AFRICAN AMERCAN WOMEN PERCEPTIONS OF CAREER ADVANCMENT INTO

COLLECTIVE BARGAINING SENIOR LEADERSHIP UNION JOBS: A NARRATIVE

by

Sonia Askew

Copyright 2019

A Dissertation Presented in Partial Fulfillment

of the Requirements for the Degree

Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership

 The Dissertation Committee for Sonia Askew certify approval of the following dissertation:

Qualitative Research

Committee:

Mishaleen Allen, PhD, Dissertation committee chair

Jennifer Yen, PhD, Committee Member

Joseph Baugh, PhD, Committee Member

_________________________
Mishaleen Allen
_________________________
Jennifer Yen
________________________
Joseph Baugh

Date Approved: ____________

 ABSTRACT

[Start text here; do not indent. Use a minimum of 150 words and a maximum 250 words.]

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 DEDICATION

[To be indented and completed upon full dissertation completion]

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 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

[To be indented and completed upon full dissertation completion]

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Contents Page

Chapter 1: Introduction....................................................................................................................1

Background..........................................................................................................................2

Research Questions............................................................................................................12

Theoretical Framework of the Study.................................................................................13

Definition of Terms............................................................................................................14

Assumptions.......................................................................................................................15

Limitations.........................................................................................................................15

Delimitations......................................................................................................................16

Chapter 2: Literature Review.........................................................................................................18

Conceptual Framework Literature.....................................................................................32

Methodology Literature.....................................................................................................33

Unions Benefits......................................................................................................33

Female Pay Differences.....................................................................................................36

Research Design Literature................................................................................................38

Long-Term Implications of Wage-Inequality........................................................39

Pay Gap Among Millennial Women......................................................................40

Financial Barriers...................................................................................................40

Conclusions........................................................................................................................42

Chapter Summary..............................................................................................................43

Chapter 3: Research Methodology.................................................................................................47

Research Method and Design Appropriateness.................................................................47

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 Research Method and Design Appropriateness.................................................................48

Research Questions/Hypotheses........................................................................................49

Population and Sample......................................................................................................50

Informed Consent and Confidentiality...............................................................................50

Instrumentation..................................................................................................................52

Field Test...........................................................................................................................52

Trustworthiness..................................................................................................................53

Credibility..........................................................................................................................54

Conformability...................................................................................................................54

Transferability....................................................................................................................55

Dependability.....................................................................................................................55

Data Collection..................................................................................................................56

Data Analysis.....................................................................................................................57

Summary............................................................................................................................59

References......................................................................................................................................60

Appendix B Informed Consent: Participants 18 Years of Age and Older.....................................65

Appendix Research Questions.......................................................................................................67

Appendix B Premises, Recruitment and Name (PRN) Use Permission........................................69

Appendix D University of Phoenix Doctoral Study: Young African American Working in a

Union Organization........................................................................................................................70

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 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Title ...................................................................................................................................x

Table 2: Title ...................................................................................................................................x

(Only list tables if there are two or more tables)

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 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: Title .................................................................................................................................x

Figure 2: Title ..................................................................................................................................x

(Only list figues if there are two or more figures)

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 Chapter 1

Introduction

Many organizations and companies are committed to gender diversity (Devillard, de

Zelicourt, Kossoff, and Sancier-Sultan (2017). However, that commitment has not translated into

meaningful progress for women in the workplace (Krivkovich, Robinson, Starikova, Valentino,

& Yee, 2017). Women are 50.8% of the U.S. population, earn 47% of law degrees, 49% of

doctor degrees and are 49% of the workforce (Kaminski & Yakura, 2008) Despite progress over

recent decades, women continue to be underrepresented and face inequality in promotions to

senior level leadership positions (Warner, 2014). According to Catalyst (2015) women hold less

than 5% of CEO positions In addition, the average median earning for women are lower than

men’s in most occupations (Hegewisch & Williams-Baron, 2017)

Despite women’s share in the labor force in the United States, pay inequities continue to

exist which equates to women not receiving equal pay for equal work in comparison to male

workers (Hill, 2015). When collective bargaining union emerged in the United States, inequality

began to decease (Rosenfeld & Kleykamp, 2012) However, according to a Pew Research Center

survey, the decline was viewed more negatively than positively by U.S. adults (Kalleberg, 2011).

However, even in a union labor environment in the health care industry, women are

significantly under-represented in the majority of the highest paying professions, resulting in a

gender gap (Atkinson, Casarico & Voitchovsky, 2018).

The gender wage gap is a measure of pay disparity between men and women where U.S.

unions tend to reduce wage inequality among men but not among women (Card, Lemieux, &

Riddell, 2018). The effect of unions on overall wage inequality depends critically on which skill

groups are most likely to be represented by unions, and on the extent to which unions raise

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wages for more versus less highly paid groups (Card et al., 2019). The gender wage disparity has

an even greater gap among African Amerian women. Currently African American women earn

$0.61 for every dollar earned by their white male counterpart while white women and Asian

women earn $0.77 and $0.85, respectively (Connley, 2019).

Therefore, the aim of this qualitative narrative inquiry study will be to explore how

African American Women serving in Labor Union Senior Leadership positions perceive

challenges and barriers of gender inequality leading to the underrepresentation into higher-

paying professions in a union-represented health care agency.  The central research question for

this study will be How do African American women perceive the barriers and challenges leading

to the underrepresentation into higher-paying jobs. Chapter 1 will include a discussion on the

background, problem statement, and purpose regarding African American women perceptions of

challenges leading to the underrepresentation into higher-paying jobs. Also, will include in the

chapter will be the significance of the study, its significance to leadership, scope, limitations, and

delimitations. The theoretical framework that will underpin this study will be the glass ceiling

theory and the field-specific ability beliefs theory.

Background

Over the past 40 years, the rate of union membership among workers has continued to

decline because of the increased inequality in wages among women. The number of male

memberships from the private sector in unions has declined from 31% in 1973 to 9% in 2015

(Hicks, 2019). On the other hand, there was a significant rise in male subscriptions from the

public sector from 29% to 43% in the same period. Similarly, the membership of women from

the private sector reduced from13% in 1973 to 6% in 2015 while the public sector experienced

an 18% to 41% increase in the same period (Hicks, 2015). By 2018, the membership and wage

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salary in unions had dropped by 0.2 percent to 10.8 percent compared to the previous year. Data

from the labor statistics show that membership rate in the public sector declined by 33.9 percent

while that of the private sector increased by 6.4 percent. Data collected in 2017 revealed a

decline in union membership. By 2019, the rate of union membership from the private had

increased by five times more than the public sector, which had declined by 33.9 %. Men

continue to record a higher rate of membership by 11.1% while women have a lower

subscription of 9.9%. Compared to the White, Hispanic, and Asian, blacks have a higher

membership rate in unions. Research shows a continued decline in union membership despite the

recorded success in reducing economic disparity among members.

The National Labor Relations Act of 1935 (NLRA) allows all workers to choose a union

of their choice which will advocate for their rights and collective bargain. Unions protect the

rights of workers and advocate for management practices that enhance employee welfare. As a

result, labor unions have contributed to the decline in economic disparity by advocating for

equality (Legislative Background on Pay Equity, 2015). Data shows that trade unions

successfully contribute to the raise of female wages than males. Similarly, unions fight for the

rights of women to work for fewer hours and get more time off to raise children. As a result, they

advocate for female empowerment and motivation to train well and handle labor challenges

(Muscat, 2018). On the contrary, association with social groups has contributed to the increase in

female inequality.

The earnings of nonunion employees equal to around 82 percent of union members.

However, women in unions still earn less than men doing the same job. Therefore, labor

movements have not been successful in their advocacy for equality. As a result, there is an

increase in the rate of wage reduction, gender, and racial inequality (Creswell, Poth, 2018).

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Women commence employment at a lower salary scale, which continues to derail their advocacy

for higher wages throughout their working life. However, unions have contributed to the reduced

cases of inequalities among their members who receive a note worth increase in their payment.

Studies reveal that ration of earning among women in unions has increased by 76.5 % in 2012 to

78.3% in 2013 (Fry, 2015). Lack of organization of new union members has contributed to the

decline in wages and increased inequality. Data reveals that unions play an effective role in

advocating for a wage increase of female workers.

Female workers in unions still experience gender inequality through disfranchisement

and earning less than their male counterparts earn (Hagewisch & Hartmann, 2014). Gender

inequality includes discrepancy between men and women and different access to resources in

health, education, political empowerment and economic empowerment and women is consider

the caretaker of the houses and producer of children (Boniol, et al., 2019).  Stagnation in the

earning of men and women over the past years has facilitated the reducing gender gap as women

experience gender disparity in the workplace. Inequalities in attaining the glass ceiling as well as

the disenfranchisement of corporate culture signify the need for reduction of gender inequality in

unions. Lack of adequate changes have in labor movements have resulted in wage drop, racial

and gender disparity, and hurdles among the millennial generation. Similarly, wage inequality

has undermined the elevation of women status and the overall wellbeing of communities,

societies, and families (Berrey, 2016). The gaps in payment harm women from all ages,

background, and education level. The issue of wage inequality has been a major concern or

Women Union Members. Therefore, there is a need to advocate for cultural diversity in

advocating for gender equality in workplaces.

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 Problem Statement

The general problem is despite the lagging inequality in gender and pay throughout the

United States, the degree of senior leadership union positions is even greater for African

American women advancing into senior leadership positions in the union labor force (Warner &

Corley, 2017). Women represent 47% of the unionized labor movement, but they represent

considerably less of the senior leadership positions that exist in the labor movement (Kaminski &

Pauly, 2013). The limited number of African American women in senior-level leadership

positions creates a lack of diversity and limits an important and growing source of talent as well

as an increased understanding of challenges and barriers associated with women of color in

unionized senior leadership positions. (Sag Devillard, Sancier-Sultan& Werner, 2014).

The specific problem is the organizing success of African American women have not

translated into more African America women serving in labor union senior leadership positions

that can help shape the direction of the labor movement (Bayard, 2015). Cook and Glass (2013)

posited that barriers and challenges to African American women moving into senior leadership

positions include intersectionality of gender and race, lack of mentors and role modeling,

stereotyping of African American women in leadership roles, and networking opportunities.

Sanchez-Hucles and Davis (2010) agreed that African American women encounter several

challenges and barriers posed by a combination of racism and sexism.

According to the National Business Council (2017) the exodus of women from middle

and senior level positions was a contributing factor to the slow increase in diversity of African

American women into senior and executive position in leading businesses in the United States.

Continued failure to address the underrepresentation of African American women in senior

leadership positions in the unionized labor force may result in the continued exodus of valuable

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African American female representations and resources to broaden the perspective of challenges

and barriers faced by African American women in executive labor union positions (Rottmann,

2012).

Limited studies exist that explore the perceptions of women in aspiring to move into

senior leadership positions in labor unions, and the barriers and challenge African American

women encounter when. aspiring to move into an executive leadership position in a unionized

labor force. Findings from this study may assist union leaders in providing useful information to

labor union stakeholders on providing more senior leadership opportunities for African Amerian

women.

Purpose of the Study

The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry study will be to explore African

American women perceptions of career advancement into collective bargaining senior leadership

union positions. A qualitative narrative inquiry will be appropriate for this study because the

researcher will examine stories of African American women perceived challenges and barriers

leading to the underrepresentation into senior level professions in a union-represented. Narrative

inquiry researchers collect written materials, seek visual information, and listen to oral stories on

participants experiences (Polkinghorne, 1995).

Merriam (2009) posited, "Stories are how we make sense of our experiences, how we

communicate with others, and through which we understand the world around us" (p. 32). The

stories told will be used as data on the phenomenon and to develop themes during the data

analysis phase. Narrative inquiry is grounded in participants' personal experiences and in the

information collected via field texts that include narratives such as stories, interviews, and

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artifacts (Polkinghorne, 1995). According to Connelly and Clandinin (1990), the goal of

narrative inquiry is to understand and derive meaning from participants' experiences. 

Narrative inquiry is more than a simple telling and retelling of stories.  Study participants

in this study will be 8 to 10 African American women who are employed in a unionized

healthcare organization.  A qualitative method will be appropriate for gaining an in-depth

understanding of participants' underlying experiences and views (Yin, 2013). The qualitative

method will be more appropriate than the quantitative method for this study. Qualitative

researchers seek to understand complex interrelationships, while quantitative researchers attempt

to explain and control variables (Stake, 1995).

Qualitative researchers aim to explain and understand the phenomenon of what and why

questions (Yin, 2003). The narrative inquiry will be an appropriate design to gain an in-depth

understanding of field text research. The narrative design will include semi structured recording

interviews that examine experiences and views regarding how African Amerian women

healthcare workers perceive challenges and barriers leading to the underrepresentation into

higher-paying professions in a union-represented health care agency,

Population and Sample

The population will be unionized workers in a private hospital agency in Northern

California. Qualitative researchers use purposefully selected samples and may use interviews,

observations, and audio recordings to collect data. The rationale for using purposeful sampling

will be that chosen participants would be knowledgeable about or experienced with the

phenomenon under study (Palinkas et al., 2015) The sample in this study will be 14 to 16 African

American women purposely selected healthcare workers in a unionized Northern California

private healthcare agency.

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 The specific requirements for participants will be African American women between the

ages of 21 to 55 working in a unionized agency in Northern California. Participants must be an

active member of the labor union for a minimum of five years. According to Patton (2005),

purposeful sampling is reflective of a selective group, such as African American women union

workers. Researchers using purposeful sampling methods strive to achieve saturation through a

comprehensive understanding of the phenomenon under study by continuing to interview until

they acquire no new substantive information (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Qualitative researchers

seek to obtain in-depth, rich, detailed information from the perspective of the participants (Yin,

2003).

Significance of the Study

The significance of this qualitative narrative study will be to understand African

Amerian unionized women workers' perceptions of barriers and challenges leading to the

underrepresentation into higher-paying professions in a union-represented health care

agency. African Amerian women workers' perceptions may provide insight into the experiences

and views as participants will have the opportunity to share their stories from the past and

present providing a clear understanding barrier and challenges, as they perceive them (Bruner,

1996). Another significance is that African Amerian unionized women workers will have the

opportunity to discuss work opportunities in the union in an unbiased setting and may begin a

dialogue for other women of color to continue the conversation.

The next significance is the study findings may be insightful to leaders in the union and

the findings may be helpful in the development of future changes in inclusion and diversity

programs within a union environment. The findings may lead to an understanding of the

challenge’s African American females in unionized jobs face and the impact of limited

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opportunities. The research may contribute to current and future generations by helping more

African American females ascend in unionized leadership positions.

Nature of the Study

The nature of this study is to study the phenomena in its natural settings and interpret the

meanings that African American women attribute to the phenomena (Denzin & Lincoln, 2011).

Neuman (2005) asserted that qualitative research deals with emotions and perceptions while

quantitative research is concerned with numerical data. This study is specifically a qualitative

narrative inquiry which can be used to explore how African American Women serving in Labor

Union Senior Leadership positions perceive challenges and barriers of gender inequality leading

to the underrepresentation into higher-paying professions in a union-represented health care

agency. The study will include a qualitative narrative inquiry to address the research question.

According to Patton (2015), researchers using qualitative methods commonly seek to understand

the experiences with an aim to answer how or why, in contrast to quantitative research methods’

aim to answer what, how much, or how many (Patton, 2015).

This qualitative narrative inquiry will be used to explore experiences and views of

African Amerian women on challenges and barriers working in an organization represented by at

union. Narrative inquiry researchers seek ways to understand and present life experiences

through the stories of the research participants (Clandinin, 2013). Riessman and Speedy (2007)

suggested researchers use narrative inquiry to understand how a story is constructed, for what

purpose, and what cultural discourses the story draws upon. The narrative inquiry will include

semi structured, open-ended questions, which is characteristic of a narrative interview. The

African America female who participate in this study will be asked to respond to 10 open-ended

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questions to express their views on challenges and barriers African American perceive as ying

patterns and themes detailed information from the perspective of the participants (Yin, 2003).   

Narrative inquiry research will intend to expand opportunities for participants to recount

and openly share stories (Connelly & Clandinin, 1990). In a narrative inquiry study, the focus is

on the meanings that participants ascribe to experiences. Study participants will have the

opportunity to share their views and experiences through storytelling. Narrative inquiry in this

study involve more than gathering stories and served as an attempt to understand the meaning

and ways participants construct their story. Qualitative researchers use narrative inquiry research

to understand participants' experiences through collaboration (Polkinghorne, 1995). 

Overview of Method and Design Appropriateness

The qualitative narrative inquiry research design will be suitable for this study.

Qualitative researchers use narrative inquiry design to learn and gain an understanding of

phenomena of challenges and barriers of gender inequality leading to the underrepresentation

into higher-paying professions in a union-represented (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). A

qualitative narrative inquiry research study is a design used when a researcher wants to

understand a particularly bounded unit (Stake, 2010).

The qualitative narrative inquiry first emerged as a methodology to capture personal

experiences using storytelling (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000). The qualitative narrative inquiry

design will be suitable to examine how African American women share their experiences on

challenges and barriers of gender inequality leading to the underrepresentation into higher-

paying professions in a union-represented The basis of the narrative inquiry design is the premise

that individuals understand and give meaning to experiences in their lives through storytelling

(Andrews, Squire & Tamboukou, 2013). The African American women who participate in this

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study will be asked to share their experiences narratively and respond to open-ended questions

about their experiences in a unionized organization. Qualitative narrative inquiry interviews

allow participants to provide the time to explain and share their experiences and views.

Researchers use a qualitative narrative inquiry design to gain more information by

completing one-on-one interviews. Qualitative narrative inquiry research involves studying a

contemporary phenomenon in depth and in a real-world context (Polkinghorne, 2005). An in-

depth understanding of African American women’ experiences if =challenges and barriers of

gender inequality leading to the underrepresentation into higher-paying professions in a union-

represented health care agency. A qualitative narrative inquiry researcher focuses on two or more

groups and provides an alternative method to foster an in-depth understanding of the

phenomenon (Clandinin & Connelly, 2000).

The phenomenological design was considered, however will be not appropriate for this

study. Phenomenological researchers’ in-depth interviews to discover and identify the essence of

how participants internalize feelings (Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological researchers analyze

individual realities to understand the meanings people allocate to various phenomena in a society

(Moustakas, 1994). Phenomenological researchers focus on the essence of what happened to

participants and on how individuals feel internally instead of on external events (Patton, 2015).

In this study, the focus will be not on participants’ internal feelings but on participants’ external

events.

An ethnographic design was also considered and found not appropriate for understanding

African American women’ experiences of challenges and barriers of gender inequality leading to

the underrepresentation into higher-paying professions in a union-represented health care

agency. Ethnographic researchers investigate the culture of a group and focus on shared patterns,

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 behaviors, and interactions of the group (Willis & Trondman, 2000). Ethnography researchers

focus on a group’s culture and language and on the way the group members interact (Guba &

Lincoln, 1994).

Researchers who choose the ethnography design will need to spend a substantial amount

of time on site with group participants to observe the phenomenon. The intent of ethnography

research is to determine how culture works rather than to understand an issue or problem such as

the experiences of African American women. Therefore, the qualitative narrative inquiry

research design will be appropriate for this study because the goal of the study will be to collect

African American women’ experiences of challenges and barriers of gender inequality leading to

the underrepresentation into higher-paying professions in a union-represented health care agency

understand the support and education that may be necessary.

Research Questions

According to Pratt (2009), qualitative studies concentrate on questions that ask “how” rather than

quantitative inquiries that ask, “how many.” In a qualitative method study, the research questions

are broad, and researchers may not understand all theories or concepts pertaining to the research

the research question in a qualitative study identifies the phenomenon under study and supports

an in-depth examination of the phenomenon (Huberman & Miles, 2002). Based on the problem

and purpose of this study, the central research question and three sub questions for this study

are:

R1: How do African American women perceive career advancement into collective

bargaining senior leadership positions.

SQ1: How do African American women perceive unions’ roles in assisting them in

advancing into senior leadership positions.

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 SQ2: How do African American women perceive race and gender affecting advancement

into senior leadership positions.

Theoretical Framework of the Study

the glass ceiling syndrome, which contends that women are discriminated against based

on their gender, and employers do not take their qualifications and experience into consideration.

The effects of gender discrimination remain powerful and continue to be a deciding factor in

senior leadership positions (Hoobler et al., 2014). Stable gender differences refer to the work and

requirement differences that exist between men and women, which result in different roles and

preferences. During the early 20th century, feminists fought against male and female work roles

and argued for women to accept and work in male-dominated jobs. However, toward the end of

the century, feminism reasserted gender differences to reclaim femininity (Kang et al., 2017).

Women demonstrate differences in socialization. Scientist have asserted that women are

wired differently regarding brain shape and hormones, and aggregate social statistics indicate

different overall behaviors. In agreement with this claim, Broadbridge and Simpson (2011) wrote

a body of literature known as the “Women’s Voice” that showed women manage, speak, and

learn in a different, but not inferior, way than men. Today it is largely believed that gender

differences are through socialization rather than genetics. Women and men interact differently

and view themselves differently.

Social roles and working conditions also contribute as factors. According to Bosak and

Sczesny (2011), women and men develop early beliefs though social training and expectations,

and these beliefs are reinforced during school and later in the workplace. A primary belief is that

people see men in leadership roles and women in subordinate roles, and these beliefs continue to

manifest in social and media settings. Researchers at the Pew Research Center (2014) noted the

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reasons for inequality concerning women in senior leadership positions are perception and

gender discrimination. The review of the literature indicated the combination of gender and

societal roles presents increased barriers and challenges for African American women aspiring to

move into senior leadership positions.

Definition of Terms

In this study, the researcher used several terms related to the economic cost of non-union

workers. The definitions of the following key terms provide a better understanding of African

Amerian women workers and coverage of unions:

African American: A term culturally bound to a group of people within the context of

American society (Sellers, Smith, Shelton, Rowley, & Chievous, 1998, p. 19)

Barriers. Barriers are environments, situations, or other conditions that limit impede

advancement into higher levels of organizational leadership. Barriers are further categorized as

intrinsic, home or family, and extrinsic the workplace (Calkin, 2015).

Collective bargaining is a process in which employee representatives (unions) and

employers negotiate the specifics of employment, usually resulting in a contract stipulating the

wages, hours, and other conditions of employment (U.S. Department of Labor, 2013)

Fringe benefits are secured benefits other than wages such as vacations, pensions,

holidays, and insurance coverage (U.S. Department of Labor, 2013).

Gender wage gap. The gender wage gap is the difference between the amount of money

made between women and men doing the same work.

Labor organization is an organization, agency, or worker representation committee in

which workers participate and whose purpose is dealing with employers on matters pertaining to

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grievances, wages, labor disputes, work hours, or work conditions (U.S. Department of Labor,

2013).

Assumptions

According to Tsang (2009), assumptions are the conditions that determine if research

questions are valid and enough. This study included several assumptions. The first assumption

was that individuals in this study are members of a union and did not an option to join or not

joint. Second, the researcher assumed participants would answer the interview questions

honestly because of the anonymity and confidentiality procedures the researcher used (Creswell,

2008). Third, the researcher assumed that data gathered from participants would provide an in-

depth understanding of how union leaders and employees can unify working relationships via

communication. A final assumption is the second assumption participants will be able to express

their perspectives through storytelling and sharing experiences related to challenges and barriers

of gender inequality leading to the underrepresentation into higher-paying professions in a union-

represented health care agency. 

Limitations

According to Creswell (2003), qualitative, quantitative, and mixed methods research

studies entail limitations and delimitations. Creswell (2003) defined limitations as weaknesses

recognized in a research study. The researcher analyzed the data collected from interviews for

this study by using a qualitative study with a narrative inquiry research design. These conditions

also limited the study: including only unionized organizations in Northern California, not other

states in the United States the participants only came from Northern California, not the full state

the union members did not answer the questions openly and honestly, which could generate

inaccurate information,

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 Delimitations

Delimitations are choices made by the researcher that describe the boundaries of the

study. Delimitations are constraints the researcher imposes on the research design. According to

Creswell (2003), delimitations focus on the central phenomenon, the individuals participating in

the study, and the specific type of research design the researcher uses. Creswell (2005) stated,

“Purposeful sampling procedure is used to intentionally select individuals based on the desire to

obtain information, learn, and understand the phenomenon” (p. 596). Delimiting this study to

union members in central Northern California may help all employees who are undergoing

similar experiences. The researcher imposed two delimitations of this study. First, the researcher

delimited the study to Northern California. The qualification for participation will be being an

African American female employed at a unionized organization.

Summary

Chapter one includes the aim of this qualitative narrative inquiry study which will be to

explore how African American Women serving in Labor Union Senior Leadership positions

perceive challenges and barriers of gender inequality leading to the underrepresentation into

higher-paying professions in a union-represented .  A qualitative narrative inquiry will be used to

collect data from 8 to 10 purposeful participants. The results gathered from this study may

provide information to union leaders to assist them in understanding the gender gap and

underrepresentation of African American women in higher paying professional union jobs. The

results gathered from this qualitative study with a narrative inquiry research design may provide

information to union leaders to assist them in understanding why employees’ challenges and

barriers with the underrepresentation of African American women in higher paying union jobs.

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 Chapter 2

 Literature Review

The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry study will be to explore how African American

women experience barriers and challenges, leading to their underrepresentation in senior

leadership positions. The literature review consists of examining literature relevant to African

American women working in union positions who aspire to move into senior leadership roles.

Literature reviews provide an analysis of pertinent literature related to a study, and open

dialogues of a research topic help to identify the gaps in the literature regarding the study

(Webster & Watson, 2002). Researchers conduct a literature review to develop a solid

framework and foundation for the topic studied. The sections in this literature review include an

overview of African American women in the labor union. Chapter 2 will also include relevant

literature on women in leadership positions, specifically African American women in senior-

level leadership positions. Germane literature included research on the history of the

phenomenon of American women achieving senior leadership levels.  

Title Searches, Articles, Research Documents, and Journals

The literature in this study was from the University of Phoenix Library through search engines

such as EBSCOhost, ProQuest, ProQuest Digital Dissertations, and InfoTrac OneFile. ERIC

databases yielded a variety of journals, newspaper articles, and research materials that

contributed to this chapter. The sources include empirical research from peer-reviewed articles

and books, and content searches include the following keywords and phrases: collective

bargaining, labor-management relations, Bargaining Union collective bargaining, labor

negotiations, Union negotiations, union minority and leadership, women and leadership,

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promotions and equality, union, nonunion, management, senior leadership, glass ceiling,

concrete ceiling, Other keywords include, women, African American women, minorities, gender

discrimination, perception, women in leadership, leadership, meritocracy, concrete ceiling,

diversity, promotions, mentorship.

        History of Unions 

A trade union can be traced to 1880 when the industry grew rapidly and replaced the farm and

family-based shop as the heart of economic enterprise” (Green, 2008). Unions were created to

demand fair wage, respect for skill, and to ensure skilled workers were given precedence over

unskilled, conventional, workers that entered the workforce. Through World War I, companies

such as Ford Motor Corporation understood that mass production without a corresponding

accommodation of worker demand had rendered capitalism vulnerable to mass protests (Green,

2008). This vulnerability brought forth the Keynesian strategy. John Maynard Keynes was tasked

with fundamentally reconfiguring capitalism to institutionalize a form of working-class

association, with goals, policies, and the organizational structure known now as a trade union.

This reform involved state policy, economic planning, welfare, and industrial relations (Green,

2008). Parker (1998) discusses the emergence of strikes in the late 20th century due to job

security issues based on skill definition and the lack of power in unions. The current focus of

unions shifted towards skill definition and control, as confirmed by Pagell and Handfield (2000)

and Devinatz (2008). Unions strive for fair treatment as equally crucial to the long-standing goal

of improving wages and benefits (Verma, 2005). Unions focused on enhancing member positions

of representation and collective bargaining while the second motive, however, “goes beyond this

narrow scope of activity to encompass broader objectives such as the promotion of democracy,

human rights, social justice and the facilitation of social policies that support disadvantaged

19
groups and unorganized workers” (Constantine, 2008, p.54). Union representation also decreases

the likelihood that management will partake in flexible staffing, and the unions will oppose

policies that create flexibility in any way for management.  

Women and Leadership

Women continue to remain behind men in senior leadership positions in the workplace.

According to the Financial Times Stock Exchange, women hold only 15.6% of director jobs and

comprise only 25% of 51 boards. Forty-eight boards are entirely male (Vinnicombe et al., 2014).

Gibson, Pfaff, Mendelsohn, Catenacci, and Burke (2017) conducted a qualitative study of gender

comparison of leadership style, development, and performance between men and women. The

purpose of the study was to explore differences between men and women through the framework

of selection, development, leadership style, and performance. The findings suggested that in

leadership styles, women lead in more democratic-style and transformational leadership styles.

However, the results indicated that the problem for women in leadership roles remains an issue,

and the question of equality remains.

Davidson and Burke (2000) poisted that women are less mobile 

with less time to invest in careers. Ishizuka (2019) agree, indicating that work-family conflict

provides a vignette of difference between women and men. Additionally, women with work-

family conflict bring the role of motherhood into the identity of professional as spillover (Roth,

2007), The work-family narrative has also fostered discourses of choice (Zahidi & Ibarra, 2010).

Pounder and Coleman (2002) evaluated the question are women better leaders than men? The

study utilizes models of leadership to examine female leadership. The models were used to

identify connections in gender and leadership styles or the de-linking of the connection. The

findings indicate female leader’s competencies lean toward a transformational leadership style.

20
Conclusive results of whether women are better leaders than men will depend on culture,

socialization, and the nature of the organization.

Women of Color and Leadership Styles

Gardner (2005) explored factors that influence the leadership style of African American women,

and the findings indicated the impact of early childhood experiences, including upbringing, the

influence of mentoring, leadership training, gender, race, and stereotypes, had a direct effect on

African American women’s leadership development and styles. Milner (2006) noted theorists

have sought to understand how African American women develop their leadership style. As the

demands for longer work hours and questions of commitment to career escalate with seniority,

women are often faced with managing high demands in both spheres (Cha, 2013; Padavic & Ely,

2013). 

In a qualitative study conducted by Ellis (2018), the researcher agreed that women possess more

positive qualities than men and are more empathetic listeners and collaborators. The researcher

focused on the qualities that women brought into leadership roles and shared those qualities

through participant interviews. Ellis posited that equality for women remains an issue. Women of

color have an even harder time obtaining leadership roles due to factors such as socioeconomic

status, race, age, and ethnicity. The results include finding a mentor who is commonly

underutilized and learning how to navigate a male workplace as men normally set the rules of the

workplace.

Based on current events of engagement by women over the past two years, women advancing in

leadership are much further behind than realized. Devnew and Storber-Walker (2018) also

conducted a study of women leaders to understand the differences between men and women

leadership, thus improving and creating development programs for women leaders. The findings

21
indicated that diversity matters, and because diversity is an asset, it is not correct to assume that

one-size-fits-all in women development programs. The results posited more development

programs should be designed to cater to women and women of color.

Women’s Union Leadership: Closing the Gender Gap with union benefits 

 There is a saying within the labor movement the leadership should look like the membership.

The labor movement should hold itself to the high standard regardless of diversity in leadership.

The importance of the leadership of the union is the representative of the membership. What is

the difference between an African American woman servicing in labor union senior leadership

positions verse a white male union senior leadership position? Perhaps it because of the systemic

and structural gender- and race- base economic trap, African American women serving in labor

union senior leadership positions have turned the power of labor unions to escape poverty and

workplace discrimination. The earning chasm between African American Women and white men

is not new. Of wage and salary workers overall in the United States, 11.7 percent of men and

10.5 percent of women are members of labor unions, with public sector workers five times as

likely to belong to a union as private-sector workers (35.7 percent compared with 6.6 percent;

U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics 2015).

In 2019, 57.4 percent of members were male, while 42.6 percent were female (U.S. Department

of Labor, 2005). By 2014, women were 45.5 percent or 6.6 million of 14.6 million union

members (U.S. Department of Labor, 2015a). Of wage and salary workers overall in the United

States, 13.4 percent of African American men and 9.7 percent of African American women are

members of unions, with public sector workers five times as likely to belong to a union as

private-sector workers (Bureau of Labor Statistics U.S. Department Of Labor, 2020). In 2019,

22
the percent of wage and salary workers who were members of unions--the union membership

rate--was 10.3 percent (Bureau of Labor Statistics U.S. Department Of Labor, 2020). 

The percentage is down by 0.2 percentage points from 2018, the U.S. Bureau of Labor Statistics

reported on their website (Bureau of Labor Statistics U.S. Department Of Labor, 2020). The

number of wage and salary workers belonging to unions in 2019 is 14.6 million (Bureau of

Labor Statistics U.S. Department Of Labor, 2020). Data about the gender of union leaders at the

local level are more challenging to find. Information from most International unions in the

United States stated that most women are well represented as stewards, chief shop stewards, the

staff of the unions, or executive board members (Bradbury, Brenner, Brown, Slaughter, &

Winslow, 2015). There is a range of local union officers who are African Americans who have

attended labor education programs. Today, there is overall evidence suggests that women have

made progress at the lowest level of union leadership, less are at a higher level. Substantial

progress has been made toward including women and people of color in leadership positions.

Somewhat like the gender wage gap, the leadership gap appears to be at its best but closed at a

slow pace over the decades for women to move into leadership within their unions. African

American women benefit from union membership, whether they are leaders or not. African

American women in labor receive economic benefits and access to a workplace justice procedure

by being a union member. They get economic benefits and access to a workplace justice

procedure only by being union members, along with raising a family (Brooks, Singh, Winslow,

Bradbury, Brenner, & Slaughter, 2016). They are sometimes single moms. There is a concern

when the labor movement suffers when a significant portion of its members is excluded from

leadership positions.

23
According to Sweetman, Martin Luther King Jr. called to social scientists queried the concern of

African American leadership in a union (Sweetman, 2018). While Black workers are more likely

than any other ethnic group to belong to a union (Bucknor, 2016; Rosenfeld & Kleykamp, 2012),

they are still, despite some gains over the last 50 years, underrepresented at the very highest

levels of union leadership (AFL-CIO, 2005; Pakulski, 2000) (Sweetman, 2018). King knew the

significance of the underrepresentation of African American Women in leadership positions in

the unions. Black workers, Black union workers earn, on average, 16.4% higher wages, are

17.4% more likely to have employer-provided health insurance, and are 18.3% more likely to

possess an employer-sponsored pension plan even after adjusting for systematic differences

between the union and nonunion workforce (Bucknor, 2016). King was astute enough to realize

that formal, democratic institutions like unions, and the labor movement more broadly, could

improve the material and psychological well-being of workers–a category to which most Blacks

belonged (King, 1965) (Bucknor, 2016). Indeed, not only do unions increase benefits for blacks,

but they are also associated with decreases in racial inequality. For example, it is estimated that

de-unionization, from 1979 highs, can account for up to a 30% (for Black women) increase in the

Black-White wage gap (Bucknor, 2016; Rosenfeld & Kleykamp, 2012) (Bucknor, 2016). King

accurately foresaw that unions could be powerful allies in the civil rights movement and broader

struggles for human rights, freedom, and justice (Sweetman, 2018). 

 Since the turn of the twentieth century, men have benefited more than African American women

from the employment relationship (Baird, 2019). Efforts to change sexual contract has changed

since the mid-1970s. Women face anti-discrimination legislation, the decisions of employment

tribunals in many countries to equalize pay and the implementation in most countries of parental

leave policies have help within the labor movement (Baird, 2019).

24
Currently, women make up 57.8 percent of the U.S. labor force and 39.8 percent of union

members (Bureau of Labor Statistics U.S. Department of Labor, 2020). So, if the leadership of

unions looked like the membership in terms of gender, dominated by men, it can be difficult to

quantify for African American women experience the barriers challenges in senior leadership

positions. Within research, there is even less data on minority women so that this dissertation

will focus only on African American women into senior leadership positions. There are many

levels of union leadership: stewards, staff, executive board members, trustees, secretary-

treasurer-general counsel, local and international board members, project managers, organizers,

activists, supporters, budget officers, political director, government relations, and research

directors.

 Data about the percentage of women leaders are available for some, but not at all for African

America. Data about the rate of women leaders are available for some, but not all, of these levels

(Sweetman, 2018). Starting at the highest level, one of three (33 percent) of the top officers of

the AFL–CIO is female (AFL–CIO 2007), as are 18 percent of the members of the Executive

Council (AFL–CIO 2007 (Sweetman, 2018). Similarly, 20 percent of the Change to Win

Leadership Council is female (Kirton, 2015). Very few are African American. Data about the

gender gap for African Americans for union leaders at the local level are more challenging to

find. Perhaps it's more a simple systematic issue. However, like other women’s organizations in

the male-dominated power structure of the labor movement, Organizations like Coalition of

Labor Union women have always expressed concerns with women becoming leaders in their

unions.

Leadership

25
Women are also working toward better representation within their union leadership. Women are

about 18.2 percent within each union membership (Institute for Women Policy Research, 2020).

This is 10 out of 55 of the Executive Council of the AFL-CIO. 

For each International officer of a union, its 25.7 percent (Institute for Women Policy Research,

2020). For Example, at AFSCME International union, there are 9 out of 35 individuals are

women who are Vice President. Executive Board of CWA, 42.9 percent (18 of 42) (Institute for

Women Policy Research, 2020). AFT Vice Presidents, 50.0 percent (4 of 8) are Women. Within

the leadership of SEIU and Unite Here, its 60.0 percent (3 of 5) (Institute for Women Policy

Research, 2020). (AFL-CIO 2015; AFSCME 2015; AFT 2015; CWA 2015; SEIU 2015; UNITE

HERE 2015) (Institute for Women Policy Research, 2020). While these numbers do not provide

information about African American leadership of the local chapters of these unions, they do

speak to the composition of their national union leaderships. Some of the obstacles often make it

difficult for women to get involved in union leadership. One qualitative study of women union

activists identified six barriers that women face in union work (Institute for Women Policy

Research, 2020): African American women experience difficulty making room for the time

demands of union leadership, especially given their competing family obligations. African

American women have an acute fear of retribution by employers. Because of this fear, few

women serve at the top of union leadership, where they could serve as role models to other

women activists (Institute for Women Policy Research, 2020).

 African American women moving into senior leadership positions express discomfort with

public authority based on the understanding that this is not their role. At times African American

women moving into senior leadership positions are aware of how union leadership may benefit

their lives as workers, and unions place inadequate emphasis on the priorities and concerns of

26
women (Institute for Women Policy Research, 2020). When unions did organize women,

historically they did not try to prioritize the interest of working women, including sexual

harassment, paid leaves of absence, flexible hours, childcare, and other benefits (Brown, Tucker, 

& Tucker, 2015).  

The increase in the total number of women in the workplace increased the percentage of African

American women who were becoming union membership. African American women in senior

leadership positions remained severely underrepresented in union positions. when union

membership predominantly female, men still controlled union leadership, particularly at the

national level of unions. It’s believed that the labor movement does have the potential to be a

success but needs to be reimagined and reinvigorated. Not only would African American women

in senior leadership positions would increase the overall union density, but studies indicate that

union membership provides more benefits to women than to men. African American women's

salaries are affected positively by unionization more than anything else. African American

women stand to interests so significantly from the increasing participation in unions. One way to

increase women union membership increases the number of African American women union

leaders.   

However, like other women’s organization's male-dominated power structures of the labor

movement, The Coalition of Labor Union Women has always had its critics, female as well as

male (Kirton, 2015). For example, one former Coalition of Labor Union women activist

delivered a withering critique in 1976 that declared women who wanted to be a part of CLUW

were not allowed (Withorn 1976) (Kirton, 2015). Like many feminists, Withorn (1976) argued

that CLUW was fatally constrained in achieving its goals by its close relationship with the union

movement for women. If women who particularly within the AFL-CIO caucus, the process was

27
mostly male-dominated leadership. CLUW's concern was credible and legitimate in the

mainstream of women becoming leaders in their unions. (Kirton, 2015). 

Subsequent years saw women’s representation in union leadership grow significantly between

1978 and 2015 (Ho & Hallman, 2016). Women’s began to share leadership positions as an

officer. Executive board positions had increased dramatically in several major unions: in

American Federation of State, County and Municipal Employees (AFSCME) from 3% to 21%;

in American Federation of Teachers from 25% to 53%; in Service Employees International

Union from 15% to 43%; in Communications Workers of America (CWA) from 0% to 26%

(Kirton et al. 2013). In 2014, there was also one woman (Liz Shuler) in the top three AFL-CIO

positions (Kirton, 2015). However, African American women’s progress is uneven across the

labor movement, and the fact that in 2014 the AFL-CIO Executive Council had just nine women

out of 55 seats is emblematic of the continuing struggle for women’s equality in U.S. labor

unions (Kirton, 2015). The present environment indicates an enduring role for a labor women’s

organization. Unions leadership at each local lever can highlight the importance of women’s

contributions to their union (Kirton, 2015). They might share how they provide training on

effective ways to mobilize women, encourage and support more women in leadership positions

both nationally and locally on their websites (Kirton, 2015). The process to create and strengthen

mentoring programs for African Amerian women is silent. The question to provide dedicated

space for African American women voice their concerns; address women’s priorities by using

imagery and language that reflects their experiences by providing flexible options for

involvement within leadership, creative times, places to meet, and providing supports such as

child-care (Institute for Women Policy Research, 2020).

28
 African American women say that the organization emerged because of the severe under-

representation of women in the leadership and decision- making structures of labor unions,

which in return union women felt that their specific issues were neglected (Kirton, 2015). For a

long time in the labor movement’s history, the union did not attempt to organize women at all

because men dominated it. The male-dominated labor movement initially discriminated overly

against women (Kirton, 2015). Some bias against African American women is subtle but overt—

and illegal—discrimination against women in the workplace remains an issue (Sweetman, 2018).

If Organizations were male-dominated, they were also male-dominated within each union across

the United States (Ho & Hallman, 2016).

Unions have spread headed many basic workplace protections for African American women.

Examples are the minimum wage, 40 hours work week, overtime pay, and adequate workplace

health and safety standards. Labor unions have paid an important role in collective bargaining of

workers' rights by raising the issues of any national agenda and forefront. Unions play an

essential role in collective bargaining for workers’ rights, and in raising concerns to the forefront

of the national agenda. On many policy issues, labor unions have taken the lead in both national

and state policy development. African American women who are part of union participation in

associations are beneficial for several reasons. Unionized women have higher earnings—$212,

or 30.9 percent more per week—and higher rates of health insurance coverage than non-

unionized women (Institute for Women Policy Research, 2020). African American women who

are in leadership of their union plays a critical to promoting issues of importance to women and

families—including paycheck fairness, access to affordable child care, raising the minimum

wage, and expanding access to paid sick days—and raising these issues to the forefront of

unions’ agendas (Institute for Women Policy Research, 2020). Women make up a large

29
proportion of union members and have been closing the gender gap in union membership

(Institute for Women Policy Research, 2020). They are making the reason why there is needed

for African American women to become Executive directors of labor unions. According to

Kirton, “I think women’s committee within the union most of the time are still somewhat run by

the men” (Kirton, 2015). Women have much latitude of how far they could go or expand the

women committee, but some on the women committee of the CLUW is not supported by their

union (Kirton, 2015).

 African American women do seek senior leaders position aspiring to become the local

leadership positions that may face unique challenges in finding a sponsor. Compared with white

men, women and men of color have limited access to social networks that can provide

information about jobs, promotions, professional advice, resources, and expertise within an

agency (Ho & Hallman, 2016). In addition, the lives of African American women outside of

work are less likely to overlap with those of influential managers, who tend to be white (Ho &

Hallman, 2016). White women are more likely to live in the same neighborhoods, send their

children to the same schools, and participate in the same community organizations like the

powerful men in their workplace. For women of color, networking requires more effort to

become a senior leadership position in the union labor movement (Sweetman, 2018). Women in

leadership roles can also bring an innovative approach to problems in the workplace that have

persisted for years. When the pool of potential leaders is expanded to include more women,

ideas, and possible solutions with the approach to solving the problem can be developed (Kirton,

2015). African American women seeking senior leaders’ positions would benefit those female

workers in the labor union because they would have to negotiate for their terms and conditions

along with employment to help bring attention to women's concerns. These goals can be

30
furthered by improving the number of African American women experiences of barriers,

challenges leading to underrepresentation in collective bargaining units. Having African

American women in senior leadership roles help women join unions when there are more women

leaders. Research indicates that there is a higher likelihood of women being viewed negatively

when their numbers are relatively small (Ho & Hallman, 2016). Solidarity within the labor

movement is essential in an age marked by the challenges of neoliberal globalization. However,

worker solidarity will be incomplete if women are impeded from attaining positions of

leadership within the union because solidarity is contingent on the representation of the interests

and needs of all laboring members within the labor movement (Amini, Peter, & Armorim, 2015).

Union Leadership through specific forms of union involvement linked to commitment and

positive contact with local groups example conferences, committee roles, officers’ positions,

attending the regional meeting, campaign committee, professional and training committee

(Kirton, 2015). Other committees include health and safety committee professional committees,

probation negotiating, steering, financial, activist official officers, and trade union organization

seeking union help (Kirton, 2015). African American women representation in leadership and

decision- making structures in the union address specific issues concerning the relationship

between individual and collective interests more than white-collar workers (Kirton, 2015).

 According to Amini, Peters, Amorim, the path to leadership is often more problematic for

women than men (Amini, Peter, & Armorim, 2015). While there is the glass ceiling, there is a

predicament of women of color in leadership in the labor movement. There is no straight strategy

alone would result in the balance of female to male union leaders. There needs to become

multiple strategies to employed the increase in the proportion of women leaders within the labor

movement. Union leadership is more important for male leaders and mentors than female

31
leaders. The dimensions of leadership defy simple categorization. Leadership can take place

among friends, families, colleagues, and communities; informal hierarchies and informal groups;

within or outside organizations; and with or without management responsibilities. Leadership

can emerge in an instant, such as in an emergency, or it can be exercised over a long period.

Leadership can arise in a broad range of situations, and it can be responsive to change and adapt

over time (Keohane, 2012). Since at least the 1930s, the definition of leadership has been a topic

of scholarly and popular debate, yet a generally agreed-on definition has yet to emerge

(Northouse, 2015). Warren Bennis and Burton Nanus identified 850 different definitions of

leadership in Leaders: The dimensions of leadership defy simple categorization. Leadership can

take place among friends, families, colleagues, and communities; informal hierarchies and

informal groups; within or outside organizations; and with or without management

responsibilities. Leadership can emerge in an instant, such as in an emergency, or it can be

exercised over a long period. Leadership can arise in a broad range of situations, be responsive to

change, and adapt over time (Ho & Hallman, 2016). Therefore, it does matter having African

American women in higher leadership roles.

Why does it Matter having African American women leadership in Unions?

Women have played many different leadership roles in U.S. political life. Through the suffrage

movement, women fought for and eventually won the right to vote. Today, women’s

organizations provide support for women interested in running for office, as well as participating

in voter turnout efforts (Ho & Hallman, 2016). Since at least the 1930s, the definition of

leadership has been a topic of scholarly and popular debate, yet a generally agreed-on definition

has yet to emerge (Northouse, 2015). Warren Bennis and Burton Nanus identified 850 different

definitions of leadership in Leaders: The Strategies for Taking Charge (1985). The dimensions of

32
leadership defy simple categorization. Leadership can take place among friends, families,

colleagues, and communities, informal hierarchies, and informal groups, within or outside

organizations, and with or without management responsibilities (Ho & Hallman, 2016). 

The process to create a culture where workers from a variety of different backgrounds to free

their voice, concern, and not to be ignored. African American women wanting to advance into a

senior leadership position in the labor force may also want to develop necessary skills of

training, mentoring, and establishing a cohort. Union leadership does involve technical skills

related to contract language and labor law (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). Leadership can

emerge in an instant, such as in an emergency, or it can be exercised over a long period.

Leadership can arise in a broad range of situations, and it can be responsive to change and adapt

over time Since at least the 1930s, the definition of leadership has been a topic of scholarly and

popular debate, yet a generally agreed-on definition has yet to emerge (Northouse, 2015).

Warren Bennis and Burton Nanus identified 850 different definitions of leadership in Leaders:

The Strategies for Taking Charge (1985). Women’s success in winning elections at the local,

state, and federal levels in recent decades is due, in no small part, to the increasing number of

women voters (Ho & Hallman, 2016). Stereotypes and the biases on which they have based

present a subtle but powerful obstacle for women. There are many ways to define stereotypes

and prejudice. For this report, we define a stereotype as a cognitive “shortcut” that categorizes

people based on characteristics such as gender, race, or age (Northouse, 2015).

            African American Women work hard and often been exported and unrecognized, within

tremendous consequences from family and their union work. African American Women are three

times more likely than white women to be single heads of households within children under the

age of 18 (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). Despite the fact African American Women lead in

33
most labor force participation, they work harder with less pay. African American women earn

64% on every dollar earned by white men knowing they are underrepresented in the fields that

pay family-supporting wages (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). In the public and private sector,

a segment of our economy where African American women once fared relatively better, the

effects of the Great Recession have been particularly devastating. Before the economic

downturn, the wage gap between the African American Middle class was share by women

working at the state and local level. Many jobs were translated into higher rates for a job loss for

women per the economic policy institute. Perhaps part of the systemic and structural gender- and

race-based economic traps, African American women have turned to the power of labor unions

to escape poverty and workplace discrimination (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015).

There is evidence that unions improve women’s economic circumstances. For 2019, the union

membership rate for men declined by 0.3 percentage point to 10.8 percent, and

the price for women was down by 0.2 points to 9.7 percent. (Bureau of Labor Statistics U.S.

Department of Labor, 2020). Among full-time wage and salary workers, union members had

median usual weekly earnings of $1,095 in 2019, while those who were not union members had

median weekly earnings of $892 (Bureau of Labor Statistics U.S. Department of Labor, 2020). In

addition to coverage by a collective bargaining agreement, these earnings differences reflect a

variety of influences, including variations in the distributions of union members and nonunion

employees by occupation, industry, age, firm size, or geographic region (Bureau of Labor

Statistics U.S. Department of Labor, 2020).

In contrast, there is little (if any) psychological work examining African American women in

leadership in unions and labor movements more broadly. The extent to which findings from

business or electoral politics can be generalized to African American women experience barriers,

34
challenges leading to underrepresentation in collective bargaining union jobs. Although more

democratic and progressive organizations like trade unions may have lower the level of racial

prejudice and discrimination than a standard corporation (Bell, Leopold, Berry, Hall, 2018).

Stereotyping and bias to account for some of the remaining racial inequality in union leadership

continue (Sweetman, 2018). An AFL-CIO survey of 70 union leaders of color found that racism

was perceived to be one of the three most essential barriers making it difficult for people of color

to move into senior leadership positions within their unions (AFL-CIO, 2005) (Sweetman, 2018).

As reported by the Black Women’s Roundtable in its Black Women in the United States, 2015:

Progress and Challenges report, black women who work under collective bargaining agreements

earn higher wages and enjoy greater access to benefits than women of all races and ethnicities

who are not unionized (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). In fact, for African American women

who are low-wage earners, union membership was a more significant factor than education in

determining increased wages and benefits (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). While African

American women’s high union membership rate is little known, and even more critical fact has

gone virtually unnoticed by the labor movement and the broader progressive community (Brown,

Tucker, & Tucker, 2015): One of the successes of black women and other women of color as

union organizers. According to (Bronfenbrenner, and Warren) Race, Gender, and the Rebirth of

Trade Unionism, extensive research of National Labor Relations Board data on union elections

revealed that women of color have the highest election win rates among all demographic groups

(Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). Researchers found that “units with a majority white man have

the lowest win rates (35 percent) compared to units that are majority women of color (82

percent) (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015).” Victory margins are even more significant—an

astounding 89 percent—when the lead organizer is a woman of color in units with over 75

35
percent women of color (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). Too often, policy strategies by civil

rights, African American women, and progressive organizations began to address economic

issues facing African Americans and all working families. Those policies do not include African

American Women becoming senior leaders in their union. African American women experience

discrimination, inequality, personal racism, exclusion, bullying, barriers to career progression.

As a union member, African American women advocated for the bread- and butter issues of

working people within the United States (Institute for Women Policy Research, 2020). Some

unions invest in young African American union leaders; some do not. Resources are put into

leaders they feel they could mode. Union leadership may want to think about the next generation

of leaderships of African Americans to speak to the members of the union (Institute for Women

Policy Research, 2020). Unions have done a great deal to equalized pay within job

classification. 

Within a labor union, many jobs are segregated by gender, jobs, and dominated by women who

might be employed by the union. Union leadership at the International level could do more to

close the gap. According to Arlene Holt Baker (2015), the ceiling is cracking a little, but it is not

fully broken (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015).” African American Women need to have a voice

and a place to listen to as equally as men (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). Union leadership

has not allowed women of color, particularly black women, in leadership to be at a level that it

should be. Women are much less likely than men to be considered leaders. In 2015, only 5

percent of the companies in the Standard and Poor’s 500 index had female chief executive

officers (Catalyst, 2015). Of course, the leadership gap is not confined to business. In the

nonprofit sector, women are more likely to be in leadership positions, but they remain

36
underrepresented in labor unions. For example, in a 2015 Massachusetts study, only 21 out of

151 nonprofit organizations had boards with at least 50 percent of women (Boston Club, 2015).

 One of the faults of the labor movement is not making sure there is an elevated to allow African

American women to become full participants in organizing strategies or become developed

leaders of their union. Concerns are women might choose to advocate for different issues than

men, the advocate for various issues concerning accurate representation, the balance of family,

child-care, flex time, or target of bullying at the workplace more often than men (Sweetman,

2018). African American women shift the national population to build unions as the rapid

decline of union density and the related rise of income inequality, including retirement

insecurity, and high poverty rate. The concern is African American women want to lead unions.

Regardless of the stage of their career, their current position in the workplace, African American

Women are shrinking violet (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). Three distinct forms of

theorizing have been employed in psychology to examine the intersection of race and gender.

First, the “double jeopardy” hypothesis suggests that minority women will suffer from the

additive effects of prejudice and discrimination for being both a woman and a racial minority

(Beal, 1995; Remedios & Snyder, 2018). Second, the ceteris paribus, follows that experience

significantly more racism and discrimination than their male counterparts when seeking higher

leadership positions (Sweetman, 2018).

 Those who are risen the ranks to sit at the decision- making tables, there is a first who may sit at

the table. Still, few see the value their place of leadership is not for the members of the union,

collective bargaining, but the request of each international unions. The labor movement carried

the culture of family, community, and work. The needs of the family are made clear to the

passion of the culture. According to retired Arlene Holt Baker, Executive Vice President of the

37
AFL- CIO, the process of comparable worth, dominated by women tend to have lower pay

(Institute for Women Policy Research, 2020). African American Women might choose to

advocate for different issues compare to male union leaders who could only focus on one issue.

More research on the gender difference in leadership style and effectiveness is conducted by a

corporate manager rather than union membership, although some may include leadership of non-

profit (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). 

Within research suggested that African Americans are less competitive and hierarchical than

men. African American women are more cooperative, interdependent, and focus more on the

concern of welfare and the group as a whole and help to develop future leaders.

How Union Leaders are Develop

One of the primary goals within leadership in the union is to encourage participation and ensure

that newly active members feel that the union values their voice. The assumes of a potential

leader is someone who could socialize to the value and the norms of the context. Local leaders-

stewards and officers can do a great deal to help members at the stage of becoming an active

union member. African American women experiencing challenges and barriers leading to the

underrepresentation into higher-paying professions in a union-represented health care agency

may become leaders of a union by providing validation by soliciting in the pit and listening to

the response of the local membership (Ho & Hallman, 2016). After interaction to become a

leader with encouraging interactions, leaders can persuade the inactive member to take on a

significant or formal role in a union. African American women are excellent in understanding

violation of the contract as a shop steward. It makes them like an Attorney when they must seek

the violation of past practice where the labor union contract doesn’t spell out every practice on

the job. The process required an underlying sense of self- esteem. African American women’s in

38
the labor movement is ever more critical fact has gone virtually unnoticed by the labor

movement and the broader progressive community. (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). African

American women want to lead. Regardless of the stage, they are at in their careers or their

current positions in the workplace, and within labor, these women are not shrinking violets

(Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). About 65 percent of those who took the national survey stated

that they aspire to become a union leader (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). Their desire to lead

does not come from an ego-centered place. Instead, it comes from a deep desire to make sure that

the voices, concerns, and ideas of those they serve as shop stewards, organizers and labor leaders

hear (Brown, Tucker, 

& Tucker, 2015).

There are stages in becoming a leader in the labor union. One is to know who you are a person.

Second is the process of development of becoming a union leader. Becoming a leader in the

union also includes the development of conflict resolution and interpersonal skills. Construction

of the skills gives a leader the ability to work with members who are upset because of discipline

by management or unhappy with a proposed contract (Ho & Hallman, 2016). Because women

have traditionally had less access to such training, the United Association for Labor Education

(UALE) and the AFL-CIO co-sponsor four regional women’s summer school year call CLUW

(Kirton, 2015). The Coalition of Labor Union Women host Women Leadership program skills to

address courses on grievance handling, collective bargaining, communication, public speaking,

labor law, immigration reform, and healthcare policy (Kirton, 2015). Some colleges offer labor

studies programs that focus on labor law, employment law, labor relations, labor history,

collective bargaining, contract administration, government, politics, unions, and diversity.

Individual who are interest in Hr and leadership development could attend other schools which

39
offer human resource, leadership development (Rutgers, 2020). Management, Health care

management, and project management. (Rutgers, 2020). Part of the union leader’s development

is finding your voice. Finding your voice is feeling like your opinion matters. Part of the feeling

Is the person self- esteem, family background, threatening events, communication skills, union,

and grievance handling (Bradbury, Brenner, Brown, Slaughter, & Winslow, 2015).

Developing necessary skills included communication skills, working under the direction of

others, learn how things are done in a union. Leading projects, mentoring others, balancing

different interests, and becoming an activist (Bradbury, Brenner, Brown, Slaughter, & Winslow,

2015). Becoming an activist of a union is at a local leadership, quasi-elite, elite process

(Bradbury, Brenner, Brown, Slaughter, & Winslow, 2015). Unfortunately, the

underrepresentation of black women in the top ranks of leadership is not an isolated phenomenon

in American society. Even when skills, education, and other indicators are held constant, black

women are often overlooked for opportunities to make or influence the decisions of businesses,

government, nonprofits, and movements in nearly all sectors of society (Brown, Tucker, &

Tucker, 2015). According to both the Center for American Progress and Catalyst, African

American women occupy 5.3 percent of managerial and professional positions in corporations.

Similarly, less than five percent of all nonprofit board directors are women of color. And in the

current Congress, women of color make up only 6.2 percent of members (Brown, Tucker, &

Tucker, 2015). 

Let

Leadership Situation

                Within becoming a leader in a leadership position within healthcare, the process is

faced with relentless and conflicting demands. The method may include a constant stream of

40
requests for problems, inquired, and reports from many different people who interact with

leaders. The process would consist of interaction with people inside and outside African

American women serving in labor unions may find a pattern of necessary interactions with

people inside and outside the leader’s organization is determined by aspects of the situation such

as the nature of the work (e.g., repetitive or variable, uncertain or predictable) and dependencies

involving the different parties (Yukl & Gardner, 2020). African American women who might

interact with a leader communicate role expectations about appropriate behavior, and role

conflicts are created by competing demands from different people, which would be inside and

outside the organization. African American women serving in a labor union would work with

units or teams to address culture organization for local and national levels. The decisions and

actions of leaders are limited by many internal and external constraints, such as policies, rules,

standard procedures, budgetary requirements, and labor laws may be the education process to

help African American women serving in labor unions (Yukl & Gardner, 2020). Despite all the

situational demands and constraints on leaders, they still have choices about what aspects of the

job to emphasize, how to allocate their time, and with whom to interact (Yukl & Gardner, 2020). 

In contrast with research on the leadership style and effectiveness focus on significantly less for

African American women. The process does not come overnight. Leadership behavior may focus

on activities and practices than on any other aspect of leadership. There needs to be a plan to use

to guide a person to help manage their time and become more proactive. One way to become an

effective leader is by finding tasks, relations, and ways to change-oriented behavior that are

appropriate for the current situation (Yukl & Gardner, 2020). African American women in

finding her voice in her union understand oneself. Oneself has a person focus on the power in a

labor union organization. While African American women deal with grievance handing in

41
different ways, it’s the rare union in which the shop steward who is the first level of leadership in

an association, is a crucial role for her peers. The process starts with taking part as a leader in the

union to help the union look at not only a national population, but also demographics (Brown,

Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). 

Mentoring

               Development at a union leader: start with an essential skill of how the union setting

(Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). The process may mean working on a committee, taking

workshops to improve skills of communication, technical, or union grievance handing meeting.

Becoming a union activist is a stage of the benefit of having a great mentor. Mentor provides the

opportunities to put the skills to use by the encouragement of members skills of the capability to

become an advocate for the members of the unit. According to Brown, I was able to meet some

powerful sisters in the movement, and together, we nurtured one another (Brown, Tucker, &

Tucker, 2015). Among us, the mentoring process was one of sharing as opposed to following—

and of being there for each other when times get hard and hot (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015).

As only those of us who were doing it could understand, we could hold each other up without

having to say one spoken word (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015).

                The leadership development process is figuring out the politics of stages of

experienced leadership development process to help one figure out politics within a stage at

which the experienced leaders can stumble. Individuals will need the technical skills required to

look at opportunities to use the skills. Depending on the person interested, one might want to

take on a particular project to run for office. At this point, for African American women to move

up as leaders of their union, having the skills in technical skills and political skills is a plus.

African American women could begin to ask the question of how things get done within their

42
union. Most unions are based on a service model or a right- old -boy network. Most good-old-

boy systems are not open to new ideas. African American women have felt they were aspired as

a leader and disillusioned at the same time. The disengage as a labor activism one might feel like

they are one a journey by themselves.

Some of these feelings may include personal racism, general, exclusion, bullying, barriers to

promotion. We were reading union information, attending meetings, seeking advice or support,

and raising concern about racism to the senior leaders of the union (Sweetman, 2018).

Awareness of union campaigns, policies, and union leadership (Sweetman, 2018). According to

Clayola Brown President of A.Philip Randolph Institute, many black women who were a part of

the labor movement carried the culture of our families and communities into our work (Brown,

Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). The needs of families made real clear why we had to do what we did.

There was a passion that came through the culture of being African American. African

Americans didn’t see the labor movement wasn’t quite sure what to do with us—finding a

mentor to help Brown navigate the labor movement, which was very high on her priority list. It

was always African American men who helped to mentor me from one spot to the next (Brown,

Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). The beginning was mostly white men in trade union organizations who

came from similar family backgrounds. The white folks were poor too to be educated in some

states (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). 

Politics
                Politics is the development process to figure out the politics of the union.

Understanding politics in a union is a stage in which the experienced leader can stumble. The

technical skill is needed along with the interest of understanding the role to work with working

with the connection of a union to community allies. Becoming community allies, an African

43
American woman would need to know how to involve their family, faith groups, parent teach

association. Politics of a union would include sport league teams, kids athletic club, Civil

organization, professional association, neighborhood groups, and immigrant association. From

Mother Jones to Martin Luther King, Jr., the best organizers have been reviled a troublemaker

(Brooks, Singh, Winslow, Bradbury, Brenner, & Slaughter, 2016). African American women are

good at bringing people together and building strength in numbers that threatened the power of

the few. The especially traditional local-based model, which most unions used as a servicing

model. For African American Women to be cause aspiring and open to new ideas, they will need

to become an incumbent leader in the labor movement. There will be threats, and obstacles in the

path of aspiring in becoming an African American leader, the process could happen.

                The influence of essence in leadership is essential when it comes to politics in the

union. The process of formal leaders involves attempts to influence the attitudes and behavior of

people, including subordinates, peers, superiors, and outsiders, when one comes to politics (Yukl

& Gardner, 2020). The power of influence as a union leader depends on the campaign. In the

past, when unions organize women, historically, they did not try to prioritize the interest of

working women. Part of the items associations helps women organization to have is paid leaves

of absence, flexible hours, childcare, and policies for sexual harassment. Yet, even in unions

whose membership became predominantly female, men still controlled the union leadership and

were the union organizers (Brooks, Singh, Winslow, Bradbury, Brenner, & Slaughter, 2016).

                More influence is needed to make significant changes in strategy when strong

resistance to change is encountered. Authority derived from position power is especially

important when it is necessary to control rebels who try to disrupt the activities of the

organization or criminals who want to steal its resources (Yukl & Gardner, 2020). Position

44
power is derived from aspects of the situation, such as the amount of formal authority, control

over the distribution of rewards and punishments, control over information, and access to

influential people (Yukl & Gardner, 2020).Influence within a union focus on providing an

opportunity to interpret reality for people and influence their decisions. Control over peers or

individuals who are subordinates is enhanced by having a moderate amount of authority to make

necessary changes and dispense tangible rewards and benefits (Yukl & Gardner, 2020).

According to Roxanne Brown Assistant legislative director, United Steelworkers, the most

significant battles that labor is facing right now is over wages. Women are making only 77 or 78

cents for every dollar that a man makes (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). For a black woman,

it’s only 64 cents for every dollar that a white man makes (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015).

And for Hispanic women, it’s only 56 cents (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015). The labor

movement is trying to attain parity. That’s the same goal as the women’s movement. There needs

to be a process to create equality across the board. Every wage gap that exists is money that’s

leaving the pockets of women all over the country (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015).

               Effective leaders develop referent and expert power to supplement their position power

and motivate commitment to tasks that require high effort, initiative, and persistence. Referent

power is generated by being supportive, caring, fair, and accepting (Yukl & Gardner, 2020).

Expert skill is acquired by successfully handling internal problems and external threats. The way

a leader exercises power largely determines whether it results in enthusiastic commitment,

passive compliance, or stubborn resistance. Effective leaders exert both position power and

personal power in a subtle, accessible fashion that minimizes status differentials and avoids

threatening the self-esteem of others. Effective leaders attempt to empower followers in ways

that are appropriate for the situation. They use power in ethical ways and seek to integrate the

45
competing interests of different stakeholders (Yukl & Gardner, 2020). In short, union goals can

and do coincide with minority workers’ benefits, blending political and social realities with

work-related concerns. This blending appears most poignantly in the observation that Martin

Luther King, Jr., was assassinated while fighting alongside striking Memphis city sanitation

workers (Sweetman, 2018). African American women do contribute substantially to elections of

those of governors, senators, and presidential candidates (Kaba, 2017). When it comes to Black

American women, the experience of full citizenship as evidenced by the refusal of their elections

to the office of the U.S. president and vice president, the office of governor of any of the 50

states of the Union, selection by a U.S. president and election by the U.S. Senate to the U.S.

Supreme Court (Kaba, 2017). The process has not yet been realized, and the fact that only one

Black woman (Carol Moseley Braun from Illinois) has been elected to the U.S. Senate by the

summer of 2016 (Kaba, 2017). Black American women continue to be denied their full

citizenship rights, especially as it pertains to equality (Kaba, 2017).

Setting an agenda of becoming a leader.

               Setting an agenda of becoming a leader. A leader will need to master the technical and

political skills. A leader is described in a wide range of roles within an organization. A leader is a

person who is inspiring, who can bleak for the future to become a superior performance (Allio,

2018). A leader can take an organization to another level that has never been gone before. A

leader is inspiring an organization with a bleak future that can achieve superior performance.

While teaching leadership is a growth of program, industry, and disappointment. Leadership is a

person who can solve intractable dilemmas and foster breakthrough within innovation.

Leadership within a union is making teaching tasks even more formidable, focus on seasoned

technology by the management of functional specialists within demand (Allio, 2018). Leaders do

have followers. Leadership is the process of the collective impression of witnesses to what is

46
happening within an organization (Allio, 2018). There are three sources of leadership to help an

African American woman become a leader in her union. They understand the burgeoning

archives of contemporary leadership theory and practice. Case histories of leadership and

leadership when it comes to the writing of literature, history, and philosophy (Allio, 2018).

                Leadership theories focus on a scheme that applied to the situation by leaders of a

union organization. Leaders as a specific individual as it concentrates on enunciate legitimate

imperative Example, becoming a servant leadership. Case histories is a database from which one

can learn leadership success in failure for one to the situation. The process starts with a lesson

dangle of a trap that cannot thoughtlessly adopt a strategy of a leader. As a union leader, it allows

one to operate at different times and place with diverse knowledge and skills. Case histories will

enable one to focus on the unusual leadership style and persona (Allio, 2018). Some of the

barriers could be the classic literature of the historical process that restricts a leader within a

contemporary case. Part of the learning would include learning, writing, famous authors,

philosophers, and historians (Allio, 2018). Example of classic literature and history could consist

of Plutarch, and Alexander the Great (Allio, 2018). Officially no trade union discriminates

against women. However, the internal culture of the organizations (long hours of work,

socializing practices, etc.) makes it difficult for women to manage to take leadership positions

(Amini, Peter, & Armorim, 2015). The internal culture of trade unions should be changed to

make female union activists feel more comfortable (Amini, Peter, & Armorim, 2015) 

                The model of leadership must consider the role of an agent. The leader-follower

relationship as an independent influence’s decision taken by the independent variable. The leader

roles are a process of forces to a leader who may have reciprocity between activities to identity

other leaders. Development of character will alter the frame of reference, but not a self- concept.

47
The task of a leader is to unite her followers around a common shared purpose. The process us a

functional specialist for a leader to complete. The job may include: Ratify the organization's

mission, value, and meaning. Articulate the vision of the organization. Crafting the strategy,

structure required to realize the vision. Overseeing the physical, financial, human, social

resources, and the support of the organization. Build motivation within the community as

followers. Demonstrate ethical behavior, along with the development of competent future leaders

(Allio, 2018).

               Self-development approach of learning to become a leader. Become a leader does focus

on a strong self- concept as a leader. The process includes a integrates how a person may act,

speak, look, or think. Leadership includes present and charism concern. Within a self-

development approach, the leader would need to be clear on personal values, ideology, and

belief. The purpose of a leader is to dictate how one may choose to lead. More African American

Women must learn to be leaders, and the best way to make it happen is to avoid the clicks, the

leadership training marking hype, the platitudes, and the pseudo-scholarly research and take

charge of your leadership journey (Brown, Tucker, & Tucker, 2015).

 Union career model is moving into the Quasi-elite.

                African American women seeking to become a leadership position in the labor force

would succeed were supported both mentors who were above them in the hierarchy and by rank-

in- file members. There are some times different stages in a local union called an elite, activist,

local leader, quasi-elite, and elite. To overcome the structural and cultural barriers, many

associations are taking active steps to transform how they operate to increase women’s numbers

in leadership positions (Amini, Peter, & Armorim, 2015). For example, some unions are

experimenting with women-only committees to foster gender consciousness, promote women’s

48
participation, and prepare women for leadership roles (Amini, Peter, & Armorim, 2015). Both

gender quotas and women’s committees are effective in increasing the number of women in

positions of authority within the union. (Amini, Peter, & Armorim, 2015) For example, despite

initial resistance to their implementation, gender quotas instituted by both the Austrian Trade

Union Federation and the German United Services Trade Union resulted in women’s

proportional representation in the lay delegate structures. Furthermore, quotas have resulted in an

improved representation of women’s interests in the collective bargaining process and policy-

making (Amini, Peter, & Armorim, 2015).

exist in the 1830’s (Margo, 1999). During the 19th century, wage-inequality was impacted

by the skill differences of workers. Skilled workers were paid more than those that were

unskilled.

Women union members perceive wage-inequality were not offered the opportunities to

learn the skills needed to obtain higher paying jobs. Even if they had the skills, the jobs were not

offered, or the pay was not equal to the skill.

During the late 19th century, and due to the increase of market-power and increased size

of manufacturers, the U.S. underwent an expansion of industrial growth (Goldin, 2006). Market

power refers to the ability of an organization to raise and maintain prices above industry levels

to prevail under competition among organizations (Investopedia, 2017). It also means having

monopoly power over another organization (Investopedia, 2017). Market-power and firm size

can cause oversights in the safety of unskilled workers in manufacturing.

An abundance of resources was used for expanding the skills of workers, government

policies, and increasing the labor force. Industrialization created an expansion in manufacturing,

which led to a need for more factory workers. This created an average standard of living for

49
workers. The annual income for these workers was between $400 to $500 a year (Margo, 1999).

With this amount of income, workers began to struggle to make ends meet and this struggle

grew as firms continued to expand.

Factory workers had to face long hours, job instability, and poor working

conditions, which also led to increases in wage-inequality (Margo, 1999). When new factory

workers were hired, they found themselves unfamiliar with the amount Factory workers had to

face long hours, job instability, and poor working conditions, which also led to increases in

wage-inequality (Margo, 1999). When new factory workers were hired, they found themselves

unfamiliar discipline enforced regulation by employers. Work schedules were comprised of at

least ten-hour days, six days a week. Eight-hour days and two-day weekends did not exist at the

time. These men and women were mostly from an agricultural background and industrial

working conditions proved challenging. For example, working in a factory was extremely

different for those who had previously been skilled artisans who previously made hand-crafted

goods and were in control of their own schedule

Wage-inequality continued to grow throughout the 1900s. Wage structures did not start to

change until 1940 (Margo, 1999). Factory conditions were deplorable. Injuries, sickness, and

workplace fatalities were commonplace. Wage theft was also an issue. Wage theft refers to the

illegal practice of not paying workers for all their time worked, including violating minimum

wage law. Not paying overtime and forcing workers to work “off the clock” is also considered

wage theft (UCLA Labor Center, 2014). Due to the lack of capable government regulations

regarding working environments (Freedman, 1978), unsafe and unhealthy worksites were

becoming more prevalent. By the late nineteenth century, more industrial accidents and wage-

inequality occurred in the United States compared to any other industrial county in the world.

50
 With more of the country’s industries being consolidated at the turn of the century,

companies grew more dangerous. Some workers were killed on the job, and others were cheated

out of their pay. In fact, by the 1900s, there were more industrial accidents of workers killed on

the job than ever before (Freedman, 1978). In the United States, in 1906, there were a total of

195 workers killed on the job in the iron mills. One tragic example of a major industrial accident

was the Triangle Shirtwaist Company fire in 1911 (Freedman, 1978). On March 25th, 1911, in

New York City, 146 garment workers died from the fire through smoke inhalation or jumping to

their deaths. This increase of work-related deaths led to public concern over industrial accidents,

and consequently, unions were created.

Another reason for wage-inequality was due to male white-collar workers causing an

increase in the overall wages in the 19th century. Between 1900-1940, white-collar occupations

were low-level mangers and ordinary clerical workers, such as stenographers, book-keepers, and

typists (Margo, 1999). Blue-collar occupations were manufacturing workers, cotton pickers,

furniture makers, and iron, steel, soap, and tobacco workers (Margo, 1999). During the 19th

century, the ratio of wages for skilled blue-collar workers to common laborers did not follow a

normal pattern (Margo, 1999).

One of the first labor economists who studied wage structures found reduced inequality

in 1970. However, wage-inequality drastically increased in the 1980's. Research suggests this

occurred due to a raise in the relative demand for skills, which, according to studies, had been

growing in the 1970's (i.e., the steep increase in educational attainment relative to labor market

supply for skills which are linked to manage the educated baby boom generation; Freeman,

1976). In 1990 came the Small Business Technology Coalition (SBTC), along with a high

51
demand for skills and this was enhanced by the computer revolution and need for top skills

(Krueger, 1993).

How technological change has increased wage-inequality has been explored in the

literature (Acemoglu, 2002). Past research has shown that technological change was the

principal reason for wage-inequality increments in the United States during the 1970s, 1980s,

and 1990s. Education became necessary to learn the new, technological skills. The internet

revolution of the 1990's effected the workplace with the introduction of the personal computer

was evident (Card & DeNardo, 2002). The wage gap increased because of these educational

differences. Where a high school diploma was enough to secure a good paying job, now there

was a wage gap between college graduates and high school graduates, and between high school

graduates and high school dropouts (Mincer, 1997).

History of Wage-Inequality for Women

In the early years of the Great Depression, there was a sharp rise in wage-inequality

between women and men, where men made significantly more than women (Lindert &

Williamson, 2016). The increase was due to War World II and the Great Recession. The Great

Depression continued until around 1940. The United States continued to have a significant

number of unskilled workers and lack of policies governing the workplace.

During the 1940s, women became involved in the economy and the labor movement.

Women’s roles in labor were evolutionary and revolutionary (Goldin, 2006). According to

Goldin (2006), the evolution of a woman’s labor role was slow. There was the understanding that

a woman could and should work, but there was also the understanding that women had the role

of a homemaker. The decision to be a full or part-time worker outside of the home was major.

The dilemma of “wanting to work and “needing to work” hit families that struggled with income.

52
Continuing this way made women think in the long term. Job evolved into careers (Goldin,

2006). Some women who chose to enter the work force were unskilled and were homemakers or

from an agricultural background. The revolutionary was skilled, highly educated female workers.

The rise in divorce, smaller families, and age led to more women in the workforce and begin to

define the revolution (Goldin, 2006).

Women continued defining the revolution with the fight for equal pay and fair treatment.

In both society and the workforce, the concern was on equal pay status, unbiased views, similar

treatment, and better employment opportunities. Women endured challenges and obstacles based

on the transition from work to home, gender stereotypes, and wages. Historically, men were

viewed as the stronger counterpart, while women were told to stay home and take care of the

family. Men were thought to provide security and to negotiate in the outside world. Society

expressed that men were capable, energetic, and groomed for the harshness of the workplace.

These types of qualitative characteristics encompassed the different gender roles.

History of Union

A labor union is an organization that looks out for rights and well-being of the

union members they represent. The labor movement in the United States grew out of the need to

protect the common interest of workers (Goldin & Katz, 2009). Unions successfully created the

8-hour workday, the weekend, ended child labor, and fought for employer-based health

coverage, among many other things. Labor unions were organized to fight for better wages, safer

working conditions, and reasonable hours (Lindert & Williamson, 2016). Labor responded to

wage-inequality, and the social and economic impact of the industrial revolution.

In 1794, one of the first worker unions was created in Philadelphia by a group of

journeymen shoemakers who wanted to secure stable wages. They formed the Federal Society

53
of Journeymen Cordwainers. During the late nineteenth century, many workers began to join

unions hoping to receive improved working conditions and better wages. Between the years of

1877 to 1880, there were some national unions who grew out of this movement (Walbert, 2009).

The Knights of Labor was one of the early labor unions. Starting as a secret society of tailors in

Philadelphia in 1869, The Knights of Labor became one of the first significant trade unions in

the United States and Canada. According to Walbert (2009), “In its early days, the Knights of

Labor was a secret society, which fueled rumors in the press that they were dangerous or violent”

(p. 2). The Knights of Labor organized their members to fight against factory owners; the

organization was feared because of their aggressive strikes. In 1878, the Knights of Labor

expanded and allowed more workers to join (Walbert, 2009). This union was no longer a secret

society. The Knights of Labor grew into one of the largest labor unions in the United States.

By 1886, the Knights of Labor boasted over 500,000 members, but began to decline after

accumulation of wealth by some people in the union along with “pauperization” or

impoverishment of workers (Walbert, 2009, p. 3). The Knights of Labor were helpful in the

creation of the eight-hour workday. Sweatshops refer to the employment of children under the

age of 15 in workshops, factories, and mines. The Knights of Labor fought to end child labor and

were successful in fighting for equal pay for both women and men. The Knights of Labor created

arbitration and negotiation between the employee and employers and helped decrease wage

inequality. The Knights of Labor successfully enacted laws to compel corporations to pay their

employees weekly in lawful money for the preceding week. The process allows laborers and

mechanics the first lien upon the product of both men and women to the extent of his or her full

wages (Walbert, 2009).

54
 The Knights saw themselves working on behalf of all working classes, including both

skilled and unskilled, men and women, black, white, and brown workers (although, to their

lasting shame, not Asian origin workers; Walbert, 2009). The Knights of Labor were successful

in establishing co-operative enterprises and advocating for arbitration during conflicts with the

employers. Due to poor organization, lack of adequate leadership, opposition of employers, and

government interference, the Knights of Labor were forced out of business. However, their

legacy continues to influence trade union organizations and the working-class culture more than

a hundred years later (Walbert, 2009).

The American Federation of Labor (AFL) was founded in 1886 by Samuel Gompers.

The AFL was dominated by crafts unions, many of which felt underrepresented by the Knights

of Labor. Gompers was a coordinator of various local unions across the United States forming

regional and national strikes, becoming a major player in the domestic politics for the

Democratic Party. Many unions also arose under his leadership. President Franklin Roosevelt

was a strong proponent of labor unions and passed legislation to support them. The Wagner Act

(1935) was created to help protect the rights of unions organizing in the United States. Despite

its power, the AFL was unable to stop the Taft-Hartley Act from passing. The Taft-Hartley Act

(1947) restricted the power of labor unions. The Landrum-Griffin Act of 1959 was created

because of the congressional investigation of corruption and undemocratic internal politics in

some labor unions. The sought to protect union members and leaders by instituting democratic

procedures, protect the rights of members, and protect the assets of labor organizations.

From the close of World War II to the 1970s, unions enjoyed widespread prosperity.

There was a transition from manufacturing jobs to service sector jobs (Farber & Saks, 1980). In

the 1970's, unions began losing the battle for wage inequality due to the erosion of men's

55
earnings and the decline of unionized, low-wage service and manufacturing jobs (Farber & Saks,

1980). America was going backward, not forward, when it came to wages. Two of the policies

that negatively affecting unions came in the 1980s under the Reagan and Bush presidential

administrations (Farber & Saks, 1980), the elimination of federal subsidies for social programs

and the elimination of affirmative action. Theorists believe that under Regan, unemployment

increased due to industrial restructuring and shrinkage of manufacturing jobs. The restructuring

created more low earning positions. According to Newsome and Doodoo (2002), between 1980-

1982, recessions led to significant jobs losses in more non-metropolitan than in urban areas (U.S.

Department of Agriculture 1996.) Unions could not provide safety nets for unemployed and low-

income families. The steep rise in divorce rates, female headship, and out-of-wedlock

childbearing, also increased wage inequalities 1980-2000 (Kasarda, Wilson, 1989).

In 1970, the rapid increase of imports such as automobiles, electronics, steel, clothes, and

shoes from other countries created an undercutting of American producers, and the decline of

wage inequality for women and the community of color. Companies began to close their doors

and move factories/jobs from the United States to low-wage countries. The number of

significant strikes rose in the 1980s (Bound & Freeman, 1992). Many businesses closed or

moved factories to the states were union influence was weak. Deregulation and free competition

became prominent, causing greater wage-inequality. Deregulation refers to a reduction or

elimination government regulations (Investopedia, 2017). According to the Cambridge

Dictionary (2017), “free competition refers to a system in which supply and demand will control

prices, income freely without the support of government involvement.” Without regulation,

employers had the power to handle wages as they saw fit (Investopedia, 2017).

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 Numerous industries became deregulated in the 1980s including railroad, trucking,

airlines, and telephone companies, hindering labor unions ability adapt to the change. President

Ronald Reagan, a former successful Hollywood president, fired striking air traffic controllers and

decertified their union in 1981. President Reagan declared the strike by the Professional Air

Traffic Controllers Organization (PATCO) illegal. This was a major blow to unions, which have

yet to recover from (Parfitt, 2013).

Current Content

The Community of Color and Wage-Inequality

An aspect of wage-inequality, as it relates to the community of color, is sparse

unionization, weak enforcement of discrimination laws, and unemployment (Freeman, 1980).

A primary finding is that there continues to be no community of color economic pattern

when it comes to wage-inequality. For example, African American-Caucasian wage gaps are

larger today than they were in 1979 and the increase has not occurred along a straight line

(Freeman, 1980). The gap shrank in the 1990s due to strong market competition and the

economic sense of ignoring discrimination, but the gap widened in the 2000s Wage

inequality and the slow growth of living standards for low-to-moderate income individuals has

affected many Americans in today’s economy. Income inequality plagues people of color and

lowers their standard of living. One of the roots of this inequality is the stagnation of hourly

wage growth for the majority, which had been hard for unions to raise (Freeman, 1980). The

community of color has worked hard in the labor force but have reaped few of the economic

rewards they helped to produce (Bivens & Mishel, 2015). While wage growth has lagged behind

productivity and has affected all workers and demographic groups, an increase of wages for the

57
community of color has been unusually slow. As a result, a significant wage disparity by race

has remained unchanged, and at some points, has expanded.

Women and Wage-Inequality

Throughout time, women have endured additional challenges and obstacles based on their

gender. As mentioned previously, men have been viewed as the stronger counterpart in the

family; women were viewed as needing security from men who were able to negotiate outside

the home (Baxter, 2013). Women were seen as the “weaker” sex and viewed as unable to deal

with the harsh nature of the workplace. These descriptions were the beginning of the qualitative

characteristics encompassed in gender roles.

According to Emily Baxter (2013), gender wage differences occur due to different

reasons such as type of occupation, gender and racial stereotypes, and male dominated

management. Federally mandated medical and sick leave is another obstacle for working women,

especially in the United States. Women have had to take unpaid time off to help their families

when the situation warrants. Pay, promotions, and possibly jobs can be lost (Petrohilos, 2014).

There is a conscious and unconscious discrimination process that continues against gender

(Petrohilos, 2014). In addition, wage inequality is increased when ethnicity and gender are

combined (Petrohilos, 2014). According to the World Economic Forum’s (WEF) Global Gender

Gap Report 2015, the projection is that without change in the current trajectories it will take 118

years to close the gender pay gap. In the United States, women earned only 78% of what men

received in 2013 (Baxter, 2013).

The research of earnings for women of color, shows that they experience massive wage

deficits compare to white women. For example, when young African-American women are

newly entering the workforce, their earnings women fell far behind from their Caucasian

58
counterparts since 2000 (Freeman, 1980). Across the board, wages for the community of color

fall well short of their white counterparts. In 2010, 13.1 percent of women in the workforce were

black, 4.7 percent were Asian, and 12.8 percent were Latina within the community of color

(Shane, 2013).

The role of these women of being breadwinners is increasing, yet they earn less than their

male counterparts. Policies makers need to suggest recommendations to narrow and eventually

eliminate the wage gap and ensure equal work earns equal pay for women. The community of

color suffers a significant difference in come according to the National Partnership of Women

and Families. The women of color in the United States are paid $18,817 to $23,298 less than

non-Hispanic white men yearly (Shane, 2013). Respectively. Women earn to 64 cents to 55

cents for every dollar a man does. Asian American communities where women earn a median

weekly income of $770 compared to $1,055 for Asian American men (Shane, 2013). While the

wage gap between men and women is smaller within Latino and black families, their median

weekly earnings are significantly lower. The weekly median earnings for Latinas are $521

compared to $592 for Latino men (Shane, 2013). For black women, their weekly revenues are

$599 compared to $665 for black men (Shane, 2013). African American women's median weekly

earnings were only 68.1 percent and Latina women's only 59.3 percent of white men's median

weekly revenues of $854 (Shane, 2013). According to past research, wage inequality related to

both race and gender could be caused by occupation and differences in hours worked (Petrohilos,

2014). Past research has shown that wage-inequality for women of color compared to white

women occurs because women of color mostly work lower-paying jobs, the influence of race,

ethnicity, and gender discrimination, contributes to the problems of wage differentials

(Petrohilos, 2014). Research in 2014 showed that 35% of black women, 26% of Hispanic

59
women, 48% of Asian women, and 48% of white women employed were in professionally

related jobs (Petrohilos, 2014).

The number of hours daily women spend working is another contributing factor to wage

inequalities. Women, due to ethnicity, religion, race, and orientation, are more likely to be

guided by principles as to how much time is appropriate to spend in the labor force because of

other obligations (i.e., caring for their families and children; Goldin & Katz, 2009). According to

Goldin (2009), both low and high-income workers may experience gaps in bonuses and penalties

for working fewer hours (Goldin & Katz, 2009), but women of color miss out on the higher

paying jobs which might cover the hourly penalties. In conclusion, women of color are less

likely to work in higher hour occupations and are more likely to lose out on wages compared to

white women. Also, women of color are more likely to be employed as part-time workers

compared to their white counterparts. Studies show that in 2014, 29% of African American

women, 28% of Latinos, and 20% of Asian American women were forced to take part-time

work, compared to just 16% of white women (Goldin & Katz, 2009).

Unions on the Decline

The percentage of union members has decreased over the last 35 years (Lindert &

Williamson, 2016). The only thing that kept organized labor unions from fading completely is

the public sector where unionization rates have been relatively steady over the same amount of

time. This decrease in unions can be thought of as both crisis and opportunity for the new

generation of workers. This decline in union membership has been occurring long before

Women Union Members were born. Some have expressed that the Women Union Members

tend only to support technology, group efforts, themselves and have become more of a

politically liberal (Lindert & Williamson, 2016).

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 The deficits or inconsistencies that exist in knowledge about unions wages, faltering

inequality for women, the community of color and Women Union Members had a significant

factor in driving trends that were stable in the 1970s but began to fall rapidly in the1980s

(Bronfenbrenner, 2005). The falling rate of unionization has lowered the wages and put less

pressure on nonunion employers to raise fees. The spillover or threats that effect unionism in the

United States have increased, and the ability of unions to set labor standards have declined.

Bargaining power is weaker partially due to stricter economic trade pressure, the shift of service,

and ongoing technological change in the United States. The decline is exacerbated by employers

and members becoming militant against unions and the change of the United States

government’s enforcement of labor laws. Unions are losing power.

Part of the primary factor driving the trend of the decline in unions has been an ongoing

erosion of unionization. The decline of bargaining powers of unions, along with the weakened

ability for unions to set norms for labor standards contributes to this erosion. Members are not

properly represented, and new membership is hard to come by. The percentage of the workforce

represented by unions in the 1970s fell rapidly in the 1980s and continued to fall until early 2000

(Bound & Freeman, 1992). With the falling rate of unionization, wages for workers were also

lowered. The ability of unions to help raise the standard of wages has been hampered. Workers

are left to the mercy of the economic markets.

Conceptual Framework Literature

Theory is a plausible or scientific principle used to explain phenomena. Theory has a

way to advocate freedom in research. A hypothesis is a way to investigate a summation under a

systematic view of a subject. A theoretical framework is one of the most important research

processes within a doctoral program. It is important to utilize a theoretical framework in a

61
dissertation study because it is the foundation of knowledge that can help construct a literal and

metaphorically form of research. Theoretical frameworks help to support the problem statement,

the purpose, the significance, and the research question of a dissertation topic. The theoretical

framework will provide the grounding base, the anchor for the literature review, and the

framework for the dissertation study. The theoretical framework is the blueprint of the entire

dissertation review. The process helps build support, provide structure, and helps define an

epistemologically, methodologically, analytically and philosophically approach of the

dissertation process.

Methodology Literature

Unions Benefits

With the estimates of union wages were able to differentiate in an hourly wage between

nonunion and union workers by industry, occupation, education and marital status, women the

community of color and millennial payments were lower than their counterparts in 2011.

Rosenfeld, Denice, and Laird (2016) conducted a study on Union wage premium by

demographic group in 2011. Unions were able to raise premiums for union members in 2011.

Non-wage compensations for women, the community of color and Women Union Members

focus towards pensions, payment, healthcare insurance and paid time-off. The data in Table 3

shows coverage

for a single-worker and lists the differences between union and non-union compensation

packages. When an employer has a union, it helps to establish size, occupation, paid leave,

healthcare benefits, pension, and retirement for their workers. The data also expresses the

premium unions were able to get for their workers in 2011 (Brimeyer, Silva, & Byrne, 2016).

Employers express they are paying approximately 15.6% higher than any deductible for health

62
insurance, compared to non-union members (Rosenfeld, Denice, & Laird, 2016). Union members

could receive health care insurance for retirement at a lower premium compared to non-union

members. These results suggest X, Y, and Z.

Within the last decade, there has been no improvement in wages for workers. For

individuals in college or high school, the gap has widened between productivity and wages.

Compensation inequality for most workers has continued to grow between the middle and top

salaries. The weakening of union power enables employers to choose not to cover health care

premiums, pensions, and comprehensive benefits. Some employers have decreased the positive

state of working conditions. Since 1970, because of the laissez-faire policies, globalization,

lower labor standards, and deregulation, minimum wages are weaker (Rosenfeld, Denice, &

Laird, 2016). Deregulation has strengthened the position of employers.

The process does not allow for economic security. One thing union could do in the past

was set standards for both union and non-union workers to ensure that every worker had access

to collective bargaining. Table 4 gives data on how unionized employees could pay 77.4% more

in healthcare costs per hour compared to unionizing, because in the past unions were able to

bargain for better charges (Rosenfeld, Denice, & Laird, 2016). When it came to pensions, there

was a providing cost of 27.7 higher from 1978 to 2011 (Rosenfeld, Denice, & Laird, 2016). One

concern union are having is unionized employers paying 11.4 percent greater price for paid

leave, compared to intensive paid leave that shows a better effect than a year before (Rosenfeld,

Denice, & Laird, 2016). Table 4 can capture this:

There is a huge decline in unionism among women and Women Union Members. The

impact of this decline of unionization may be underestimated when it comes to the union’s

impact on worker’s wages. Unions have had an issue with reducing wage-inequalities. Union

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inabilities help to contribute to the loss of the middle class. The disparity for those on the lower

end of the pay scale (low-wage, middle-wage, blue collar, and high school educated workers), is

growing.

Unions are fighters for reasonable labor standards. The Collective Bargaining Agreement

is a tool for unions to fight for the rights of union and non-union workers Union influence used

to be strong, but now there are more non-union workplaces. Companies are offering

comprehensive packages, bountiful perks, and competitive pay. Workers do not see the need for

unionizing when an employer seem to offer good incentives without paying union dues.

Organized labor was strong with craftsman, government jobs, and skilled laborers, but the

private companies that thrive in the technology age have made it hard for unions to find an

inroad. These jobs are popular with Women Union Members, who are not well represented by

unions. However, unions remain champions of innovation in the workplace, benefits, pensions,

and healthcare insurance. Many of the ideas used by private employers came from unions.

A theoretical reason for income inequality in the United States is free market capitalism.

Researchers have targeted globalization as a problem for American wage earners. Globalization

allows companies to operate in world markets and avoid some of the high costs associated with

operating in the United States. American workers suffer when they must compete with low-wage

workers in other countries. China has become an emerging economy with cheap labor. India and

Mexico are countries American businesses have moved manufacturing operations to take

advantage of the lower labor wages. Technology has increased demand for educated, highly-

skilled workers. The union has not organized this group. Technology companies (Google,

Twitter, Facebook), present an environment that competes with what unions offer. Unions used

to be a balancing force in the workplace, representing workers and helping to ensure wages keep

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up with productivity, the weakening of union powers, declining membership, and non-union

employers, organized labor in unable to keep pace in the battle. Unions need to target the

disenfranchised groups to jumpstart the labor movement. The increase in wage inequalities is a

tough union fight. Even with anti-discrimination laws, employers were able to continue their

unfair practices due to rising unemployment, declining unionization, and unfair policies, and lax

enforcement of government regulations (Bound & Holzer, 2000).

Female Pay Differences

Gender differences in the workplace are transformed into inequality long after the

women has left the place of employment. Women who receive lower wages also receive lower

retirement benefits, and social security/ The inequalities during their working life lead to lower

retirement payments. The inequality between male and female earnings determines other

negative consequences. Research has revealed a change in the educational levels of women, the

community of color and Women Union Members, but education for union members have not

helped to close the wage gap. Unions are not inspiring these groups to complete higher

education. Graduates from these disenfranchised groups would help the union fight for wage

equality. Unions fight against discrimination and the wage gap that accompanies it.

Unfortunately, organized labor’s inability to consistently enforce anti-discrimination laws

concerning hiring, promotions and pay for women and the community of color, closing the

income divide will be unsuccessful. Education can be extremely beneficial to an individual’s

career. However, it is unclear why the fight for education has not been at the forefront of ideas

for employers to help women and the community of color with their careers. This discrepancy

comes with a sizeable earning disadvantage.

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 Unions negotiate collective bargaining agreements, wages, benefits, and other issues on

behalf of their members. Under unions representation, there is a strictness of employment

protection under regulations, unemployment benefits, tax wedge, union density, union

coordination and minimum wages. Non-union workers are subject to the rules of the employer.

Wage rates, hours of work, discipline, and promotions, are to the discretion of the employer, and

fairness may not be a factor. A nonunion worker has no voice. Unions can address institutions,

bargaining with employers, enforce contracts, and petition for the rights of the workers.

Economists believe that unions tend to raise inequality for women and the community of

color. Unions have been sitting idle when it comes to employers threatening to automate and

ignore wage-inequity. Unions seem to be mere passive bystanders when it comes to company

downsizing and outsourcing. In the past, organized labor used collective bargaining and

negotiated of standard rates creating a greater uniformity in wages. A well-established union

protected workers and fought for extensive employee benefits compared to non-union workers.

Somewhere this has been lost. Union bargaining powers provide a collective union voice. When

workers have a collective voice against an employer, the worker is overcoming market

imperfections, increase aggregate welfare.

There are two main schools of thought on the relationship between unions and

productivity when it comes to women. One is the neoclassical economic view that union

presence in the workplace reduces productivity. The second is the position that maintaining a

union presence in the workplace increases productivity and opportunities for women. The issue

is not whether unions improve or reduce productivity in the workplace, but how unions and

management work together when it comes to wages and working conditions. In “low-trust”

workplaces, union presence is likely due to an employee response to the weak relationship

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between management and the workers. A fragile relationship can lead to low levels of

participation from employees or lack of sharing information or developing training strategies,

wages inequalities. In high-trust workplaces, union presence is merely a mechanism for

simplifying employee interaction with management and a higher level of wage equality. As a

result, cooperative and creative discussions and negotiations about workplace change and

treatment of women are effective.

African American women

Research Design Literature

Even with the passing of the Civil Rights Act of 1964, women and the community of

color only earn half the income of their white counterparts (Faugier, 1997). After 1965, it was

clear that white families became fearful because of the growth of the minority population.

Understanding the income in the communities of color lagged far behind those of their white

counterparts, the steepest wage inequality increased after World War II (Faugier, 1997), urban

riots manifested, showing the frustration and outrage over income inequalities. Due to the

increase growth of income ratios projection, relative population ratios, and income trajectories

making up 100% equality in the United States, unions could not stop the right to work movement

in some states (Coleman, 2016).

The “Right-to-Work” laws found in some states, statistically correlates with low union

membership. These laws give workers the option not to be union members. The problems for

workers who choose this option is the protection, representation, and benefits they will be

denied. The union fought for the rights of workers and being a union member worker entitled to

the benefits many in organized labor fought for. Right-to-work states average lower hourly

67
wages and some may require workers to pay for benefits. “Right to work” laws promote wage,

hiring, and promotion inequality.

Long-Term Implications of Wage-Inequality

The long-term impact of wage-inequality for women, the community of color and

Women Union Members can be devastating. Necessities such as housing, food, education, and

healthcare are becoming more expensive. The large pay gap is more critical for women, people

of color and Women Union Members, as their role of breadwinners in the home increases. These

families should not have to choose between putting food on the table or getting a higher

education. The idea of retirement seems like more of a fantasy. According to Center for

American Progress, in 2012 the amount money lost for the community of color over a lifetime

could do one of the following (Coleman, 2016):

• Feed a family of four for 37 years (Coleman, 2016)

• Pay for seven, four-year degrees at a public university (Coleman, 2016)

• Buy two homes (Coleman, 2016)

• Purchase 14 new cars (Coleman, 2016)

• Merely be saved for retirement and used to greatly boost the quality of life when

leaving the workforce (Coleman, 2016).

Lifetime earnings are even lower for women, leading to higher levels of unemployment

and poverty rates. According to the National Women’s Law Center, poverty rates among

women, particularly women of color, remain historically high and unchanged. The poverty rate

among women was 14.6 percent in 2011—the most in the last 18 years (Coleman, 2016). For

black and Latina women that same year, the poverty rate was 25.9 percent and 23.9 percent,

68
respectively (Coleman, 2016). The unemployment rates of black and Latina women were

significantly higher than their white counterparts.

Pay Gap Among Millennial Women

The pay gap among Women Union Members begins straight out of college. According to

The American Association of Universities, “millennial women are less likely than men to be

fully employed their first year out of school” (Coleman, 2016). When millennial women do not

have a steady job, they will earn less and have the added to the burden falling behind in repaying

of student loan debt. Millennial women are paid 47 percent less than their male peers (Coleman,

2016), and are contributing a significant portion of their salaries to repay student loans. People

of color who earned bachelor degrees were not guaranteed a union job straight out of college.

These income inequalities created huge financial barriers which are difficult to overcome.

Financial Barriers

In the1900s, unions fought for wages, working conditions, and pensions (Mosca &

Pressman, 1995). Now, financial barriers and the challenges of the new millennium make it

difficult for unions to function effectively. Unions were not ready for computer bug threats,

cyber-chaos, and the new realities of uncertainty and insecurity in the 21st century.

Organized labor was not prepared for the financial crisis of 2008 (Sabin, 2010). 38

million Americans live paycheck to paycheck and wage-inequality seems impossible to conquer

(Budd, 2005). Company pensions are disappearing, and the union has been unsuccessful in

saving them. In the United States, companies now only offer 401(k), and few are matching them

(McCall & Kenworthy, 2009). Organizations in the United States are moving away from defined

retirement benefit plans and moving to defined retirement contribution plans. This an investment

risk for women union members perceive wage-inequality and how the impacts their quality of

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life has continue to pervasive a wage gap between gender and racial discrimination, workplace

harassment, job segregation and a lack for the gender wage gap between women and men.

The financial barriers for the disenfranchised do not allow for retirement saving,

purchasing a home, or any financial emergencies that may enter their lives. In addition to the pre-

existing issues discussed, women are losing out financially even more from their first paycheck

due to wage-inequality. Even though they may have earned a degree or work hours for a job,

there are significant pay discrepancies. There can be great frustration in doing the work to earn a

degree and better one’s self, only to find that one’s gender will still negatively impact their

income.

Fewer opportunities are available to build wealth mechanisms such as investment in

stocks, bonds, and pension plans between women and men. Unions used to be able to fight for

workers’ median wealth, paid sick leave, health insurance, pensions, and 401(k) plans, now

employers are not offering these incentives and reducing wages by 20% (U.S. Department of

Labor, 1997). Unions in the 21st century are faltering on building relationships with cooperative

atmospheres between management and organized labor leaders. Cooperative relationships are

beneficial to all involved. Open communication to address important issues can start to change

the plight of women, the community of color and Women Union Members. The unions can

work with the employer to reduce health care costs and increase other worker benefits (Budd,

2005). Unfortunately, the 21st century union has organized themselves to help the corporations,

not the workers. Concessions have been made concerning wages, job security, and eliminating

pensions, without bringing them to the attention of the members. The principles on which unions

were founded seem to be disappearing. Paying workers reasonable contributes to growing the

economy of the United States to help investigate how women union members perceive wage-

70
inequality and how this impacts their quality of life as being the primary breadwinners and

people who deserving of equal pay for equal work.

Conclusions

Women have experienced significant increases in wage-inequality. Part of the problem is

the growth of the global economy, rising unemployment, declining unionization, failure to raise

minimum wages and lax enforcement of anti-discrimination laws. To ensure all working women

who are apart of unions would perceive fair wages, address the survival of these individuals and

their families. How women who are apart of union perceive wage -inequality are productive and

innovative businesses workforces. They broaden the talent pool of talented, qualified applicants.

Employers ask for more a diverse voices and employees, fresh minds and hearts to step into the

next century, here they are.

The purpose of this chapter was to focus on literature that provided insight into

challenges of wage inequality for women who are in the union. The literature review presented a

historical perspective for women who are in the union who has workforce challenges. More

specifically history of wage- inequalities for women when it comes to the history of unions, and

their salaries. The decrease in union membership has affect the perception of wage-inequality.

The review of the literature will help to identify factors for continued exploration, which will

also be incorporated into interview questions in the dissertation process.

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 Chapter 3

Research Methodology

The purpose of this qualitative narrative inquiry study will be to explore African

American women perceptions of career advancement into collective bargaining senior leadership

union positions.  Chapter 3 presents a comprehensive review of the methodology in this research

study which includes a discussion of the qualitative method and the appropriateness of the

narrative inquiry design. A comparison of qualitative and quantitative research methods and

outline of the data collection will be discussed.  The rationale for selecting the qualitative

approach and the process of using purposeful sampling to select participants will also be

discussed. Maintaining confidentiality and trustworthiness in this qualitative narrative inquiry

will also be addressed. The presentation of the trustworthiness of the research and a discussion

on confidentiality and privacy will be include. A review of the informed consent, geographic

location, procedures for data collection, and an overview of the data analysis will be discussed.  

Research Method and Design Appropriateness

The research method establishes the plan and design of the study (Cooper & Schindler,

2008). A qualitative narrative inquiry method will be the most appropriate method and design

for research and interpreting how African American women perceive of career advancement into

collective bargaining senior leadership union positions.   A qualitative method will be used

suitable to understand the meaning that participants in a study give to events, situations, and

actions. Patton (2002) poisted that researchers who choose a qualitative method would obtain a

variety of aspects regarding a social situation using the flexibility of an in-depth

analysis. Therefore, qualitative research will be more appropriate than quantitative for this

72
study. Qualitative researchers examine and attempt to understand a central phenomenon, whereas

quantitative researchers explain and predict variable relationships.

Qualitative researchers focus on describing and explaining the phenomenon (Patton,

2005). This study will involve analyzing a detailed account of significant themes on the roles of

support to maintain motivation during the dissertation writing process.  In this study, participants

used storytelling to provide perceptions in their own words on support to maintain motivation

during the dissertation writing process. A qualitative method will be more suitable than

quantitative because quantitative researchers rely on numbers to reveal statistical

findings. Quantitative researchers seek a deductive approach and highly structured instruments to

collect data (Yin, 2003). In contrast to qualitative research, quantitative researchers use

quantifiable categories generated before the study, including statistical techniques, to analyze the

data collected (Stake, 1995).

Qualitative research is a nonstatistical method of inquiry and analysis of social

phenomena. Qualitative researchers draw on an inductive process in which themes and

categories emerge through the analysis of data collected. Data collection can take place through

interviews, observations, artifacts, and audio recordings (Yin, 2003). Qualitative research will be

appropriate for understanding complex phenomena through interviews and through observations

of participants’ views of support to maintain motivation during the dissertation writing process.

Research Questions

Based on the problem and purpose of this study, the central research question for this

study will be as follows:

R1: How do African American women perceive career advancement into collective

bargaining senior leadership positions.

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 SQ1: How do African American women perceive unions’ roles in assisting them in

advancing into senior leadership positions.

SQ2: How do African American women perceive race and gender affecting advancement

into senior leadership positions.

Researchers use research questions in qualitative studies to construct meaning and bridge gaps in

existing literature and theories, rather than to challenge assumptions (Alvesson & Sanderg,

2011). According to Yin (2003), qualitative researchers use research questions to define what

they want to understand.

Population and Sample

The sample in this study will be 8 to 10 African American women purposely selected

healthcare workers in a unionized Northern California private healthcare agency. The specific

requirements for participants will be African American women between the ages of 21 to 55,

working in a unionized healthcare agency in Northern California. Participants must be an active

member of the labor union for a minimum of 5 years. According to Patton (2005), purposeful

sampling is reflective of a selective group, such as African American women union workers.

Informed Consent and Confidentiality

The research will be conducted ethically with respect for human dignity and the rights of

the individual (Patton, 2005). Details of the research study will be thoroughly explained,

including the nature of the research and its future dissemination. African American women who

agree to participate in this study will receive an informed consent form by email (see Appendix

A). Participants will be expected to read and sign informed consent to acknowledge that they are

fully aware of the nature of the study. Consenting ensures that individuals have voluntarily

agreed to participate (Merriam & Tisdell, 2016). During the consenting process, participants will

74
be informed of their rights, study purpose, methods used during the study, such as recording of

the interview, what it means to be a voluntary participant and benefits and any potential risks

will involve in the study. Research participants have the right to confidentiality and the right to

be informed of the details of the study, how and where it will be conducted, and how data will be

disseminated (Kreuger& Neuman, 2006).  Participants will also be informed that they can

withdraw from the study at any time by submitting an email to the researcher detailing their

desire to no longer participate in the study.  

Data obtained from a participant who may decide to withdraw will not be will include in

the data analysis.  Participants will also be advised that all information will remain confidential,

and the study will not include any offers of compensation or other benefits. Participants will be

assigned a unique letter/number combination to protect their identities and site location. The

number identifier will be placed on observation and journal notes, transcripts, and electronic

recordings. The researcher will not refer to participants by their names for confidentiality

purposes and will not collect information that can link back to individual participants.

A pseudonym will be assigned to each participant. Assigning a pseudonym to the

participants will protect the participant's confidentiality. The first participant who agrees to

participate will receive the code AAF1, where AAF refers to African American female, and the

number is assigned as each participant is determined eligible to participate in the study. The

second participant will receive AAF2. Only the researcher will know the individual participant

codes. Participant identity will remain confidential during and after the study. Identifiable

information that can potentially lead back to the participants are the email addresses, phone

number, and the informed consent form, therefore, will immediately be removed from the raw

75
data and replaced with personal identifiers. AAF1, AAF2 to AAF10, will be associated with the

participant as they agree to participate in the study.

Email addresses and informed consent forms will be maintained in an encrypted

computer and destroyed immediately at the end of the research study. After the study, the email

addresses will be deleted. All raw data, research notes, signed consent forms, and responses by

each participant will remain the property of the researcher and will remain in a secure location

for three years. The informed consent forms will be locked in a drawer in a locked file cabinet,

located in the researcher’s home office, and the key will be only accessible to the researcher.

Keys to the secured area will remain in possession of the researcher. Data will be retained for

three years in an encrypted computer and then deleted from the computer, and any hard copies.

The hard drive will be physically destroyed by smashing and any/ physical paper will be

shredded and burned.

Instrumentation

Instrumentation in qualitative research is the measuring device (Denzin & Lincoln,

2011). According to Patton (2005), the researcher is the primary instrument in qualitative

research, which makes the researcher the ideal instrument for collecting and analyzing the data.

According to Eladio (2006), the most used instruments in qualitative research are the

observation, the survey, and the interview. Marshall and Rossman (2014) agree, stating that the

most common sources of data collection researchers use in qualitative research are interviews,

observations, and reviews of documents (Marshall & Rossman, 2014). In this study,

semistructured interviews will be conducted. Conversations will be audio-recorded and Nvivo

12. The digital recorder will have a built-in microphone that promoted high-quality audio and

76
suppressed unwanted noise. Using a digital recorder supported the ability to preserve and

transcribe the interviews verbatim for data analysis. 

Field Test

Before the beginning of the study, a field test will be conducted to increase credibility,

confirmability, and transferability, as well as to strengthen the rigor of the research (Denzin &

Lincoln, 2011). The aim of the field test will be to certify that the interview questions would

generate information that would satisfy the research goals. Three expert panelists will be invited

to review the interview questions and field-tested the sample interview questions to ensure the

questions are clear and concise and to ensure participants will be able to answer the questions

without further explanation. Expert panelists will be doctoral instructors or researchers who will

have taught research on the doctoral-level courses or have conducted a peer-reviewed study. 

Each expert panelist completed a demographic information form for background

information, and sample interview questions were sent via e-mail. Expert panelists returned the

completed field test by e-mail within 14 days. A follow-up telephone interview will take place

with each expert panelist to discuss responses. Expert panelists will verify that the questions are

clear and concise and met the qualifications for a qualitative study. 

Trustworthiness

Houghton et al. (2013) noted trustworthiness in qualitative research is a contributing

factor in examining the process of the study. Guba and Lincoln (1981) proposed four criteria to

develop validity in qualitative research, which is challenging because of the need to incorporate

rigor and subjectivity. The four criteria for establishing trustworthiness in qualitative research are

credibility, validity, transferability, and dependability (Pitney 2004). This qualitative narrative

study will involve conducting an aligned study in which the findings are dependable and

77
confirmed through evidence. According to Patton (2005), researchers are the instrument in

qualitative research. Therefore, the trustworthiness of qualitative research depends on

confirmability, dependability, credibility, and confirmability. 

Tobin and Begley (2004) indicated dependability occurs when a researcher documents

the research process. The process to ensure dependability in this study will include audio

recording, interview conversations, verbatim transcriptions, and accurate and detailed notes. To

ensure dependability, the researcher will analyze the data in detail and imported the data into

NVivo12. Dependability involves examining the process of research. Transferability refers to

similarities to the experiences of other individuals or groups or different research results

(Carcary, 2009). Curtin and Fossey (2007) noted that the findings from credible qualitative

research are transferable to other settings. When qualitative research is appropriately and

vigorously conducted, a firm foundation for the results will be applied to different settings.

Credibility

To establish credibility, the interview instrument in this study was the same for each

participant involved. The instrument used was the semistructured interview that encompassed a

series of questions (see Appendix A) asked by the researcher to ensure 68 consistency.

According to Leedy and Ormrod (2010), data collected for the purpose of an effective research

study should be analyzed for accuracy to validate the reliability of the study.

Conformability

Confirmability in qualitative research is comparable to objectivity in quantitative

approaches (Miles & Huberman, 1994). Qualitative research includes an assumption that

researchers bring a unique perspective to a study. To ensure confirmability, researchers

document the procedures followed for checking and rechecking the data and provide the finding

78
is grounded in the data (Miles & Huberman, Huberman, & Huberman, 1994). Confirmability

will be established in this study by the use of member checking. Member checking, also known

as participant validation, is used for exploring the credibility of transcript results. The researcher

will share the original interview transcripts with the participants to allow participants to review

the transcripts, make changes as necessary, and approve the contents before data analysis begins.

Participants will check transcripts for accuracy and resonance with their experiences. The focus

of the conformability criterion in qualitative research is on the degree to which different

researchers corroborate on the study results (Mason, 2012). 

Transferability

Transferability in qualitative research is the degree to which the findings can transfer

beyond the confines of the study (Merriam, 2009). Transferability is the way qualitative

researchers demonstrate that a research study's findings apply to other contexts. Transferability

of a study pertains to using the results of one study to another similar study (Leung,

2015). Transferability also infers that the findings may be relevant or applicable to similar

situations or individuals (Merriam, 2009). According to Bloomberg and Volpe (2015),

confirmability examines how the findings support the data. Other contexts can include similar

situations, similar populations, and related phenomena. The transferability criterion establishes

whether information can transfer the results of a study to different settings (Connelly &

Clandinin, 1990). Transferability in qualitative research is the degree to which the results can

transfer beyond the confines of the study (Merriam, 2009). 

Dependability

The concept of dependability in qualitative research is similar to reliability in quantitative

analysis (Lambert & Lambert, 2012). Dependability in qualitative research means the researcher

79
is accountable for content variation within the research environment (Denzin & Lincoln,

2011).  Tobin and Begley (2004) indicated achieving dependability involves ensuring the

research process is documented. Dependability also ensures the research findings can be

repeated. To ensure dependability in this study, the researcher will analyze the data in detail and

imported the data into NVivo12. The process of ensuring dependability in this study will include

audio recording interview conversations, creating verbatim transcription Tobin and Begley

(2004) indicated achieving dependability involves ensuring the research process is documented.

Data Collection

Upon approval from the University of Phoenix's Internal Review Board (IRB), the data

collection process for this research will begin. The most common sources of data collection

researchers use in qualitative research are interviews, observations, and reviews of documents

(Marshall & Rossman, 2014). The data collection in this qualitative study will be one on one

interviews . The human relations director in a unionized organization in Northern California has

agreed to sign the Permission Form (PRN) use permission form (see Appendix B). The human

relations director has agreed to email the invitations to potential participants. The invitation will

include a detailed description of the study and invite potential participants to contact the

researcher if they are interested in participating in the study (See Appendix, C). Potential

participants will be asked to contact the researcher directly via email to indicate their interest in

participating in the study. The researcher will contact each interested potential participant and

determine their eligibility to participate in the study. Eligibility to participate in the study will be

that participants are African American women between the ages of 21 to 55, working in a

unionized organization in Northern California. Participants must be an active member of the

labor union for a minimum of 5 years.

80
 After eligibility is determined, the participant will be required to sign the informed

consent form. The informed consent form is used to explain the participant's rights and the

background of the study (see Appendix A). The informed consent form will be sent via email.

The informed consent will provide participants awareness of the study, the extent of their

participation, risks involved, and the expected outcomes of the study. The informed consent form

will also describe the purpose of the study, who will be conducting the study, and procedures for

withdrawing from the study. Data for this study were collected through telephone interviews

using Skype. 

Upon receipt of the signed informed consent, the researcher will assign a pseudonym to

protect the participants identity. The first participant who agreed to participate in the study will

receive the code AAF1 for African American, and the number will be assigned based on when

participant return the informed consent. The researcher will arrange a convenient time to

conduct a one on one Skype interview with the participant. The interviews will include One

central question and 10 semi-structured open-ended question in a conversation format, where the

participants will be allowed to share their stories uninterrupted. Interviews will last between 60

and 90 minutes. Semistructured interviews will provide participants the opportunity to answer a

list of open-ended questions (see Appendix C). Before the start of the interview, the researcher

will review the details of the interview process and advise participants they had the right to

withdraw at any time. The researcher will not refer to participants by names for confidentiality

purposes and protected information that could link back to individual participants. Participants

could choose not to answer any questions, and the participants could withdraw from the study at

81
any time. The interview process will involve taking handwritten notes and transcribing the

recordings into textual data after each interview. The interviews will be audio recorded to

ensure the researcher would obtain accurate information and so the researcher could review

transcripts for accuracy. The researcher will transcribe each interview. The original interview

will be shared with the study participants, and the participants had a chance to review their

transcript, make changes as necessary, and approve the content before data analysis began.

Data Analysis

Upon receipt of the verified interview transcripts, the data analysis process will begin.

The data analysis process will involve a detailed analysis of the interview transcripts According

to Yin (1994), qualitative research analysis in a narrative inquiry begins by reviewing the

research question and by basing the data analysis on the central question. Yin (2003) compared

building an explanation from collected data to the process of refining a collection of ideas. The

researcher will organize, classify, and code data. According to Gale, Heath, Cameron, Rashid,

and Redwood (2013), the categorization process of organizing and encrypting data is an integral

process in data analysis. 

Coding is a process that requires the reduction of data into meaningful labels to explore,

compare, and categorize (Gale et al., 2013). After the researcher identifies and outlines patterns,

themes will be developed through a general interpretation of the data. NVivo12 will be used to

assist the researcher in organizing and interpreting the data into thematic representations.

Researchers use NVivo12 software to classify, sort, and arrange information from textual

interviews. The use of Nvivo12 will allow the researcher to consolidate and transform multiple

interviews into comprehensive answers to each of the interview questions and later merge across

the entire interview script to develop responses to the research questions. The study will involve

82
grouping relevant data and coding categories to form the basis for theme development to assist in

answering the research questions and reaching a well-developed meaningful conclusion. 

Summary

Chapter 3 includes a discussion on the method and design, and the research question that

will guide this study. The method and design, used in this study, the narrative inquiry was

discussed. Participants will be informed of their right to volunteer for this study, and they must

sign an informed consent form. Participants will be interviewed through one on one Skype

interviews. Participants signed an informed consent form, and the researcher addressed the

process for maintaining anonymity and confidentiality. The qualitative narrative inquiry is the

most appropriate research method and design for this study. The data collection and data analysis

process will be discussed. Chapter 4 will include a discussion of the research questions used to

collect and analyze data and to identify themes. The method of coding and securing data, as well

as a detailed description of participants' narrative stories, will also appear in Chapter 4. 

83
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 Appendix B

Informed Consent: Participants 18 Years of Age and Older

Dear      ,
My name is Sonia Askew, and I am a student at the University of Phoenix working on a
Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership. I am conducting a research study entitled:
Silent Voices: African Amerian Women Perceptions of Barriers and Challenges on Gender
Inequality in Collective Bargaining Union Jobs: A Narrative Inquiry. This study will be
accomplished by allowing African American women who are union members the opportunity to
share their perceptions challenges and barriers with gender inequality while working in a union
represented organization. One on one interviews will be conducted to gather data. The
interviews will be a narrative inquiry, lasting 45 to 60 minutes that will allow you to share your
experiences in working in a union environment in your own words.
Your participation will involve sharing your story and answering ten opened ended
questions during a digitally recorded interview with myself as the interviewer. Labels will be
made to identify the recording. A pseudonym will be used on the label to protect your identity.
Your responses will be kept for 3 years in a password encrypted computer, and then destroyed.
deleted, and paper will be shredded and burned. You will be asked to sign an Informed Consent
Form.
You can decide to be a part of this study or not. Once the interview begins, you can
withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty or loss of benefits. The results of the
research study may be published but your identity will remain confidential and your name will
not be made known to any outside party. In this research, there are no foreseeable risks to you.
Though there may be no direct benefit directly to you for your participation, a possible benefit
from you being part of this study, may be the knowledge obtained may be able to provide
valuable information on African American women and gender inequality in a union represented
organization.
Your participation in this study is entirely voluntary. Once you start the study, you can
withdraw from the study at any time without any penalty or loss of benefits. You may
withdrawal from the study by sending an email to the researcher. The results of the research
study may be published but your identity will remain confidential and your name will not be
made known to any outside party. In this research, there are no foreseeable risks. If you have
any questions about the research study, please email me at
[email protected] for questions about your rights as a study
participant, or any concerns or complaints, please contact the University of Phoenix Institutional
Review Board via e-mail at [email protected].
As a participant in this study, you should understand the following:
1. You may decide not to be part of this study or you may want to withdraw from the
study at any time. If you want to withdraw, you can do so without any problems.

89
 2. Your identity will be kept confidential. If they are recorded, you must give
permission for the researcher, Sonia Askew , to record the interviews. You
understand the information from the recorded interviews may be transcribed. The
researcher will develop a way to code the data to assure that your confidentiality and
identity are protected.
3. Data will be kept in a secure and locked area. The data will be kept for three years,
and then destroyed.
4. The results of this study may be published.
5. Sonia Askew , the researcher, has fully explained the nature of the research study and
has answered all your questions and concerns.
“By signing this form, you agree that you understand the nature of the study, the possible risks to
you as a participant, and how your identity will be kept confidential. When you sign this form,
this means that you are 18 years old or older and that you give your permission to volunteer as a
participant in the study that is described here.”

( ) I accept the above terms. ( ) I do not accept the above terms. (CHECK ONE)

Signature of the research participant ________________ Date _______________

Signature of the researcher _________________________ Date ______________

90
 Appendix

Research Questions

1. What are your experiences with wage inequality?

2. Based on your organization's corporate culture and training objectives, defined

factors contributing to the wage inequality experienced by women, people of

color and Women Union Members, such as race/gender bias, government

policies, and the decline in union membership

3. What are the performance improvements you expect to realize as a result of a

professional? Development programs for his or her union?

4. Explain why professional development programs should focus on organizational

goals or individual growth being a part of a union.

5. Tell me how your professional development programs have or have not met your

organizational objectives when it has to do with wage inequality.

6. How would you improve wages for union members perceive wage-inequality?

7. What involvement should those receiving from your union in helping to develop

training have in the design and development of the training program?

91
8. Tell me how your corporate culture has influenced the design of your professional

development program and how do they feel about wage.

9, Why is professional development necessary to your organization

92
 Appendix B

Premises, Recruitment and Name (PRN) Use Permission

     
(Insert Name of Facility, Organization, University, Institution, or Association)
Please complete the following by check marking any permissions listed here that you approve,
and please provide your signature, title, date, and organizational information below. If you have
any questions or concerns about this research study, please contact the University of Phoenix
Institutional Review Board via email at [email protected].

I hereby authorize      , a researcher from University of Phoenix, to use the premises
(facility identified above and address below) to conduct a study entitled (insert title of
research study AND a brief (50-word or less) description of research study)
I hereby authorize      , a researcher from University of Phoenix, to recruit subjects for
participation in a study entitled (insert title of research study AND a brief (50-word or less)
description of research study) at the facility identified above.
I hereby authorize      , a researcher from University of Phoenix, to use the name of
the facility, organization, university, institution, or association identified above when
publishing results from the study entitled (insert title of research study AND a brief (50-word
or less) description of research study).

        /  /  
Signature Date

93
     
Name

     
     
     
Address of Facility
(include URL if Website)

     
Title

     
Email Address

     
Phone Number

1
 Appendix D

University of Phoenix Doctoral Study: Young African American Working in a Union

Organization

Are you an African American woman between the ages of 21 to 55 and work for an organization

in Northern California where employees are represented by a bargaining union. If so, I would

like to invite you to participate in my research study.  I am a doctoral student at the University of

Phoenix and am currently a candidate for a Doctor of Management in Organizational Leadership.

I am conducting a study on Silent Voices: African American Women Perceptions of Barriers and

Challenges on Gender Inequality in Collective Bargaining Union Jobs: ‘The purpose of this

qualitative narrative inquiry study will be to explore African American women perceptions of

career advancement into collective bargaining senior leadership union positions.. Data will be

collected through one on one Skype interviews that will last between 30 and 60 minutes. Your

participation in this study is entirely voluntary, and no compensation or other benefits will be

offered.  However, your knowledge of Gender Inequality in Collective Bargaining Union in the

workplace for African American women would be valuable to the completion of this study. I

sincerely hope you agree to participate in the study.  If you are interested in participating, please

contact Colette Charles at  [email protected]

2
3