Republic of the Philippines

NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY

Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023

COLLEGE OF ENGINEERING
Bayombong Campus

DEGREE PROGRAM BSCE COURSE NO. CMT-A

SPECIALIZATION COURSE TITLE CONSTRUCTION MATERIALS AND TESTING
YEAR LEVEL 2 TIME FRAME 10 hr WK NO. 1-2 IM NO. 1

I. UNIT TITLE/CHAPTER TITLE

Introduction to Construction Materials

II. LESSON TITLE

 Construction Process
 Selecting materials
 Property of Materials
 Inspection and Testing

III. LESSON OVERVIEW

IV. DESIRED LEARNING OUTCOMES

V. LESSON CONTENT

CONSTRUCTION PROCESS

The construction process is initiated when a person or organization, which may be public or private, decides to improve
the land with permanent or semipermanent additions. The initiator of a construction project, hereafter called the owner,
therefore has a need, as well as the required financing, to complete the process. Private organizations may obtain the
necessary funds through construction loans and mortgages, whereas public groups may use tax revenues and bonds as
well as user fees to fund construction projects. After a need is established, and financing has been obtained, the owner
contracts with a design professional. The architect or engineer prepares plans, called working drawings, showing details
and how the completed project will look. The plans indicate and briefly explain the various materials required. The specific
details related to materials are covered in the specifications. These documents explain in great detail what materials to
use, the characteristics of the materials, and what methods of inspection and testing the owner’s representative will use
to evaluate the selected materials. The designer also incorporates in the specifications and working drawings all of the
necessary building code, zoning, wetland, and other governmental requirements, where applicable. After completion of the
contract documents, contractors use them to prepare their estimates for bidding or negotiating purposes. The
contractor, selected by bid on public works projects, and by bid or negotiation on private projects, enters into a contract
with the owner to provide a completed project in accordance with the project contract documents. The two most common
contracts are lump sum and unit price, depending upon the type of construction project. The lump sum estimate and
subsequent bid requires
the contractor to estimate all of the material quantities, installation, labor, and equipment costs to complete the project.
The contractor then adds an overhead and profit figure to the total estimated cost. The lump sum system is usually
associated with building construction projects.
The construction industry requires materials for a vast range of uses. The qualities these materials possess are as
varied as the strength and flexibility required of an elevator cable or the warm, wood grain appearance and smooth finish of
a birch or maple cabinet. The construction of a simple building, such as a house, requires selection of materials to perform
the following tasks:
 Footing
o Distribute the weight of the building to the soil
o Resist cracking despite uneven soil settlement
o Resist corrosive attack from soil and water
 Basement floor
o Provide a smooth surface
o Resist wear
o Resist cracking despite upward water pressure or uneven soil settlement
o Keep moisture out
o Resist corrosive attack from soil and water
 Basement walls
o Support the rest of the building
o Resist lateral side pressure from the earth
o Keep moisture out
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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023
o Resist corrosive attack from soil and water
 Other floors and ceilings
o Provide a smooth surface
o Resist wear
o Support furniture and people without sagging excessively or breaking
o Provide a satisfactory appearance
o Clean easily
o Insulate against noise transmission
 Outside walls
o Support floors and roof
o Resist lateral wind pressure
o Provide a satisfactory appearance inside and out
o Insulate against noise and heat transmission
o Keep moisture out
 Partitions
o Support floors and roof
o Provide a satisfactory appearance
o Insulate against noise transmission
 Roof
o Keep moisture out
o Support snow and other weights
o Resist wind pressure and wind uplift
o Provide a satisfactory appearance
o Insulate against noise and heat transmission

SELECTING MATERIALS
We constantly encounter man-made objects built of materials carefully selected to be the most
satisfactory ones for that particular use. Any satisfactory choice always requires a knowledge of construction
materials and an adequate selection procedure. The process of selection may include the following steps:
 Analysis of the problem (e.g., performance required, useful life required, allowable cost, and maintenance
expense).
 Comparison of available materials or products with the criteria of step 1.
 Design or selection of type of material, size, shape, finish, method of preserving, and method of fastening in
place.The method used to select construction materials based on these criteria is often referred to as a life
cycle–cost analysis. Though the method is not an exact science, if used correctly, the results will be of value when
making material or system selections. The application of life cycle–cost analysis is usually limited to materials and
systems that will be subjected to heavy, continuous use. For example, a highway engineer may analyze asphalt
concrete pavements compared to portland cement concrete pavements, and a mechanical engineer may analyze
different heating and cooling systems. The intent of the analysis in either case is to determine the most
economical material or system, which will yield the lowest cost over its useful life.

 Sustainability
 Sustainability in building design and construction does not seek to prevent new building nor does it limit the
choices we have in the materials we can use. The fundamentals of sustainability are formed around several related
concepts:
o First, we must design and construct new and renovated buildings through the most efficient use of finite
material, energy, and labor resources. This includes choosing construction materials which will promote
the maximum useful life of the building.
o Second, we must seek to operate these facilities in a way that significantly reduces energy consumption
and the production of greenhouse gases which can contribute to climate change. Material choices which
improve natural ventilation and help to control heat loss and gain are an example of this.
o Third, we need to choose construction materials which can be recycled and reused when facilities must be
reconstructed.

PROPERTY OF MATERIALS

 Thermal Expansion
o All building materials change size with a change in temperature, becoming smaller when colder and larger
when hotter. A piece of material, if heated uniformly, expands, with each unit length becoming a certain
percentage longer. This elongation takes place in all directions and is somewhat different for each
material. In order to predict amounts of expansion and contraction to be expected, a coefficient of
expansion is determined for each material. It is a decimal representing the increase in length per unit
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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023
length per degree increase in temperature. The coefficient varies somewhat at different temperatures but
is nearly constant for the range of temperatures involved in most cases so that one coefficient can be
used for each material. The coefficient of expansion for wrought iron is 0.0000067 in. per in. per °F or
0.0000121 cm per cm per °C. Each inch of length,width, or thickness becomes 1.0000067 in. if the
temperature is increased 1°F and increases an additional 0.0000067 for each additional °F increase. As
the temperature decreases, the dimensions decrease at the same rate. Table 1–1 shows the coefficients
of expansion for some common building materials. Materials to be used together in an assembly must have
approximately the same coefficients of expansion, or else some provision must be made for their different
expansions. The use of steel reinforcement in concrete is a good example of combining materials with
approximately the same linear coefficients of thermal expansion. Long structural members may expand and
contract so much that expansion room must be provided at the ends.

 Thermal Conductivity

A building used by people must be kept warmer than the surrounding air in cold climates and cooler than the surrounding
air in hot climates. Heat flows to a cooler area much like water flows to a lower level. The flow continues until outside and
inside temperatures are equal. Heat movement takes place by conduction through any solid object separating areas of
different temperatures. It costs money to heat or cool a building, and the movement of heat in the wrong direction is
expensive. The rate of movement varies with the material through which the heat passes. For large areas such as walls and
roofs this rate is an important consideration. The rate is measured as thermal conductivity (U) in British thermal units (Btu)
of heat transmitted per square foot of cross section per hour per °F difference in temperature between the two sides of
the material. Insulation, which is material with a very low U, is used to line large surfaces to lessen the rate of heat flow.
The U of a material varies directly with its density. Dead air spaces in a material are effective in reducing the U factor. One
of the better insulations, expanded plastic foam, consists of bubbles with the proportion of solid material less than 1
percent of the volume and the rest consisting of air or gas. Insulation is also made of fibers, ground particles, or other
porous material. The resistance that construction materials offer to the flow of heat is called thermal resistance and is
designated by
the letter R. The reciprocal of the heat transfer coefficient U is R with a unit value of (hrft2°F/Btu). The value of R is very
useful for determining total heat flow of systems because individual R values for each component can be added together
to determine the overall R value for the system. The higher the R value the better the insulating properties of the system
or material are. Most of the materials used in construction have been tested and assigned R values based on the
material’s thickness as commonly used, or an R value rating per inch of material.

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023

 Stress and Strain

All construction materials must resist loads or forces. A force is a push or pull that has a value and a direction. Loads on
structures are separated into dead loads and live loads. Dead loads include the weight of the structural elements as well
as permanent equipment such as boilers and air-conditioning units. Live loads are those imposed loads which may or may
not be present and include occupants, furniture, wind, earthquake, and other variable load conditions. A force exerted on
the surface of an object is assumed to spread uniformly over the internal area of the object (Figure 1–2). A force does
actually spread within the material, but not uniformly. Stress is force per unit area over which the force acts. It is obtained
by dividing the force by the area on which it acts and is expressed as pounds per square inch (psi) or kips per square inch
(Ksi). A kip is equivalent to 1000 lb. Strength of a material, in general terms, is the ability to resist a force. That ability
depends on the size and shape of the object as well as on the material of which it is made. An object with a large area is
able to resist more force than an object of the same material but with a smaller resisting area. In order that strength may
be considered as a property of the material, it is necessary to relate strength to the material itself regardless of its size
or shape. Therefore, the strength of a material in technical terms is equal to the stress that the
material can resist. Strength has the same units as stress, that is, psi, Ksi, or megapascals (MPa).
The useful strength of a material is equal to the stress at failure. Failure takes place when an object can no longer serve its
purpose. The material may fail by breaking or by excessive deformation. Deformation means a change in the outside
dimensions of an object caused by a force. The amount of deformation depends on the size and shape of the object as
well as on the material of which it is made. As in the case of strength, it is desirable to relate deformation to the material
itself regardless of its size or shape.
The term strain means the total change in dimension divided by the original dimension. Strain is the effect caused by
stress. Strain is a ratio and therefore has no units. The amount of deformation and the original length must be measured in
the same units to provide a correct ratio. They are usually measured in inches.
Strain can be shown by stretching a rubber band or compressing or twisting a piece of rubber hose. A sample of rubber
subjected to a compressive force becomes substantially shorter and a little wider; one subjected to a tensile stress
becomes substantially longer and a little narrower. The deformation and original length considered in computing strain are
the ones in the direction of the stress.

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Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
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Through experience and the performance of tests, thestress that causes failure can be determined for various materials
and uses. A knowledge of this stress is useful for designing purposes. However, nothing is designed to be stressed to
the point where it is ready to fail. Instead, a lower stress called the allowable stress is selected, and this is the maximum
stress allowed. The failure stress is greater than the allowable stress by a factor called the safety factor. If failure stress
is twice the value of the allowable stress, the safety factor is two. The safety factor equals the failure stress divided by
the allowable stress. Designers select kinds of material and sizes and shapes of members to support loads that subject
the member to stresses that are equal to or less than the allowable. Economy requires that the actual stress be near the
allowable; if it is not, the material is being used inefficiently because less material would be adequate. The stress
calculated according to load conditions is called the working stress. Materials differ in their response to stress. A ductile
material can be drawn into a thin, long wire by a tensile force. A malleable material can be flattened into a thin, wide sheet
by a compressive force. A brittle material breaks with very little deformation—it appears to fail suddenly because there is
no noticeable deformation to serve as a warning. A material, even if brittle, deforms slowly when a force is applied to it for
an extended period of years, even though the force is too small to cause failure in a short time. This deformation is called
creep. The creep may be great enough to constitute failure. Although a force of a certain amount may not cause breaking
no matter how long it is applied, it may be large enough to cause breaking if it is applied and removed many times (tens of
thousands of times), even if over a shorter time. For example, structural members of a bridge are subjected to application
and removal of stress each time a vehicle crosses. Failure from this cause is called fatigue, and it occurs with very little
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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023
deformation. Because there is so little deformation, there is no warning and the break seems to be sudden. However, it
begins as a tiny crack and becomes larger over many cycles until the structure fails by breaking. The smaller the stress,
the more times it must be repeated to cause failure. There is a stress below which the material will not fail at any number
of cycles, called the endurance limit. Any stress above this limit will cause failure if repeated enough times. Toughness is
the capacity of a material to absorb energy while a force is applied to it. Energy is expended by a force acting over a
distance and is absorbed by a material being forced to deform through a distance. Toughness is the product of stress and
strain up to the point of fracture. It is computed by determining the area under the stress–strain curve (see Figure 1–3a),
which is equivalent to multiplying the average stress by the total strain (force times distance). The result is called the
modulus of toughness. Strength and ductility are both involved. The toughness of a material indicates
its ability to withstand a sudden force, known as an impact load or shock load. Resilience is the ability of a material to
recover its original size and shape after being deformed by an impact load. The modulus of resilience is the product of
stress and strain up to the elastic limit. It is a measure of the useful toughness, because beyond the elastic limit
permanent deformation ordinarily renders the material unfit for further use. It is computed by determining the area under
the stress–strain curve from zero to the elastic limit.

 Modulus of Elasticity
Strain is directly proportional to the stress that causes it over a considerable range for many materials. At stresses
higher than this range, each additional increment of stress causes greater strain than the previous increment of stress.
The stress at which strain just begins to increase at a rate greater than in the proportional range is the proportional limit.
The constant value of stress divided by strain is called the
modulus of elasticity, or Young’s modulus. The relationship is expressed as modulus of elasticity equals stress divided by
strain, or E = s/e. This relationship is known as Hooke’s Law. Because e is a ratio with no units, E has units of lb per sq
in., the same as s, although E is not a stress. The modulus of elasticity indicates the stiffness or resistance to movement
of a material. A stiff material deforms less under a given stress than does a material of less stiffness. A metal wire is very
stiff compared to a rubber band of the same size, and the E of the metal wire is a much higher value. The modulus of
elasticity is a characteristic which is different for each material.

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Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023

 Elastic and Plastic Properties

Elasticity is the property of a material that enables it to return to its original size and shape after a force is removed.
Elasticity is not judged by the amount of strain caused by a given stress, but by the completeness with which the material
returns to its original size and shape when the force is
removed. A metal wire does not stretch nearly as far as the same-size rubber band under the same force. However, it is
just as elastic within its elastic range because it returns to its original size and shape when the force is removed, just as
the rubber band does. Plasticity is the property that enables a material changed in size or shape by a force to retain the
new size and shape when the force is removed. Many materials are completely elastic (i.e., return exactly to original size
and shape upon removal of a force) throughout a range of stress from zero to a stress called the elastic limit. At stresses
greater than the elastic limit, the material takes a permanent set or a plastic deformation which remains when the force is
removed. When a material is stressed beyond the elastic limit, the total strain is made up of recoverable elastic strain and
permanent plastic strain.
Yield point is the lowest stress at which an increase in strain occurs with no increase in stress. It is therefore at a point of
zero slope in the stress–strain curve. In Figure 1–3a, the yield point is shown. Yield point is an important stress for steel
(see Chapter 5). However, some steels have no yield point. As stress increases beyond the elastic limit, plastic
deformation becomes unacceptable at some point and is
considered failure for these steels. The stress at which the excessive plastic deformation is reached is the yield strength.
In some materials a defined proportional limit and yield point are not obvious as shown in Figure 1–3b. Standard practice

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NUEVA VIZCAYA STATE UNIVERSITY
Bayombong, Nueva Vizcaya
INSTRUCTIONAL MODULE
IM No.: IM-CMT-A-2NDSEM-2022-2023
has been established wherein a straight line is constructed parallel to the elastic portion of the stress–strain curve at
some specified strain offset, typically 0.002. The
stress corresponding to a permanent deformation of 0.20 percent is indicated as the offset yield strength. This is
demonstrated in Figure 1–3b as the point of intersection between the straight dashed line and the curves for each
material tested. The term yield stress includes yield point or yield strength. The American Society for Testing and
Materials (ASTM) is an organization engaged in the standardization of specifications
and testing methods and in the improvement of materials. It is made up of suppliers, designers, builders, and others
interested in engineering materials. The organization publishes the ASTM Standards, containing more than 11,000
standard specifications and testing methods covering design, manufacture, construction, and maintenance for practically
every type of construction material. The ASTM Standards consist of 75 volumes, each covering one field of interest and
each under the jurisdiction of a standing committee which continually reviews and improves standards.

INSPECTION AND TESTING

 Inspection means examining a product or observing an operation to determine whether or not it is
satisfactory. The inspection may include scaling the dimensions, weighing, tapping with a hammer, sifting
through the fingers, or scratching with a knife, as well as many other operations, some of which could
conceivably be called tests. However, the results of the inspection and minor tests are not generally
measurable. Often an inspection raises questions which are then resolved by testing. A test consists of
applying some measurable influence to the material and measuring the effect on the material. A common
type of test consists of subjecting a sample of material to a measured force which is increased steadily
until the material breaks or is deformed beyond a specified amount. This type of test measures the
strength of the material directly by determining how strong the test specimen is. Some tests predict one
characteristic by measuring another. For example, the resistance of aggregate to the destructive influence
of freezing and thawing weather is predicted by soaking the aggregate in sodium sulfate or magnesium
sulfate, drying in an oven, and determining the weight loss. Inspection and tests can be categorized
according to purpose as follows:
o Quality assurance or acceptance: Inspection and tests performed to determine whether or not a
material or product meets specific requirements in order to decide whether or not to accept or
reject the material or product. A manufacturer performs such inspections and tests on raw
materials he intends to use. A builder performs these inspections and tests on manufactured
products and raw materials that he intends to use; and the owner’s representative performs them
on the builder’s finished product.
o Quality control: Inspection and tests performed periodically on selected samples to ensure that
the product is acceptable. A supplier or manufacturer monitors his own operation by periodic
checks of his product. The builder may check his product similarly. If control measures show the
product to be below standards, the reason is determined and corrective measures taken.
o Research and development: Inspection and tests performed to determine the characteristics of
new products and also to determine the usefulness of particular inspection procedures and tests
to judge characteristics or predict behavior of materials. A reputable manufacturing company
tests a new product extensively before putting it on the market. Before adopting a new, simpler
type of inspection or test procedure for acceptance or control, a highway department compares
results obtained from the new procedure with results from the old procedure over a large range
of conditions and over an extended period of time.

VI. LEARNING ACTIVITIES

VII. EVALUATION (Note: Not to be included in the student’s copy of the IM)

VIII. ASSIGNMENT

A. Answer the following guide questions. Write your answer in a clean long bond paper. Avoid erasures.
1. What is the stress in a steel rod with cross section of 2.4 sq in. if it is subjected to a tension of 120,000 lb? If
a concrete cylinder 6 in. in diameter is subjected to a compressive force of 122,700 lb?
2. Calculate the change in length of a 110-m-long steel pipe exposed to temperatures ranging from 5 to 90°C.
3. Calculate the stress in a 65-ft steel cable that has a total deformation of 0.33 in.

IX. REFERENCES
1. Basic Construction Materials by Theodore Marotta

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