
The periodic table
Periodic table 
The periodic table is a method of classifying elements and its use to predict properties
of elements. 

Periodic trends 
Groups

Elements are arranged in order of proton number. Elements with similar chemical
properties are placed in the same vertical column called groups. Elements in a group
have similar chemical properties, same outer electron numbers, and usually the same
valency. Going down the group, the elements become more metallic in character. 

Periods 

The horizontal rows are called periods. Moving across a period, the elements change
from metallic to non-metallic. The number of valency electrons increases across the
period but the number of occupied energy levels (i.e. shells) stays the same. 

Metals vs non-metals

The main physical differences are summarized in this table: 

The main chemical differences are summarized in this table: 

*Many of this material has been covered in previous topics. For more information
about chemical bonds click here. For more information about acids and bases click
here. 

Group properties 
Group 1 – Alkali metals (i.e. Li, Na, K) 

These are extremely reactive metals. The alkali metals (despite being metallic) are
rather soft and have low m.p/b.p compared to other metals. They are good conductors
of heat and electricity and demonstrate shiny surfaces when freshly cut. 

Due to their low valency, these metals are extremely reactive. Each element will react
with cold water to form a hydroxide and hydrogen. 

 Physical trends down the group 

 Increasing softness 
 Decreasing melting/boiling points 
 Increasing densities 

 Chemical trends down the group 

 Increasing reactivity 
 Lithium reacts steadily with water whereas potassium may cause an
explosion

Group 7 – Halogens (i.e. Cl, Br, I) 

Halogens are a collection of diatomic non-metals showing both physical and chemical
trends down the group. 

 Physical trends down the group 

 Colour gets darker down the group 
 Chlorine is yellow/green 
 Bromine is brown 
 Iodine is a black solid with purple vapour 
 M.p and b.p increase down the group 
 Chlorine is a gas (rtp)  
 Bromine is a liquid (rtp) 
 Iodine is a solid (rtp)

 Chemical trends down the group 

 Decreasing reactivity 
  Chlorine can displace both bromine and iodine from their compounds: 

*Don’t be too confused about the concept of ‘displacement’. All that it means is that
chlorine is more reactive than both bromine and iodine. Therefore, in reaction (1),
chlorine has the ability to ‘kick out’ the bromide ion from the compound and take its
place. Chlorine will therefore become an ion to form an ionic bond with potassium
(KCl), whereas bromine becomes a molecule (gas). 

Transition elements 

These are metallic elements placed in the middle of the periodic table. 

 Physics properties
 Compared to groups I and II, they have higher densities and melting points.
They are also harder and stronger. 
 Chemical properties
 Compared to groups I and II, they are a lot less reactive 
 They do not react with cold water but many react when heated in steam: 

 They have more than one valency. Iron (Fe), for example, forms two
different types of ions: 

 This means that they can either decide to lose 2 or 3 electrons to

become an ion 
 They form coloured compounds 
 Iron (II) salts are pale green whereas iron (III) salts are yellow/brown 
 Copper (II) salts are blue 
 Nickel salts are bright green

*You are NOT required to know the specifics of why transition elements have
multiple valencies (or oxidation states) whereas other elements do not 

 
Group 0 – Noble gases 

Noble gases are unreactive; they have a valency of 0. Their outer electron shell is
already complete. 

Noble gases have various uses: 

 Helium is used in balloons. The balloon will float because helium is less dense
than air and also safer (because they cannot catch fire due to their unreactiveness)
 Argon is used to fill electric light bulbs because it is inert 

Metals
Metallic properties
Physical properties

We have touched on the physical properties of metals in the previous topics. Here is a
brief summary: 

 Shiny
 Good conductors of heat/electricity 
 High density 
 Malleable and ductile 
 Usually solid at room temperature 
 Sonorous (makes bell-like sounds when struck)

Chemical properties

Metal + Acid

 
Metal + Oxygen

Metal + Cold Water

Metal + Steam

Note: Reactive metals such as sodium and potassium will react fine in cold water to
produce hydroxide salts. Less reactive metals like copper will not react in cold water.
They will only react in steam and produce oxide salts instead of hydroxide salts. 

Alloys 

An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals, or a mixture of one or more metals with a
non-metal. Alloys are used in preference to pure metals because they can be designed
to have properties for whatever usage purpose. For example, they may be made to be
harder and more resistant to corrosion. 

Alloys are harder than pure metals because the presence of different sized atoms will
make the layers less mobile and prevent them from slipping. 
This diagram below represents a simple alloy: The mixture of metallic atoms (red)
with other different atoms (blue):

Some examples of alloys are: 

 Brass: mixture of zinc and copper

 Mild steel: Iron and up to 0.3% carbon 
 Stainless steel: Iron, nickel, chromium 

Reactivity series 
Different metals have varying reactivities. This all dependent on the tendency of a
metal to form its positive ion. The greater the tendency to form the ion, the greater the
reactivity of the metal.

The reactivity series orders metals from most reactive to least reactive: 
NOTE: The main ones you need to know are potassium, sodium, calcium,
magnesium, zinc, iron, hydrogen, and copper

The reactivity series tells us that potassium (highest in series) atoms have a much
higher tendency to become cations than, say, platinum (lowest), and therefore much
more reactive. 

We can demonstrate the difference in reactivities by observing the reactions of each of

these metals with steam, dilute acid, and also the reduction of the oxides with carbon.

Remember, we have looked at metal + water (cold/steam) & acid reactions above. 
As you can see, the reactions become less vigorous down the table, suggesting the
reduction of reactivities of the metals. 

Reduction of metal oxides via carbon

Remember, reduction is the loss of oxygen. If a metal oxide gets “reduced” by carbon,
it means that carbon “steals” an oxygen from the metal oxide. For example: 

The rule is, only a more reactive element can “steal” an oxygen from an oxide. 

In this scenario, zinc oxide is reduced by carbon because carbon is more reactive than
zinc (refer to the reactivity series). 

This is why the metal oxides that have metals above carbon on the reactivity series
can not be reduced but those that are below it can. 

 
Displacement reactions

As mentioned above, the reactivity series is based upon the metal’s tendency to
become cations. The greater the tendency, the greater its reactivity.  

Displacement reactions involve one ion replacing another. Whether or not a metal can
displace another metal in a compound is strictly dependent on their relative
reactivities. 

Example 1

Examine the reaction above. What has happened to each of the metals in the
equation? 

The zinc has changed from the zinc metal to the ion form (in zinc sulfate).
Meanwhile, the copper ions (in copper sulfate) has become copper metal: 

This is a redox reaction. Zinc loses 2 electrons (oxidation) and donates them to the
copper ions that ultimately gain the 2 electrons (reduction). 

Quite simply, the more reactive metal zinc has displaced the copper in copper sulfate.
This displacement occurs because of the transfer of electrons in the redox equation
above. 

Example 2
In this example, zinc can NOT displace the magnesium in magnesium chloride
because it’s tendency to form ions is lower (i.e. less reactive). 

Decomposition reactions (via heat)

A decomposition reaction occurs when one reactant breaks down into two or more
products. The more reactive the metal, the more stable its compounds are (and thus
harder to decompose). 

Metal hydroxides

NOTE: Sodium and potassium hydroxides are exceptions and do not decompose

when heated. 

Metal nitrates

NOTE: Sodium and potassium nitrates decompose to nitrite + oxygen. Other metal

nitrates however, decompose to the metal oxide, nitrogen dioxide, and oxygen. 
 

Metal carbonates

Extraction of metals
Reactive metals such as potassium, sodium, calcium, magnesium, and aluminium are
extracted from their ores via electrolysis of a molten compound. 

CIE requires you to understand the extraction of zinc, iron, and aluminium. 

Zinc extraction

 The ore is zinc blende (ZnS) 

 This is roasted in the air to form the oxide 

 The oxide is heated with carbon in a furnace, where it is reduced to zinc 

 Zinc distills out of the furnace 

Iron extraction

 The ore is called haematite 

 Haematite, coke (carbon), and limestone are added to a furnace
 Carbon dioxide is formed 
 From reaction between coke and oxygen 
  From decomposition of limestone

 Carbon dioxide gets reduced to carbon monoxide

 Carbon monoxide reduces the iron (III) oxide to iron 

 The impurity in the ore is sand (silivon IV oxide)

 This reacts with calcium oxide to form slag 

 Molten slag floats on molten iron 

 This can be run off separately and used as building material

Aluminium extraction

The details of aluminium extraction has been covered in the topic of electrolysis.
Please click here and scroll down the page to find the relevant information. 

NOTE: Aluminium is a reactive metal, and quite often it reacts with oxygen in the air
to form a ‘aluminium oxide coating’. This oxide coating makes the
metal seem unreactive. 

Uses of metals 
Here we go through some brief uses of several different metals 

 Aluminium 
 Aircraft manufacture due to strength and low density 
 Food contains due to corrosion resistance 
 Zinc
 Galvanizing and brass making
 Copper
 Electrical wiring and utensils 
 Steel
  Car bodies and machinery
 Stainless steel 

Air and water

Air 
Composition of air 

The composition of clean, dry air is approximately 78% nitrogen, 21% oxygen, and
the remaining 1% is a mixture of noble gases and carbon dioxide. 

Nitrogen and oxygen can be separated from air by liquefying air first and then
separating the two gases via fractional distillation. 

 Air liquefaction 
 Air is first filtered to remove dust 
 Cooled to -200 degrees to make gas air into liquid 
 Fractional distillation (of liquid air) 
 Liquid air passed into bottom of fractionating column 
 Column warmer at the bottom than the top 
 Liquid nitrogen boils at the bottom of the column 
 Gaseous nitrogen rises to the top where it is piped off at stored 
 Liquid oxygen collects at the bottom of the column 

Pollutants 
Oxides of nitrogen and carbon monoxide are pollutants produced by motor vehicles.
Catalytic converts can reduce pollution by catalyzing the reactions below: 

Nitrogen and carbon dioxide are fairly harmless, and these gases leave the car
exhaust. 

Rust 

Rusting is the red/orange coating that forms on the surface of iron when exposed to air
and moisture. 

The term rusting is specific to iron or steel. Every other metal will corrode. 

Rusting is essentially a redox reaction whereby iron reacts with the air and water to
form hydrated iron (III) oxide. Therefore both oxygen and water must be present for
rusting to occur. 
Most methods of rust prevention involve coating the iron or steel in order to prevent
contact with water and oxygen: 

 Painting – For example, cars, ships, bridges etc. 

 Using oil or grease – Effective for moving parts of machinery to be used as a
lubricant and a protective coating 
 Coating with plastic – Such as freezers, garden furniture etc. 
 Planting – Cans of food are plated with tin 
 Galvanising  This is coating with zinc and has the great advantage of sacrificial
protection (more info below) 

When the zinc coating of galvanized steel falls apart, the steel will still not rust due to
sacrificial protection. This is because the more reactive metal zinc (as shown in the
reactivity series) will form ions more readily than iron. Under normal circumstances,
the iron would oxidize (i.e. lose electrons) and become iron (III) cations which forms
hydrated iron (III) oxide – which is rust. However if the steel is galvanized, then zinc
will form zinc ions instead of iron therefore preventing the formation of rust. 

Nitrogen and fertilizers  

Fertilizers 

Plants need the three elements nitrogen, phosphorus, and potassium for healthy
growth. These are removed from the soil when plants are harvested. The essential
plant nutrients are replaced by NPK fertilizers. A typical NPK fertilizer might
containing ammonium nitrate, ammonium phosphate, and potassium chloride.

Displacement of ammonia from its salts

The weak base, ammonia, is displaced from its salt by stronger bases. For example: 
 

Haber process 

Ammonia is manufactured from nitrogen and hydrogen. Please note that the forward
reaction is exothermic. 

Nitrogen is obtained from the air. Hydrogen is made from methane (natural gas). 

The conditions for the haber process are as follows: 

 450 degrees Celsius 

 200 atmospheres 
 Iron catalyst 

CIE likes to ask about why temperatures above 450 degrees is not used. This is
because the forward reaction is exothermic and higher temperatures will favor the
reverse reaction and therefore reducing yield. Too low temperatures on the other hand,
will also lower reaction rates too. 450 degrees celsius is a good mid point. 

Carbon dioxide and methane

Sources of carbon dioxide & methane 

There are three main methods by which carbon dioxide is formed: 

  By complete combustion of carbon-based fuel 
 In respiration, which occurs in cells and plants of animals and provides energy for
all living processes 
 By reaction of carbonates with acids to form a salt, carbon dioxide and water
 Reaction between acids and carbonates 
 Thermal decomposition of a carbonate 

The main source of methane is as follows: 

 Decomposition of vegetation and waste gases from digestion in animals 

Global warming

Carbon dioxide and methane are greenhouse gases. This means that these gases trap
heat in the atmosphere in order to keep the earth warm. 

However as emissions of carbon dioxide and methane increases due to human

activity, an excessive amount of heat becomes trapped in the atmosphere. This leads
to excessive increase in the earth’s temperature, resulting global warming. 

 
Carbon cycle 

You are required to know the basic carbon cycle. This diagram below demonstrates
this quite well. 

Water  
Chemical tests for water 

Water will turn anhydrous copper (II) Sulfate from white to blue

Water will turn anhydrous cobalt chloride from blue to pink. This test can be carried
out using cobalt chloride paper 
Both tests indicate only the presence or absence of water. It does not provide
information about the purity of water. 

Treatment of water supply 

Here are some brief points discussing how water is treated: 

 Filtration (through sand and gravel filters) to remove undissolved solids 

 Treated with chlorine to kill bacteria 
 Supplied to the consumer – Safe to drink 

Implications of inadequate supply of water 

Poor water supply impacts health by causing acute infectious diarrhea, repeat or

chronic diarrhea episodes, and non-diarrhoeal disease, which can arise from chemical
species such as arsenic and fluoride. It can also affect health by limiting productivity
and the maintenance of personal hygiene.

Also the lack of water supply will affect crops which need to be irrigated with water.
This may in turn reduce the food supply due to reduced crop yields. 

Sulfur
ByFree Exam AcademyNovember 27, 2018

Sources of sulfur 
The element of sulfur is found in underground sulfur beds in the USA, Mexico, and
Poland. 

Natural gas and petroleum contain sulfur compounds. These have to be removed and
are an important source of sulfur. 
Metal sulfides occur as ores, for example zinc blende. 

Uses of sulfur dioxide 

The major uses of sulfur dioxide is in the contact process for the manufacture
of sulfuric acid. It is also used in bleach in the manufacture of paper from
wood pulp, and as a preservative for food by killing bacteria. 

Contact process 
The process of making sulfuric acid is called the contact process. 

Sulfur is burnt in air to form sulfur dioxide

This is mixed with oxygen to form sulfur trioxide. 

Note: The forward reaction is exothermic. 

The reaction between sulfur trioxide and water produces sulfuric acid. The reaction
would be written as follows: 

Unfortunately, this reaction is too violet to carry out directly.

Instead of adding sulfur trioxide directly to water, sulfur trioxide is dissolved in
concentrated sulfuric acid first to produce oleum. 

Water is then added to oleum to form sulfuric acid. 

The conditions required for the contact process is as follows: 

 400-450 degrees Celsius 

 1-2 atmospheres 
 Vanadium (V) Oxide catalyst 

Properties and uses of sulfuric acid 

Dilute sulfuric acid 

Properties 

 Typical strong acid 

Uses 

 Making fertilizers 
 Treat metals and remove oxidation before painting 
 Laboratory reagent 
 Acid in car batteries 
 Dye, fiber, and paint manufacture 

Concentrated sulfuric acid 

Properties 

 Strong acid 
 Powerful dehydrating agent 
 Powerful oxidizing agent 

Uses

 Making detergents 
 Catalyst 
 Dehydrating agent 

Carbonates
ByFree Exam AcademyNovember 27, 2018

Manufacture of calcium oxide (lime)

Calcium carbonate (limestone) decomposes into calcium oxide (lime) and carbon
dioxide with heat. 

Water can be added to calcium oxide to form calcium hydroxide (slaked lime). 

Note that an aqueous solution of calcium hydroxide is limewater. This goes milky in
the presence of carbon dioxide. 

Uses of calcium compounds 

Calcium oxide (lime) and calcium hydroxide (slaked lime) are both used to treat
acidic soils and neutralize acidic wastes. 

Calcium carbonate has many uses: 

 Manufacture of cement 
 Manufacture f glasses 
 In blast furnace and in steel making to remove silicon (IV) oxide as slag 
 To neutralize acidic soils and lakes caused by acid rain