THE DESIGN, FABRICATION, AND APPLICATIONS OF

3D PRINTED CAPACITORS

Thesis

Submitted to

The School of Engineering of the

UNIVERSITY OF DAYTON

In Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

The Degree of

Master of Science in Electrical Engineering

By

Brandon Andrew Phillips, B.S

Dayton, Ohio

December 2021
 THE DESIGN, FABRICATION, AND APPLICATIONS OF

3D PRINTED CAPACITORS

Name: Phillips, Brandon Andrew

APPROVED BY:

Amy T. Neidhard-Doll, Ph.D., P.E. Carrie M. Bartsch, Ph.D.

Advisory Committee Chairperson Committee Member
Associate Professor Senior Research Electronics Engineer
Electrical and Computer Engineering Air Force Research Laboratory
University of Dayton

Guru Subramanyam, Ph.D. Vamsy P. Chodavarapu, Ph.D., P.E.

Committee Member Committee Member
Professor Professor
Electrical and Computer Engineering Electrical and Computer Engineering
University of Dayton University of Dayton

Robert J. Wilkens, Ph.D., P.E. Margaret F. Pinnell, Ph.D.

Associate Dean for Research and Innovation Interim Dean
Professor Professor
School of Engineering School of Engineering

ii
 © Copyright by

Brandon Andrew Phillips

All rights reserved

2021
 ABSTRACT

THE DESIGN, FABRICATION, AND APPLICATIONS OF

3D PRINTED CAPACITORS

Name: Phillips, Brandon Andrew

University of Dayton

Advisor: Dr. Amy Neidhard-Doll

Over the past decade, Additive Manufacturing (AM) has advanced as a novel

manufacturing technique used to develop rapid prototypes for custom and complex

geometries and multilayer devices in many different industries. Recent advances in

emerging technologies such as dual-extrusion FDM 3D printing, along with newly

introduced conductive polymer filament materials, have created the potential to use low-

cost, readily available 3D printing methods to fabricate electronic devices on-the-fly in

remote environments.

This study explores the use of Protopasta conductive filament and various common

thermoplastic filament materials (PLA, PP, PC) and an Ultimaker s5 Pro dual-extrusion

FDM printer with high-resolution 0.25 mm diameter print nozzles to fabricate a fully-fused

50mm x 50mm plate capacitor. A maximum capacitance of 328 pF was measured with a

0.25 mm thick dielectric layer of extruded PLA. This demonstrates a 215% increase in

capacitance when compared to measurements for a similar plate capacitor constructed with

wrought sheet aluminum (104 pF) using the same dielectric material and thickness. An

iii
EVAL-AD5940 impedance analyzer was used to measure the capacitance with PLA, PP,

and PC dielectric layers at 1 kHz, 5 kHz, 7.5 kHz, and 10 kHz. From these measurements,

the dielectric constant of each material was calculated for a dielectric thickness of 1 mm,

as follows: 1 kHz (PLA: 3.00, PP: 2.96, PC: 3.00); 5 kHz (PLA: 2.83, PP: 2.74, PC: 2.83);

7.5 kHz (PLA: 2.82, PP: 2.76, PC: 2.910; and 10 kHz (PLA: 2.39, PP: 2.63, PC: is 2.99).

iv
Dedicated to my family, friends, and those who helped me get this far, and those who
will help me in the future.

v
 ACKNOWLEDGMENTS

I would like to thank both of my Master’s Thesis advisors; my University of Dayton

advisor, Dr. Amy Neidhard-Doll, and Dr. Carrie Bartsch, my Air Force Base advisor, both

of whom were instrumental, not only in my research but helped me to become a better

person in general. I would also like to acknowledge the Air Force Research Laboratory at

Wright Patterson Air Force Base and the University of Dayton for providing funding to

support my research through a DAGSI Fellowship. I would also like to thank Dr. Guru

Subramanyam for providing guidance with my research and for serving on my Master’s

Thesis Committee, along with Dr. Vamsy Chodavarapu. In addition, I would like to thank

Mr. Birhanu Alemayehu for his assistance with setting up test instrumentation for initial

impedance measurements.

vi
 TABLE OF CONTENTS

ABSTRACT ....................................................................................................................... iii

DEDICATION. ................................................................................................................... v

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS ................................................................................................. vi

LIST OF FIGURES ........................................................................................................... xi

LIST OF TABLES ............................................................................................................ xv

LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND NOTATIONS ........................................................ xvi

CHAPTER 1 INTRODUCTION ........................................................................................ 1

1.1 Overview and Benefits of Additive Manufacturing in the Modern World ................... 1

1.2 Problem Statement ........................................................................................................ 1

1.3 Research Objectives ...................................................................................................... 3

CHAPTER 2 BACKGROUND .......................................................................................... 4

2.1 Additive Manufacturing ................................................................................................ 4

2.1.1 Fused Deposition Modeling ............................................................................... 5

2.1.2 Selective Laser Melting ...................................................................................... 7

2.1.3 Stereolithography................................................................................................ 8

2.1.4 Comparison of 3D Printing Technologies for Electronics Applications ............ 9

2.2 Capacitor Background ................................................................................................ 10

2.2.1 Parallel-Plate Capacitor .................................................................................... 12

2.2.2 Electrolytic Capacitor ....................................................................................... 13

vii
 2.2.3 Mica Capacitor ................................................................................................. 14

2.2.4 Film Capacitor .................................................................................................. 15

2.2.5 Paper Capacitor................................................................................................. 16

2.2.6 Non-Polarized Capacitors ................................................................................. 17

2.2.7 Ceramic Capacitor ............................................................................................ 17

2.2.8 Supercapacitors................................................................................................. 18

2.3 3D-Printed Capacitors Research ................................................................................. 19

CHAPTER 3 METHODS ................................................................................................. 22

3.1 Why FDM? ................................................................................................................. 22

3.2 Procedures ................................................................................................................... 23

3.2.1 Plate Electrode Design...................................................................................... 23

3.2.2 Wrought Sheet Aluminum ................................................................................ 23

3.2.3 3D-Printed Electrode ........................................................................................ 25

3.3 Conductive FDM Filament ......................................................................................... 26

3.3.1 Protopasta Material Properties.......................................................................... 27

3.3.2 Printer Settings for Protopasta .......................................................................... 29

3.3.3 Conductive Filaments Test Prints ..................................................................... 30

3.3.4 3D-Printed Electrodes....................................................................................... 32

3.4 Dielectric Layer .......................................................................................................... 34

3.4.1 3D Printed Dielectric Layer.............................................................................. 34

3.4.2 3D Printed Dielectric Layer Settings ................................................................ 36

3.5 Price Per Gram ............................................................................................................ 37

viii
3.6 Apparatus .................................................................................................................... 38

3.6.1 Instrumentation ................................................................................................. 39

3.6.2 Device Setup ..................................................................................................... 39

3.7 Fully Printed Capacitor ............................................................................................... 43

CHAPTER 4 RESULTS AND DISCUSSION ................................................................. 45

4.1 Micrometer Measurements ......................................................................................... 45

4.1.1 Electrodes Measurements ................................................................................. 45

4.1.1.1 Aluminum Plates Electrodes Measurements ................................................. 45

4.1.1.2 Printed Protopasta Plates Electrodes Measurements ..................................... 46

4.1.2 Dielectric Medium Measurements.................................................................... 47

4.1.2.1 PLA Dielectric Measurements....................................................................... 47

4.1.2.2 PP Dielectric Measurements.......................................................................... 48

4.1.2.3 PC Dielectric Measurements ......................................................................... 49

4.2 Device Measurements ................................................................................................. 49

4.2.1 Multimeter: Aluminum Electrode .................................................................... 50

4.2.2 Multimeter: Protopasta Electrode ..................................................................... 52

4.2.3 LCR with Probes: Aluminum Electrode........................................................... 53

4.2.4 LCR with Alligator Clips: Aluminum Electrode .............................................. 57

4.2.5 EVAL: Aluminum Electrode ............................................................................ 61

4.2.6 Observations Aluminum Electrode .................................................................. 65

4.2.7 LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrodes ............................................... 66

4.2.8 LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrodes ............................................... 67

4.2.9 LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Electrode.................................... 71

ix
 4.2.10 EVAL: Protopasta Electrodes......................................................................... 75

4.2.11 Observations Protopasta Electrode ................................................................. 79

4.2.12 Multimeter Results: Aluminum Electrodes, Protopasta Electrodes and

Protopasta Fully-Fused Capacitor Model with PLA ................................................. 80

4.2.13 Multimeter Aluminum Electrode with PLA ................................................... 81

4.2.14 Multimeter Protopasta Electrodes with PLA .................................................. 82

4.2.15 Fully-Fused Printed Protopasta with PLA ...................................................... 82

4.2.16 LCR with Probes Fully Printed Capacitor Fully-Fused Model ...................... 83

4.2.17 LCR with Alligator Clips Protopasta Fully-Fused Model .............................. 87

4.2.18 EVAL- Protopasta Fully-Fused with PLA ..................................................... 91

4.3 Results-Dielectric Constant ...................................................................................... 101

CHAPTER 5 CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK ................................................. 107

5.1 Conclusion ................................................................................................................ 107

5.2 Future Work .............................................................................................................. 108

REFERENCES ............................................................................................................... 110

APPENDIX MATLAB Code ......................................................................................... 115

x
 LIST OF FIGURES

Figure 1: FDM 3D Printer Diagram [5] .............................................................................. 6

Figure 2: SLM Printing Process [8] .................................................................................... 7

Figure 3: Schematic Diagram of SLA 3D Printer [10] ....................................................... 8

Figure 4: Capacitor Components [24]............................................................................... 12

Figure 5: Parallel Plate Capacitor [25].............................................................................. 13

Figure 6: Electrolytic Capacitor [27] ................................................................................ 14

Figure 7: Mica Capacitor [28]........................................................................................... 15

Figure 8: Wound Capacitor vs Stacked [31] ..................................................................... 16

Figure 9: Paper Capacitor Construction [32] .................................................................... 16

Figure 10: Different types of Ceramic Capacitors [36] .................................................... 18

Figure 11:(a) Electrical Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC), (b) Pseudocapacitor (PC) and

(c) Hybrid Supercapacitor (HSC) [39] .............................................................................. 19

Figure 12: Aluminum Plate Cut (Four Samples 50 x 50 mm) .......................................... 24

Figure 13: Ultimaker S5 Pro ............................................................................................. 26

Figure 14: Protopasta 3D Printed Samples (Four Samples 50 x 50 mm) ......................... 30

Figure 15: Bed Adhesion Test .......................................................................................... 31

Figure 16: Printed Protopasta Samples on Each Different Adhesion Types (Left: Blue

Painters Tape, Middle: Glue, Right: Bare Glass) ............................................................. 31

Figure 17: Electrifi Uncompleted Clogged Print .............................................................. 33

Figure 18: Dielectric CAD Isometric View (55 x 55 mm) ............................................... 35

xi
Figure 19: Example Cura Build Plate Design Screen (PLA) ............................................ 35

Figure 20: PLA Completed Samples on Ultimaker Build Plate ....................................... 37

Figure 21: Material Estimation ......................................................................................... 38

Figure 22: Vice Clamp Setup............................................................................................ 40

Figure 23: Alligator Clip Setup......................................................................................... 40

Figure 24: Cura Model of Twelve 3D Printed Fully-Fused Capacitors............................ 41

Figure 25: Microfractures in Conductive Protopasta Filament......................................... 42

Figure 26: Cura Fully Printed Capacitor Model ............................................................... 43

Figure 27: Example of Fully Printed Capacitor Fully-Fused Model (Blue: Dielectric

Material (PLA), Black: Conductive Filament Protopasta) ............................................... 44

Figure 28: Multimeter Measurement: Aluminum Electrode ............................................ 52

Figure 29: Multimeter Measurement: Protopasta Electrode ............................................. 53

Figure 30: LCR with Probes Measurement: Aluminum Electrode at 100 Hz .................. 54

Figure 31: LCR with Probes Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 120 Hz................. 55

Figure 32: LCR with Probes Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 1 kHz................... 56

Figure 33: LCR with Probes Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 10 kHz................. 57

Figure 34: LCR with Alligator Clips Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 100 Hz.... 58

Figure 35: LCR with Alligator Clips Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 120 Hz.... 59

Figure 36: LCR with Alligator Clips Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 1 kHz...... 60

Figure 37: LCR with Alligator Clips Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 10 kHz.... 61

Figure 38: EVAL: Aluminum Electrodes at 1kHz ........................................................... 62

Figure 39: EVAL: Aluminum Electrode at 5 kHz ............................................................ 63

Figure 40: EVAL: Aluminum Electrode at 7.5 kHz ......................................................... 64

xii
Figure 41: EVAL Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 10 kHz .................................. 65

Figure 42: Multimeter Measurement: Protopasta Electrode ............................................. 67

Figure 43: LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 100 Hz ............................... 68

Figure 44: LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 120 Hz ............................... 69

Figure 45: LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 1 kHz ................................. 70

Figure 46: LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 10 kHz ............................... 71

Figure 47: LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Measurements: Protopasta Electrode ......... 72

Figure 48: LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Measurements: Protopasta ......................... 73

Figure 49: LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Electrode at 1 kHz .................... 74

Figure 50: LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Electrode at 10 Hz .................... 75

Figure 51: EVAL: Measurements: Protopasta Electrode at 1 kHz ................................... 76

Figure 52: EVAL: Measurements: Protopasta Electrode at 5 kHz ................................... 77

Figure 53: EVAL: Measurements: Protopasta Electrode at 7.5 Hz .................................. 78

Figure 54: EVAL Measurements: Protopasta Electrode at 10 kHz .................................. 79

Figure 55: Multimeter: Aluminum Electrode Capacitor ................................................... 81

Figure 56: Multimeter: Protopasta Electrode with PLA ................................................... 82

Figure 57: Multimeter: Fully-Fused Protopasta Capacitor with PLA .............................. 83

Figure 58: LCR with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with ....................................... 84

Figure 59: LCR with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with ....................................... 85

Figure 60: LCR with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with ....................................... 86

Figure 61: LCR with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with ....................................... 87

Figure 62: LCR with Alligator Clips: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with .......................... 88

xiii
Figure 63: LCR with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Fully-Fused Model with PLA at 120 Hz

........................................................................................................................................... 89

Figure 64: LCR with Alligator Clips: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with .......................... 90

Figure 65: LCR with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Fully-Fused Model with PLA at 10 kHz

........................................................................................................................................... 91

Figure 66: EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with ........................................................ 92

Figure 67: EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with ........................................................ 93

Figure 68: EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with ........................................................ 94

Figure 69: EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with ........................................................ 95

Figure 70: Fused Protopasta Capacitor 1 kHz, 5kHz, 7.5kHz, and 10 kHz...................... 98

Figure 71: Sample MATLAB Code for Calculation of Dielectric Constant .................. 102

Figure 72: Example MATLAB Outputs for Capacitance and Dielectric Constant ........ 102

Figure 73: Derived Dielectric Constant at 1 kHz............................................................ 103

Figure 74: Derived Dielectric Constant 5 kHz ............................................................... 104

Figure 75: Derived Dielectric Constant 7.5 kHz ............................................................ 105

Figure 76: Derived Dielectric Constant at 10 kHz.......................................................... 106

xiv
 LIST OF TABLES

Table 1: Comparison of 3D Printing Techniques ............................................................. 10

Table 2: Conductive Filament Data Sheet [46-47] ........................................................... 27

Table 3: Protopasta Material Properties (Modified from Resource) [47] ......................... 28

Table 4: Aluminum Material Resistivity vs Protopasta .................................................... 29

Table 5: Printer Setting for Protopasta.............................................................................. 29

Table 6: PLA Printing Settings ......................................................................................... 36

Table 7: Price of Filament................................................................................................. 37

Table 8: Aluminum Plates Electrodes Measurements ...................................................... 46

Table 9: Printed Protopasta Plate Electrodes Measurements ............................................ 46

Table 10: PLA Measured Samples ................................................................................... 47

Table 11: PP Measured Samples....................................................................................... 48

Table 12: PC Measured Samples ...................................................................................... 49

Table 13: Theoretical Capacitance for a 50 x 50 mm Parallel Plate Capacitor ................ 51

Table 14: Calculated Capacitance vs Aluminum Plate Electrodes Capacitance .............. 66

Table 15: Aluminum Plate Capacitor vs Protopasta Electrode ......................................... 80

Table 16 : Aluminum Plate Capacitor, Protopasta Plate Capacitor, ................................. 96

Table 17: Highest Capacitance Compared to Different Measurement Devices with PLA

as the Dielectric (0.25 mm)............................................................................................... 97

xv
 LIST OF ABBREVIATIONS AND NOTATIONS

ABS Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene

AL Aluminum

AM Additive Manufacturing

FDM Fused Deposition Modeling

SLA Stereolithography

SLM Selective Laser Melting

PLA Polylactic Acid

PP Polypropylene

PCB Printed Circuit Board

PC Polycarbonate

UV Ultraviolet

PET Polyethylene Terephthalate

E Energy Density

EDLC Electric Double Layer Capacitor

ε Dielectric Permittivity

C Capacitance

A Area of Electrodes

k Dielectric Constant

Xc Capacitive Reactance

f Frequency (Hz)

d Distance between electrodes plates

xvi
Q Charge

V Voltage

xvii
 CHAPTER 1

INTRODUCTION

1.1 Overview and Benefits of Additive Manufacturing in the Modern World

Over the past decade, Additive Manufacturing (AM) has advanced as a novel

manufacturing technique used to develop rapid prototypes for custom and complex

geometries and multilayer devices in many different industries. In the field of electrical

engineering, AM methods have emerged as an innovative technology for the fabrication of

electronic components, such as capacitors, resistors, and antennas. One of the advantages

of 3D printed electronics is that prototype devices can be designed and fabricated in-house,

on-demand, and with very low production costs. This dramatically improves the

progression of new technology by reducing the time in between design iterations and the

overall logistics of the supply chain with industry.

Within the field of Additive Manufacturing, there are many different types of 3D

printing techniques, which have developed over time for specific applications. For this

thesis, several common 3D printing techniques were explored for potential use in the

design and fabrication of a low-cost, on-the-fly 3D printed capacitor using equipment that

was readily available in-house at the University of Dayton, including Fused Deposition

Modeling (FDM), Selective Laser Melting (SLM), and Stereolithography (SLA).

1.2 Problem Statement

While existing non-traditional fabrication methods have employed aerosol jet

printing and inkjet deposition for a myriad of electronics applications such as capacitors,

1
antennas, sensors, and thin-film transistors [1], these techniques have historically been very

expensive due to the high cost of the printer and materials. In addition, the conductive inks

dispensed through these methods are difficult to formulate in-house, costly to purchase,

exhibit a relatively short shelf-life, and may require cleanroom facilities and safety

precautions due to potential toxicity to humans. In addition, while the print resolution for

components printed using these methods is typically high, the maximum print height and

ability to print complex geometries is limited when compared to other additive

manufacturing methods.

Recent advances in emerging technologies such as dual-extrusion FDM 3D

printing, along with newly introduced conductive polymer filament materials, have created

the potential to use low-cost, readily available 3D printing methods to fabricate electronic

devices on-the-fly in remote environments. For example, this approach could be

implemented in different emergency situations the military faces during wartime or rescue

missions to fabricate replacement electrical components or portable power supplies in

theater. Since FDM 3D printing technology does not require a large footprint and utilizes

rugged materials with a long shelf-life that can withstand extreme environments, this 3D

printing technique has game-changing potential for remote military operations. The use of

low-cost, in-house additive manufacturing techniques also provides an inexpensive and

novel method to incorporate proprietary security markers within the build job that can be

used to ensure an encrypted supply chain for trusted electronics. In addition, this approach

provides a potential solution for the severe recent global IC chip shortage that has resulted

from newly enforced international trade tariffs and taxes and the lack of manufacturing

resources (including the availability of personnel) secondary to the coronavirus epidemic.

2
1.3 Research Objectives

In response to the opportunities previously outlined for the potential use of

emerging technology in the design and fabrication of a low-cost, on-the-fly 3D printed

capacitor, the following research objectives were identified:

1. To determine the feasibility of new-to-market FDM conductive filament materials that

can be implemented for the electrodes of a 3D printed plate capacitor;

2. To determine the dielectric constant of common FDM polymer filament materials

(PLA, PP, PC) that can be implemented for the insulator layer of a 3D printed plate

capacitor;

3. To determine the feasibility of dual-extrusion FDM as a low-cost, on-the-fly 3D

printing technique for manufacturing fully fused plate capacitors through the analysis

of measured capacitance from this novel approach versus other fabrication methods

established in the literature.

3
 CHAPTER 2

BACKGROUND

The chapter provides an overview of the different technologies, materials, and

terminology associated with various common 3D printing techniques that were explored

for potential use in the design and fabrication of a low-cost, on-the-fly 3D printed capacitor,

including Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM), Selective Laser Melting (SLM), and

Stereolithography (SLA). The advantages and disadvantages of these 3D printing

technologies were compared to existing non-traditional 2.5D electronics fabrication

methods such as aerosol printing and inkjet deposition. In addition, this chapter investigates

the various types of capacitors and materials commonly used to manufacture them and a

review of the current state-of-the-art for 3D printed capacitors, as published in the

literature.

2.1 Additive Manufacturing

Additive manufacturing has played a vital role in the future of engineering

technology over the past 40 years, especially for rapid prototyping applications [2]. The

terms ‘AM’ and ‘3D printing’ are often used interchangeably, especially in the industrial

setting. One of the first methods of 3D printing was developed in the 1980s and was similar

to the modern-day Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) system wherein parts were created

using subsequent “multiple layers of thermoplastics” [3] rather than traditional cast molds.

Within the past decade, multiple types of 3D printing systems have been developed, and

4
more recently, the unique field of ‘3D printed electronics’ has emerged as an innovative

fabrication method for electronic circuit components within the field of electrical

engineering.

3D printing techniques are commonly implemented for rapid prototyping since the

successive design iterations can be processed quickly and inexpensively, resulting in

improved efficiency in the supply chain. This rapid turnaround during the design process

can also result in improved performance specifications and faster time-to-market when

commercializing a product. 3D printing techniques also provide a cost-effective

mechanism for custom and complex geometries and micro-structured multilayer electronic

devices such as Printed Circuit Boards (PCBs), capacitors, transistors, and antennas.

2.1.1 Fused Deposition Modeling

Fused Deposition Modeling (FDM) is one of the most readily available and

affordable types of 3D printing currently used in the industry. FDM is an additive process

in which a thermoplastic polymer filament material is dispensed through a heated nozzle

that melts the material and deposits it onto a build plate, layer-by-layer, corresponding to

a CAD model in three-dimensional space. The availability of a wide variety of inexpensive

polymer and composite filament materials that can be 3D printed with a relatively standard

set of build parameters has contributed to the popularity of FDM. Two popular FDM

filament materials frequently implemented for strength and durability in finished parts are

PLA (Polythetic Acid) and Acrylonitrile Butadiene Styrene (ABS). Over the past several

years, many new types of filaments have entered the market, most recently including

conductive filaments (e.g., Electrifi, Black Magic 3D, and Protopasta) that consist of

5
polymer materials such as PLA infused with nanoparticle conductors such as copper, silver,

and carbon. These newly available materials combined with current advances in

simultaneous dual-extrusion FDM nozzle technology have afforded new and emerging

frontiers in 3D printed electronics.

The general process of FDM printing includes approximately five steps, as

illustrated in Figure 1 below. The first step (1) entails the use of slicer software that

translates measurements from a corresponding CAD drawing into x, y, and z coordinates,

which maps out a path for the movement of the print nozzle [4]. The next step (2) involves

the insertion of the chosen filament, which is fed through a heated nozzle and melts as it is

deposited as a thin layer onto the build plate below (3). As each successive layer of melted

filament material is deposited, it bonds to the layer beneath it (4). Finally, as the material

cools, it hardens and takes the shape of the finished part (5), which corresponds to the

dimensions and geometry specified in the accompanying CAD model. Between layers, the

build plate adjusts in height, and the process repeats itself.

Figure 1: FDM 3D Printer Diagram [5]

6
2.1.2 Selective Laser Melting

Selective Laser Melting (SLM) is a relatively new additive manufacturing

technique used to build custom metal parts from metallic powder, which is deposited and

melted, layer-by-layer, using a high power laser that moves in three-dimensional space in

accordance with a CAD model, as illustrated in Figure 2. As subsequent layers of powder

are deposited and melted, a thin film layer of new material fuses with previous layers. As

the melted material cools, it hardens and assumes its final shape corresponding to the

original CAD model. Between layers, the build plate is adjusted in height and recoated

with powder.

SLM has many applications in commercial industries such as aerospace and

medicine [6]. This method is advantageous for high-risk applications such as replacement

aircraft parts or orthopedic implants, which require high yield strength and durability under

extreme environmental conditions. Common materials used in SLM include powder

formulations made from metals such as aluminum, stainless steel, and titanium (and their

alloys). As described in the literature, SLM has been used for 3D printed electronics such

as heat sinks for microprocessors, airfoils, and heat exchange devices [7].

Figure 2: SLM Printing Process [8]

7
2.1.3 Stereolithography

Stereolithography (SLA) is a type of 3D printing that belongs to the category of

additive manufacturing techniques known as “vat photopolymerization” [9]. This

technique involves the use of a liquid photosensitive polymer resin, which is solidified

through exposure to a light-emitting device (typically a low-power laser) that moves in

three-dimensional space corresponding to a CAD model. One common configuration

shown in Figure 3 entails a laser that shines through the bottom of a transparent tank

containing the resin. As the laser activates specific locations in the resin that correspond to

the CAD model, the resin begins to solidify. At the same time, a build platform above

moves the solidified resin part upward out of the resin. This process is repeated layer-by-

layer. In comparison to other types of polymer printing such as FDM, SLA can provide a

sharper, higher resolution part with a smoother finish. However, resin-based printing

requires a post-processing wash to remove sticky residue from the finished part, and in

some cases (depending upon the type of resin used), an additional curing process under

ultraviolet light.

Figure 3: Schematic Diagram of SLA 3D Printer [10]

8
2.1.4 Comparison of 3D Printing Technologies for Electronics Applications

The design and fabrication of low-cost, on-the-fly 3D printed electronics is an

emerging technology. This section provides an analysis of the advantages and

disadvantages of FDM, SLM, and SLA 3D printing technologies in comparison with

existing non-traditional 2.5D electronics fabrication methods such as aerosol printing and

inkjet deposition.

As illustrated in Table 1, in comparison to other methods, FDM technology is the

simplest to operate with little to no requirements for pre-or post-processing, has minimal

space, clean-room, and safety requirements, is very inexpensive to use and is highly

versatile with respect to availability of diverse polymer filament materials that could be

implemented as a dielectric. However, FDM is limited in print resolution, as well as the

number of commercially available filaments with conductive properties that could be used

for electronics applications such as circuit traces or more advanced devices such as a

capacitor.

9
 Table 1: Comparison of 3D Printing Techniques

Type Pros Cons Resolution Companies Example

Devices
Inkjet Simultaneous Limited 20-25 nScrypt, PCB’s [11]
Printing printing with material microns Dynamism Full-scale
(2.5D) multiple materials selection [11] Nano fabrication
Multiple Print Lower Dimension of complex
Heads mechanical DragonFly electronics
Resolution strength and [11]
finishing steps are fracture easier
not required Expensive
Printing over a
large area
Aerosol Low-temperature Expensive 5-10 Optomec Flexible
Printing processing [12] Limited microns Displays
(2.5D) High-quality thin material [12] Sensors,
deposits selection resistors,
10 nm [12] solder-free
Print resolution is electronics
almost 2-4 times Printed
higher than inkjet Antennae
[12] [13]
Clog Resistant
Nozzle
SLA High-quality 3D Expensive 30-140 Formlabs Capacitors
(3D) models materials microns [16]
Fast process Materials have [15]
Strong pattern a shelf life
[14] Cleanup
FDM Inexpensive [17] Rough surface 20-300 Ultimaker, Resistors,
(3D) Different variety finish microns Fusion 3 inductors,
of materials Nozzle [18] capacitors
Compact design clogging [19]
Ease of Layer adhesion
operations problem

2.2 Capacitor Background

The capacitor, which stores potential energy within an electric field, is one of the

most straightforward and most essential components of an electrical circuit. The first

capacitor, coined “The Leydon Jar,” was invented by Pieter van Musschenbroek in 1746

10
and consisted of a glass jar insulated both internally and externally by a thin metal foil to

store the electrical charge [20]. The general design of a capacitor consists of an

arrangement of two conductive plates that are separated by a non-conductive material that

is either an insulator (e.g., air, paper, glass) or a semi-conductor (dielectric). The

conductors have equal but opposite charges that create a potential energy gradient (voltage)

when charged by an external source. During the discharge cycle of a capacitor, energy

stored in a capacitor is released to power other connected circuit elements and devices.

Capacitors are commonly in filters for electrical noise and ripple voltage in a

plethora of applications including RF transmission lines, audio processing, radio reception,

and power circuit conditioning [21]. The capacitor encompasses a relatively design, which

allows for a smaller footprint when compared to other energy storage devices, such as

batteries. Additive manufacturing provides a mechanism to further miniaturize capacitors

through custom three-dimensional geometries that are not possible through other

fabrication methods. Some specific types of capacitors include electrolytic capacitors, mica

capacitors, paper capacitors, film capacitors, non-polarized capacitors, and ceramic

capacitors.

Beginning in 1993, the capacitor worldwide market value was approximately $12.3

billion US dollars and has grown each year exponentially by 20% [22]. According to “The

Global Capacitor Market Demand,” researchers anticipate “an increase at an extensive

rate” [23] due to an increase in the production of electric vehicles. These figures indicate

substantial market potential for emerging technology and novel methods such as low-cost,

on-the-fly additive manufacturing for the fabrication and optimization of capacitors.

11
2.2.1 Parallel-Plate Capacitor

A parallel plate capacitor consists of two conductive plates of surface area A, which

are separated by a dielectric material of thickness d, as show in Figure 4. The dielectric

material in the capacitor impedes the flow of current between the electrodes. When a

voltage is applied across a capacitor, an electric field develops across the dialectic layer,

which results in the accumulation of an equal, but opposite charge Q on each plate of the

capacitor, as shown in Figure 5 below. As indicated in Equation (1) [24], the capacitance

C is directly dependent upon the area of the conductive plates and the thickness of the

dielectric, where 𝜀0 is the dielectric permittivity of free space which is equal to 8.85*10-
12
Farads/meter.

𝜀0 ∗ 𝐴
𝐶= (1)
𝑑

Figure 4: Capacitor Components [24]

12
 Figure 5: Parallel Plate Capacitor [25]

Over time, a voltage potential develops across the plates of the capacitor due to the

accumulation of charges. Once connected to an external circuit, current from the capacitor

discharges quickly along this potential energy gradient [26].

2.2.2 Electrolytic Capacitor

The electrolytic capacitor is a polarized capacitor that uses an electrolyte material

as the dielectric. The electrolyte is typically a gel or liquid containing a high concentration

of ions, which enables the device to achieve much higher levels of capacitance. These

capacitors are utilized when large capacitance is required and implemented as the principal

component in multiple power supplies. Figure 6 displays a visual diagram of the

electrolytic capacitor.

13
 Figure 6: Electrolytic Capacitor [27]

Some of the main disadvantages for this capacitor design include different degradations

based on, “thermal overstress and accelerated aging stress periods” [27].

2.2.3 Mica Capacitor

Mica capacitors fall into two groups; clamped and silver mica capacitors. The

dielectrics of these capacitors consists of natural minerals. The clamped mica capacitors

are typically seen as inferior to the silver capacitors because of their “precision, stability,

and low losses” [28]. The silver mica capacitor consists of a sandwich layer of mica sheets

that are coated in metal and encased in an epoxy outer layer. These capacitors have low

loss capacitance at high frequencies. The characteristics of these capacitors allow for

“stability in chemical, electrical, and mechanical applications” [28].

14
 Figure 7: Mica Capacitor [28]

2.2.4 Film Capacitor

A film capacitor utilizes a thin layer of plastic for the dielectric material. This thin

layer allows for several different applications due to their “low inductance, stability, and

relatively low cost” [29]. There are various types of film capacitors. For example, epoxy

cases are capacitors encased in a plastic material with an epoxy filling. ‘Wrap-and-fill’

designs consist of an oval and round plastic tape to tightly wrap the capacitor and polar

ends filled with an epoxy adhesive. Film capacitors are classified into two categories:

wound and stacked. A wound film capacitor reaches much higher voltage levels due to

their multiple wound layer construction that is continuous rather than the abrupt edges of

the stacked capacitor. Contrary to the wound capacitors, the stacked capacitors are used in

higher frequency applications. The multiple layer design or “stacked” allow for a greater

size efficiency while it minimizes the safety margins which provide higher capacitance per

unit volume [30].

15
 Figure 8: Wound Capacitor vs Stacked [31]

2.2.5 Paper Capacitor

This type of capacitor consists of paper as the dielectric medium between aluminum

sheets. Currently, there are other materials as well that are used in place of the paper

between the two plates; for example, plastics are implemented as dielectric insulators. In

these capacitors, the paper is covered in wax or soaked with oil, and then these capacitors

are fixed in terms of the amount of electric charge and capacitance value. One of the main

disadvantages of this capacitor is that the moisture from the air could be absorbed into the

paper which causes the device’s dielectric resistance to decrease [32].

Figure 9: Paper Capacitor Construction [32]

16
2.2.6 Non-Polarized Capacitors

The benefits of this type of the capacitor allow for a bidirectional voltage source to

flow through rather than a normal unidirectional voltage. Common materials in the

construction include aluminum electrolytic capacitors and tantalum electrolytic capacitors.

Some of the disadvantages include the inability to scale up for large power sources due to

the small size. Benefits of this design include more materials that can be used for dielectrics

rather than a single direction polarized capacitor [33].

2.2.7 Ceramic Capacitor

The ceramic capacitor implements a ceramic layer for the dielectric material. The

ceramic material is reported as being one of the first dielectric materials used in the

production of capacitors [34]. The most common type of ceramic capacitor is a multilayer

chip capacitor (MLCC). Other shapes of this capacitor include tubular and barrier

capacitors “which are obsolete today due to their size, parasitic effects, and the electrical

characteristics [35].” Larger ceramic capacitors, produced as power ceramic capacitors, are

designed to withstand higher voltages, providing exceptionally accurate results. The

capacitance values are stable [35] with reference to the applied frequency, voltage, and

temperature.

17
 Figure 10: Different types of Ceramic Capacitors [36]

2.2.8 Supercapacitors

Another type of capacitor, the supercapacitor, is gaining in popularity for use in

electric vehicles due to its ability to store large amounts of energy for a short period of

time. The supercapacitor, also called the “ultra-capacitor,” stores energy in an electrostatic

field between two separate electrodes. The ultra-capacitor yields a lower energy density

than that of the conventional Li-ion batteries. As the schematic layout in Figure 10 exhibits,

this electrical double layer capacitor (EDLC) consists of two or more electrodes, a

separator, and unlike the conventional capacitor: a liquid electrolyte [38].

18
 Figure 11:(a) Electrical Double Layer Capacitor (EDLC), (b) Pseudocapacitor (PC) and
(c) Hybrid Supercapacitor (HSC) [39]

2.3 3D-Printed Capacitors Research

Over the past decade, a number of 3D printing technologies such as FDM have

emerged as low-cost, on-the-fly methods to create rapid prototypes for custom and complex

geometries and multilayer devices. The majority of research in the field of additive

manufacturing focuses primarily on the material properties and the mechanical properties

of the filaments on the market. However, the electrical properties are often omitted or

inaccessible due to limited documentation. The following section provides an overview of

the state-of-the-art in 3D printed electronics, as surveyed from a review of the literature.

New-to-market conductive and dielectric thermoplastic filaments for FDM printers have
19
afforded new opportunities in the field of 3D printed electronics. In [40], the authors

explore the benefits of dual extrusion technology for certain electrical components, but

finds that cross-contamination is the most prevalent impediment for this fabrication

method. As a potential solution, reverting to a single extrusion process wherein the nozzle

is cleaned after each use is explored. However, it appears that this may result in longer

production times and less than optimal performance specifications in the finished part.

In [41], the authors discuss several applications for 3D printed electronics

(including conductor traces, an inductor, a capacitor, and a high pass filter) using Electrifi

conductive filament and two different types of PLA filament (black pigmented; bronze

nanoparticle) as the dielectric material with an open source D-Bot FDM printer. The

electrical properties of the printed specimens (resistance, conductance, inductance) were

determined and used to calculate the dielectric constant for the PLA composite filaments.

One specific problem discussed in the article concerns the thermal expansion of the

Electrifi filament when extruded, which can clog the print nozzle.

In [42], the authors explore the use of FDM to 3D print capacitive and resistive

transducers. This research concludes that the thermal loading associated with FDM printing

modifies the electromechanical properties of the printed part, including the dielectric

constant.

In [43], the authors provide an extensive overview of the requirements, process,

outcome and future scope of manufacturing electronic components and circuits using

conductive metal-polymer filaments and PLA with FDM/FFF printers. This research

discusses the fabrication of simple traces implementing the conductive filament, and then

describes the methods utilized to measure the conductive traces by attaching a short piece

20
of melted filament, silver paste or a screw terminal to connect to the multimeter probe to

better read the resistance measurements. The study found that single-extrusion techniques

are preferred due to the interruption of conductive traces that can occur when dual extrusion

methods are employed.

21
 CHAPTER 3

METHODS

To test which dielectric material held the highest capacitance in each model, the

dielectric constant for each material was solved for and then calculated using the EVAL

device and MATLAB. The dielectric materials implemented included PLA, PP, AND PC.

The next objective was to design CAD models for the parallel plate capacitors, which

included the dielectric mediums with varying thicknesses (1.5 mm, 1.0 mm, 0.5 mm, and

0.25 mm). The other components of the CAD design consisted of four 50 x 50 mm

electrode replicates printed using the conductive filament on the Ultimaker. Each

component was created in SolidWorks, and then they were fabricated employing the

Ultimaker Cura Slicer software. The final goal of this research was to test each design for

highest yielded capacitance and dielectric constants to compare the results from each

device and model. This process was then utilized to acquire the highest quality parallel

plate capacitor design and components, including the dielectric material.

3.1 Why FDM?

The literature review highlighted that there were several variations of 3D printers

and techniques used to fabricate 3D printed electronics. However, FDM was most

conducive since it allowed for on-the-fly rapid prototyping and was most cost-efficient

compared to the other 3D printing technologies. FDM also allotted for ease of operations

as the most user-friendly printer, was highly researched, and encompassed a small

footprint. The implications of this emerging technology could be utilized in various

22
military operations and missions since its small footprint allowed for the ease of mobility.

Such a 3D device brought into fruition the printing of replacement components; rescue

missions and disaster missions that necessitated replacement parts on-the-fly. The

replacement printed components then could be printed with an inexpensive material

(Filament). The Ultimaker S5 Pro was the FDM printer of choice, which was described in

more detail below in Figure 13. This 3D printer allowed for the use of dual extrusion, which

permitted the implementation of conductive and non-conductive filaments to be printed

simultaneously.

3.2 Procedures

The procedure section below further explained the different types of materials used

in the research and the different devices utilized to attain the collected data.

3.2.1 Plate Electrode Design

This section consisted of the procedural steps for designing the wrought aluminum

plate electrode design. The design incorporated the use of 4 wrought cut aluminum plates,

which was described below in greater detail.

3.2.2 Wrought Sheet Aluminum

The base model, designed as the control, consisted of 4 wrought cut aluminum

plates for the electrodes combined with the 3 different dielectric mediums sandwiched in

the middle of the top and bottom plates. The aluminum plates from wrought material were

purchased at Home Depot to create the square aluminum sample electrodes, and each piece

23
was measured to be around 50 x 50 mm. This specific size was selected based on the values

found in the literature [44] to measure the dielectric constant for PLA. The major variation

that occurred in comparison to the literature and research was that the literature values

utilized a 50-diameter circular contact pad in contrast to this research that implemented a

50 x 50 mm square. This thesis research simplified the shape to easily calculate the

capacitance of a parallel plate by incorporating a square shape method. Although, some

inaccuracies in the aluminum results were attributed to the variation in the actual plate size.

Micrometer measurements displayed that the average thickness of the aluminum samples

was 0.65 mm. The four aluminum replicates were then cut and divided to attain four

samples; Al1, Al2, Al3, and Al4, as displayed below in Figure 12.

S1 S2

S3 S4

Figure 12: Aluminum Plate Cut (Four Samples 50 x 50 mm)

24
3.2.3 3D-Printed Electrode

As described in the first part of the Methods Section, the Ultimaker s5 Pro was

utilized for this research based on the technology of dual extrusion capability and the

accessibility on campus. Some other advantageous components of the Ultimaker S5 Pro

were removable print nozzles, temperature controllable print nozzles, a programmable

heated bed, and a large build volume. The Ultimaker S5 Pro demonstrated print nozzles of

diameters ranging between 0.25 mm, and 0.8 mm. The temperature of the print nozzles

was controlled and manipulated by means of the software (Cura). The bed itself was

programmed to be heated, as it strengthened the adhesion properties of the filament

materials to the bed. That, in turn, ultimately aided with the first layer of the print and

created a smoother more uniform print. The Cura Slicer Software provided the user with

default printing settings that were previously tested on other makes and models. The

printing settings were further modified based on nozzle size, support material, and other

printing properties. Another benefit of technology, the build volume, “was considerably

larger for an FDM printer, that ranged from around 330 x 240 x 300 mm” [44]. The setup

and operation of the machine was user friendly, with a vast online community of user

forums for technical support.

25
 Figure 13: Ultimaker S5 Pro

3.3 Conductive FDM Filament

One possible solution to the Electrifi filament clogging issue concerned the

implementation of a separate nozzle specifically for this filament. However, it was found

that the Electrifi filament was not relevant to the project due to its complex printing. When

the nozzle temperature was increased, then it simultaneously decreased the resistance of

the printed object. Another type of filament with copper particles was printed as a proof of

this concept. This material, 3D Copper, an antibacterial filament, was measured to have

zero resistance due to its low copper additive components.

26
 The following table depicted the different types of conductive and

insulating/dielectric filaments utilized for this research. Table 2 presented the other

filaments that were incorporated and their desirable characteristics and attributes. The two

conductive filaments utilized in the experiment were Protopasta and Electrifi. The

diameters measured were based on the Ultimaker printer filament diameter at 2.85 mm.

Table 2: Conductive Filament Data Sheet [46-47]

Name Information Tech Specs

Electrifi Non- hazardous metal- Nozzle Temperatures between [°C]

polymer composite 130-160
World’s most Recommend printing speed: 10-30
conductive filament mm/s
Stored in a dry Resistivity 0.006 Ω cm
environment

Protopasta Conductive Heat treatable PLA w/ Nozzle Temperature [°C] 206

PLA high temp resistance, Printing Speed: 25-45 mm/s
PLA compound of Bed Temp (if available, is not
NatureWorks 4043D required): 50° C
PLA Resistance of a 10cm length of
2.85mm filament: 800-1200ohm

3.3.1 Protopasta Material Properties

Protopasta was the conductive filament that was ultimately fabricated for both

electrodes of the sandwich model and the fully printed model. In the data table illustrated

below, the filament was conductive, with a resistance of approximately 800-1200 ohm-cm

for the 2.85 mm filament used [47]. This material was comprised of an amorphous fused

carbon called carbon black, which provided its electrical properties.

27
 Table 3: Protopasta Material Properties (Modified from Resource) [47]

Properties Value/ Description

Base Material Heat treatable PLA w/high temp resistance
Characteristics Low odor, non-toxic, renewably sourced
Molecular structure Amorphous or partially crystalline
(Amorphous as printed, part crystalline when
heat-treated) (Melting resets crystalline
structure to amorphous state)
Additives Minimal color added

The electrical conductivity of aluminum was then examined based on values

displayed in the literature and compared to the above conductive filament Protopasta. This

comparison was displayed below in Table 4. The calculation of resistivity of the Protopasta

filament was displayed below. Resistivity constant ρ of the filament, was measured in

ohms per cm, the length of the filament was L in cm, d was the diameter of the filament in

cm2, and R was the resistance in ohms [46].

𝜌𝐿
𝑅= 𝑑 2
(2)
𝜋( 2 )

𝑑 2
𝜋( )
𝜌=𝑅∗ 2
𝐿

0.285 2
𝜋( )
𝜌 = 800 ∗ 2
10

𝜌 = 5.10 𝑂ℎ𝑚𝑠

A sample of a Protopasta filament measuring 10 cm long, with a resistance of 800-1200

ohm [47] based on the above calculation resistivity is ρ= 5.10-7.66 Ohms.

28
 Table 4: Aluminum Material Resistivity vs Protopasta

Material Resistivity (ohms per cm)

Aluminum 2.65 x 10-8 [45]
Protopasta 5.10 – 7.66

This table above exhibits that the aluminum plate material yielded a higher conductivity

than the Protopasta conductive filament.

3.3.2 Printer Settings for Protopasta

The default printer settings implemented for the conductive filament in this research

were depicted below. These tests incorporated a nozzle size of 0.25 mm, and the infill

density was modified from the recommended infill of 20% to 100% to ensure that the

material was present during each test procedure.

Table 5: Printer Setting for Protopasta

Layer Height 0.1 mm

Infill Density 100 %
Infill Pattern Triangles
Printing Temperature 215 ℃
Build Plate Temperature 60℃
Print Speed 55 mm/s

These specifications were documented by Ultimaker as the most conducive printing and

testing results. Four samples each of the same thickness (0.65 mm) were printed. The size

ranged around 50 x 50 mm for each electrode sample; the final size measurements by the

micrometer were displayed in the Results Section of this report.

29
 Figure 14: Protopasta 3D Printed Samples (Four Samples 50 x 50 mm)

3.3.3 Conductive Filaments Test Prints

Through the experimentation with the Protopasta filament in 3D printing, it was

observed that printing with the glue stick inclusive with the Ultimaker was the most

advantageous for sample removal from the print bed. This adhesion problem was then

solved as Figure 15 below displayed. The glass printing board was broken down into three

separate sections; the first was bare glass, the second being the glue stick, and finally the

blue painter’s tape section.

30
 Figure 15: Bed Adhesion Test
(Left: Blue Painter’s Tape, Middle: Glue, Right: Bare Glass)

As displayed below from the retrieved printed models, the bare glass demonstrated

the slightest bend compared to the glue. Contrary to the blue painter’s tape, the tape model,

when removed from the plate, retained some of the tape along with the final printed model.

Therefore, it can be deduced that for the entirety of the remaining samples in this research,

the glue was the adhesive material implemented when printing with the Protopasta.

Figure 16: Printed Protopasta Samples on Each Different Adhesion Types (Left: Blue
Painters Tape, Middle: Glue, Right: Bare Glass)

31
3.3.4 3D-Printed Electrodes

The next step in the experimentation process involved testing the different

conductive filaments. Considering the two that were primarily tested, Protopasta’s

Conductive filament and Electrifi Conductive filament, each contained different micro-

materials fused with thermoplastics. The Protopasta filament at 10 cm was measured with

both probes attached to a multimeter with a measured resistance of approximately 2.557 k

Ω, which was around a 2,557Ω sample. After these samples were tested, then a fully

printed conductive parallel plate capacitor was fabricated utilizing the conductive

Protopasta PLA implemented for the conductive plates instead of the aluminum plates.

These outcomes are explored and displayed in the Results Section below.

Once the prints were completed utilizing the Protopasta filament, the next step was

to repeat the process with the Electrifi Filament; the results were compared, plotted, and

methodically calculated. The Ultimaker S5 Pro was also incorporated in the experiment

due to its dual extrusion capability, which eradicated replacing the filaments to allow the

entire print job to be completed in a timelier manner. The nozzle most conducive for the

experiment based on the small diameter of the nozzle head measured at the 0.25 mm model

size. The nozzle was selected based on the novelty of the nozzle size itself, which yielded

a more accurate and higher resolution for each trace than the larger standard nozzle sizes.

The next step was to print with the conductive filament Electrifi. Contrary to the

Protopasta filament, the Electifi displayed a lower resistance per centimeter and a higher

conductivity as compared to the Protopasta. Unfortunately, Electrifi filament resulted in

several clogs due to its soft, supple form, and high-temperature printing. As displayed in

below, Electrifi produced a clogged nozzle as the filament was printed.

32
 Figure 17: Electrifi Uncompleted Clogged Print

Another erroneous factor noted was that the nozzle size implemented was 0.25 mm rather

than the recommended 0.4 mm standard nozzle. The 0.25 mm nozzle was utilized to keep

consistent with the previously printed models that incorporated the identical nozzle size.

Printing with Electrifi additionally clogged other filaments from being extruded due to the

material fusing with the different thermoplastic material, then it hardened and ultimately

clogged the nozzles. It was concluded that a different method was imperative to print the

conductive filament at that small nozzle size.

From this research conducted above, the Protopasta filament was selected due to

the ease of printing with a smaller 0.25 mm size nozzle, and because it demonstrated a

lower resistance with greater conductive properties. This material consisted of an

amorphous fused carbon called carbon black, which provided its electrical properties. The

final four printed replicate electrodes were designed in SolidWorks, then exported to the

Cura software where it was spliced, and eventually printed on the Ultimaker S5 Pro.

33
3.4 Dielectric Layer

This section provided an overview concerning the different materials tested for use in

the dielectric layer of the parallel plate capacitor model with the dielectric layer of the

capacitor utilized as an insulator. The different dielectric filaments modeled in this section

included PLA, PP, and PC.

3.4.1 3D Printed Dielectric Layer

The proceeding step in the process was to incorporate SolidWorks to create a 55 x

55 mm square sample with four different thicknesses (1.5 mm, 1.0 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.25 mm).

The model was then designed and implemented in correlation to these specific dimensions

since the dielectric measured larger in length than the two conductive electrodes to

eradicate the issue of any conductive material touching. These models were then exported

to the Cura software where three samples of each thickness, for a total of twelve pieces,

were printed on the same build plate. Three different types of FDM filament were then

utilized for the Ultimaker; PLA, PP, and PC. An example of the dielectric CAD model was

displayed in Figure 18, while Figure 19 displayed the Cura Model setup for the PLA

samples.

34
Figure 18: Dielectric CAD Isometric View (55 x 55 mm)

Figure 19: Example Cura Build Plate Design Screen (PLA)

35
3.4.2 3D Printed Dielectric Layer Settings

Each dielectric material encompassed varied default print settings which were

displayed below in Table 6 (PLA), (PP), and (PC). These settings were recommendations

provided by Cura software for the purpose of printing dielectric materials.

Table 6: PLA Printing Settings

Properties PLA PP PC
Layer Height 0.1 mm 0.1 mm 0.1 mm
Infill Density 100% 100% 100%
Infill Pattern Grid Octagonal Triangles
Printing 190 ℃ 205 ℃ 270℃
Temperature
Build Plate 85 ℃ 85℃ 110℃
Temperature
Print Speed 30 mm/s 25 mm/s 50 mm/s

The overall time frame consisted of remedying the different printing techniques

utilized to create the Polycarbonate, Polypropylene properly, conductive filament samples,

fine-tuning the printing methods, and finally testing the capacitors. One issue that occurred

while printing PP and PC was the lack of adhesive property that bonded to the build plate.

To solve this adhesion issue, the glue was utilized to ensure that the high printing

temperatures for these certain filaments did not affect the first print layer adhesion itself.

Another clarification that was used to rectify this error was the inclusion of brim material.

Once the method was tested and successful, twelve samples that used each type of dielectric

filament were printed with three different thicknesses S1, S2, and S3. The thicknesses, as

previously described were 1.5 mm, 1.0 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.25 mm. The figure below displayed

the completed samples for the PLA filament.

36
 Figure 20: PLA Completed Samples on Ultimaker Build Plate
Volume 330 x 240 x 300 mm

3.5 Price Per Gram

In validation of the third objective of this research to determine if FDM is a low-

cost-on-the fly option, the filament on the market was then evaluated and a price per gram

was calculated. Each of the filament’s prices are displayed below from the manufacturing

websites in Table 7.

Table 7: Price of Filament

Filament Name Cost Per Spool

Ultimaker blue PLA $49.99 750 g [45]
Protopasta $49.99 for 500 g [47]

From these values and then utilizing the gram estimator from the Cura software as

displayed in Figure 21, the calculation for total cost per gram was evaluated as

demonstrated in the sample equation (2) and calculations below.

37
 Figure 21: Material Estimation

PPG = TP / TW [48] (2)

PPG- Price Per Gram

TP=Total Price

TW= Total Weight

$49.99 $
𝑃𝑃𝐺 = = 0.1 ( ) Protopasta
500𝑔 𝑔

From this calculation, it was determined that the average cost for a fully-fused capacitor

containing the volume of 55 x 55 x 1.5 mm was estimated to be $0.51 to fabricate. This

price range emphasized that the use of FDM for 3D printed electronics provided a relatively

cost-efficient solution as well as a durable option based on the thermoplastic material

properties.

3.6 Apparatus

The following section provided an overall review of the various test instrumentation

devices being used in this research. These devices included; multimeter, LCR meter and

the EVAL AD5940ELCZ device.

38
3.6.1 Instrumentation

Over the course of this research, several different devices were implemented to

measure certain characteristics and properties of the tested capacitors. The first device

implemented was a simple multimeter (Model Astro AI DM6000AR). The multimeter

device measured the resistance of the tested components by injecting a small current into

the circuit, and then measured the voltage drop across the measured points. [49] When very

low measurements were taken, then the (REL) button was used to “zero out” the resistance

from the probes [50].

The second device utilized was the LCR meter; this model was a (B&K Precision

879B). The implementation of this meter was crucial since the data collected from the

multimeter did not allow for varying test frequencies as described below. The LCR device

was utilized with both regular probes that were included with the Multimeter meter

described above and alligator clips that were provided with the LCR meter. The third

device utilized to test the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor was an EVAL

AD5940ELCZ. The EVAL was specifically designed for “high precision analysis of

electrochemical cells” [51]. This device was put into place to measure the impedance of

the circuit, and then the capacitance was calculated that utilized the provided MATLAB

code as displayed in the Appendix A.

3.6.2 Device Setup

This research incorporated two different setup methods as displayed in Figure 22.

The first setup involved the use of 2 probes attached to the multimeter. This setup also

involved vice clamps as pictured, with two wooden blocks to sandwich the dielectric

39
medium between the two electrodes. This setup was implemented for the multimeter

measurements and the LCR measurements with the probes.

Figure 22: Vice Clamp Setup

The second setup included the alligator clips from the LCR meter as well as the

connected alligator clips for the EVAL device. This setup, as pictured below, illustrated

the two alligator clips connected to two pieces of paper, with one clip on either side of the

electrodes that prevented the capacitor model from short circuiting. LCR with alligator

clips and EVAL both utilized the previously described model to gain the attained

measurements.

Figure 23: Alligator Clip Setup

40
 Both test methods were repeated numerous times utilizing aluminum plate

electrodes with different dielectric materials; Protopasta electrodes with dielectrics and the

fully-fused capacitor. This research consisted of testing and printing conductive sandwich

models with the Protopasta fused with the top and the bottom conductive plates in the

parallel plate design. Then, the PLA was sandwiched in-between the model as the

dielectric. A CAD model was developed and then converted to a .stl file that was sliced by

the Cura Software for the Ultimaker printer as illustrated in Figure 24 below.

Figure 24: Cura Model of Twelve 3D Printed Fully-Fused Capacitors

The model included twelve different samples, each with varying dielectric

thicknesses of the PLA print that utilized the dual extruder. The twelve models

demonstrated three samples of each thickness (1.5 mm, 1.0 mm, 0.5 mm, 0.25 mm) while

having kept the thickness of the printed conductive plate consistent with the previously

used Al plates at 0.65 mm. The estimated timeframe for the first print was around 1 day

and 17 hours to print. Unfortunately, the print gridlocked approximately 7 hours into the

41
print job due to the Protopasta material that became too brittle and developed

microfractures in the filament itself as displayed in Figure 25.

Figure 25: Microfractures in Conductive Protopasta Filament

These micro-fractures caused the material to break in the feeder and then ultimately

gave the error of “no filament in the feeder.” This issue was rectified by ordering new

nozzles and Bowden tubes. It was discovered that the Bowden tubes, if not changed

frequently, caused friction within the tubes, resulting in filament breakage.

Throughout the experimental process, it was noted that the 0.25 mm nozzle head

clogged and would not allow any filament to be extruded from the nozzle itself. The

clogging issue was resolved by the implementation of different methods and various

procedures were conducted to unclog the nozzle. The first procedure was called the hot

pull method. This method heated up the nozzle to a specific high temperature to melt the

extra filament inside. Then, PLA filament was ultimately fed through the nozzle and was

pulled to remove any filament build that may have occurred. Once this step was completed,

a cold pull method was used, which decreased the nozzle temperature causing the filament

42
that was placed inside to harden, and then the filament was removed via a pair of tweezers.

After a minimum of two cold pulls, the novel nozzle was then conducive for printing.

3.7 Fully Printed Capacitor

Another model designed in SolidWorks and transferred to Cura slicer was the fully

printed capacitor model that utilized both extruders. The final dielectric integrated material

for this model was the blue PLA that was previously tested. This material was incorporated

due to its ease of printing without having a support brim, contrary the PP and PC. Also,

when printed on top of the conductive material, the PLA had the best performance since

both the PP and PC posed adhesion problems due to their material properties. Additionally,

the PLA was also one of the most inexpensive filaments on the market. A total of twelve

samples were created from the CAD models and transmitted to the Cura software.

Figure 26: Cura Fully Printed Capacitor Model

Three samples of the same dielectric thickness were printed per build plate, as displayed

below in the example figure. The conductive printed electrodes individually ranged around

43
0.65 mm as printed before. This model was different since each component was printed on

top of the other simultaneously, rather than having sandwiched the models together after

printing. The following figure displayed the completed fully-fused capacitor model with

three samples on a build plate. The tower on the right side was integrated to keep the other

print nozzle at a constant temperature so that the filament would not congeal and ultimately

clog the nozzle.

Figure 27: Example of Fully Printed Capacitor Fully-Fused Model (Blue: Dielectric
Material (PLA), Black: Conductive Filament Protopasta)

44
 CHAPTER 4

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

The section below detailed the specific results of this study that utilized the different

methods provided above. The three research objectives were investigated through the

collected data below and conclusions were formulated based on the results of the plotted

data.

4.1 Micrometer Measurements

The measurements below utilized the micrometer for the data collected. The

micrometer was then used to determine the exact size of the different components being

tested. These components included; aluminum and Protopasta electrodes, the different

dielectric mediums PLA, PP, and PC. A digital micrometer was implemented throughout

the experiment due to its high measurement accuracy.

4.1.1 Electrodes Measurements

The measurements for the specific electrodes, aluminum and Protopasta, were

displayed in the data below.

4.1.1.1 Aluminum Plates Electrodes Measurements

Table 8 displayed the values measured that utilized a micrometer for the cut

aluminum plate electrodes. As demonstrated by the measurements, the width and height

45
of the cut aluminum plates were not as accurate due to the human error involved in cutting

the wrought aluminum sheet as described in the Procedures Section.

Table 8: Aluminum Plates Electrodes Measurements

Name Thickness (mm) Height (mm) Width (mm)

Aluminum Plate 1 0.65 51 48.5
Aluminum Plate 2 0.65 49.5 51
Aluminum Plate 3 0.65 47.9 47.8
Aluminum Plate 4 0.65 50.6 48.2

4.1.1.2 Printed Protopasta Plates Electrodes Measurements

The table below displayed the measured data for the Protopasta printed electrode.

It was exhibited through the data that being able to fully print the electrodes, while

implementing the conductive filaments, resulted in more accurate and precise results.

Being able to print the conductive print samples allowed for more accurate dimensions,

mainly concerning the width and height of the samples.

Table 9: Printed Protopasta Plate Electrodes Measurements

Name Thickness (mm) Height (mm) Width

(mm)
Printed Proto-Pasta 1 0.65 50.2 50.6
Printed Proto-Pasta 2 0.65 50.2 50.5
Printed Proto-Pasta 3 0.65 50.3 50.2
Printed Proto-Pasta 4 0.65 50.2 50.4

The table displayed the results for the measured 3D printed dielectric medium as

described above in the Methods Section. The data concluded that the same observations

46
could be drawn as before; being able to print the samples allowed for more accurate sample

sizes than cutting the material.

4.1.2 Dielectric Medium Measurements

This section included the measurements for the different samples 1, 2, and 3 for the

dielectric insulating materials.

4.1.2.1 PLA Dielectric Measurements

The table below described the PLA samples that were printed on the Ultimaker.

This table demonstrated the issues that arose when material was printed with brim support

material, for example, PP and PC. These samples were not as accurate regarding design

dimensions as printing with PLA due to this extra support material cut off during the post-

processing.

Table 10: PLA Measured Samples

Name Thickness (mm) Height (mm) Width (mm)

PLA Sample 1 1.5 55.3 54.8
PLA Sample 2 1.5 54.9 55.2
PLA Sample 3 1.5 54.8 55
PLA Sample 1 1 54.9 54.8
PLA Sample 2 1.1 55.2 55
PLA Sample 3 1.1 54.9 55.2
PLA Sample 1 0.5 54.8 55.1
PLA Sample 2 0.5 54.9 55.1
PLA Sample 3 0.5 55 55.1
PLA Sample 1 0.25 54.9 54.8
PLA Sample 2 0.25 55 54.8
PLA Sample 3 0.25 54.8 55

47
The table below presented the measurements for the printed Polypropylene (PP) samples.

The Polypropylene samples provided less accurate results as the PLA samples since the

PLA samples did not require a brim to solve the adhesion problem to the build plate.

4.1.2.2 PP Dielectric Measurements

The table below described the PP samples that were printed on the Ultimaker. These

measured values displayed discrepancies between the different prints of varied height and

width due to the brim support material being cut away during post-processing. Although

support material was cut from the samples, the PP and PC samples were still more accurate

than the previous cut method for the aluminum electrodes samples.

Table 11: PP Measured Samples

Name Thickness (mm) Height (mm) Width (mm)

PP Sample 1 1.4 54.7 55
PP Sample 2 1.4 54.8 54.8
PP Sample 3 1.5 55.5 55
PP Sample 1 0.9 54.8 55.2
PP Sample 2 0.9 54.7 54.6
PP Sample 3 0.9 55.5 55.2
PP Sample 1 0.4 54.9 55.2
PP Sample 2 0.5 55 55.5
PP Sample 3 0.5 55.2 55
PP Sample 1 0.25 54.8 55
PP Sample 2 0.25 55.4 55.2
PP Sample 3 0.25 55.1 56.2

48
4.1.2.3 PC Dielectric Measurements

Table 12 displayed the measurements for the printed Polycarbonate samples. These

samples were also printed with a brim to help with the adhesion properties of bonding the

material to the print bed. These measured values displayed variations between the different

prints of varied height and width due to the brim support material being cut away during

post-processing.

Table 12: PC Measured Samples

Name Thickness (mm) Height (mm) Width (mm)

PC Sample 1 1.5 55.3 55.8
PC Sample 2 1.5 55.3 55.2
PC Sample 3 1.5 55.3 55.6
PC Sample 1 1 55.3 55.5
PC Sample 2 1 55.7 55.8
PC Sample 3 1 55.7 55.4
PC Sample 1 0.5 56.3 54.6
PC Sample 2 0.5 55.7 55.5
PC Sample 3 0.5 55.3 56.4
PC Sample 1 0.25 56.1 56.8
PC Sample 2 0.25 56.4 55.1
PC Sample 3 0.25 56.6 55.4

4.2 Device Measurements

The various sections below detailed the results obtained from each type of device

and capacitor model. Based on the literature review, the frequency of a circuit did not affect

the overall capacitance and the capacitance remained constant. However, due to thermal

polymer properties and infill patterns, recent research findings confirmed that these

materials themselves were affected by the different temperature changes, frequencies, and

49
speed of deformation [52]. This concept was plotted and illustrated through the different

graphs at the varying frequencies 100 Hz, 120 Hz, 1 kHz, 10 kHz for the LCR meter. These

were the tested frequency ranges; 1 kHz, 5kHz, 7.5 kHz, and 10 kHz for the EVAL meter.

Each graph displayed the global average of the collected data. The process of having

attained the averages was listed below.

1. Calculated averages for three samples at the same thickness. For example, (S1, S2,

S3) at 1.5 mm. There would be a culmination of eight averages included in this

step.

2. Calculated the averages of the previous step. There was a total of four averages

collected for that step.

3. Graphed the global averages from above for each different dielectric material that

was implemented.

In this thesis, there was a culmination of twenty-four different models per dielectric

material for a total of seventy-two different parallel plate capacitors. Each capacitor model

consisted of three samples of the same thickness (S1, S2, S3) that contained two sets of

different aluminum plates. There were four different dielectric thicknesses (1.5 mm, 1.0

mm, 0.5 mm, and 0.25 mm). The dielectric medium thickness and the frequency were the

only variables in this research. However, the electrodes plates remained constant at the

estimated average of around 0.65 mm.

4.2.1 Multimeter: Aluminum Electrode

The table below displayed the calculated ideal capacitance of a parallel plate

capacitor which used the dielectric permittivity of air. Equation 1 is utilized for these

50
calculations. These calculations are demonstrated as a base line for the following created

capacitor results.

Table 13: Theoretical Capacitance for a 50 x 50 mm Parallel Plate Capacitor

Distance Thickness (mm) Calculated Capacitance (pF)

1.5 14.8
1 22.1
0.5 44.3
0.25 88.5

Figure 28 displayed the plotted data for the total global average for each sample

set. Each plot encompassed the different types of dielectrics used and varying dielectric

thicknesses as well. Figure 28 displayed the multimeter measurements for the cut wrought

aluminum electrodes samples. The highest capacitance from this data collected was PP 3D

printed dielectric samples at around 143.3 pF. The second capacitance was the PLA printed

dielectric sample and the PC sample. This section only included the plotted results for the

aluminum plate electrodes model.

51
 Multimeter: Aluminum Electrode
160
143.33
140

120
Capacitance (pF)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Al PP with Al PC with Al

Figure 28: Multimeter Measurement: Aluminum Electrode

Figure 29 described the data for the 3D printed Protopasta plate electrodes with the

different 3D printed dielectric samples. It was observed from the data that the PP sample

still yielded the highest capacitance compared to the others; with the printed electrodes the

capacitance of each sandwich model was increased, except for the PP samples which was

around the same capacitance as the aluminum plate electrode samples.

4.2.2 Multimeter: Protopasta Electrode

This section below graphed the Protopasta Electrode data as measured with the multimeter.

Three separate dielectric materials are measured PLA, PP, and PC.

52
 Multimeter: Protopasta Electrode
160
140
140

120
Capacitance (pF)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Proto PC with Proto PP with Proto

Figure 29: Multimeter Measurement: Protopasta Electrode

4.2.3 LCR with Probes: Aluminum Electrode

The results below for this subsection were measured utilizing the LCR meter

described above in the Methods Section but included the implementation of the probes to

have remained consistent with the multimeter measurements. The unique characteristics of

the LCR measurements allowed for the data to be collected at an operating frequency for a

typical capacitor model. The fixed frequencies included; 100 Hz, 120 Hz, 1 kHz, and 10

kHz. This section focused primarily on the plotted results for the aluminum plate electrodes

model. In this section, the equations were formulated for percent increase and percent

decrease for each dielectric material that began after the 100 Hz range.

Figure 30 displays the capacitance results at the given frequency of 100 Hz. The

data below demonstrated that PP as the dielectric material still yielded the highest

53
capacitance compared to the other printed dielectrics. Another discrepancy between the

multimeter measurements and the LCR measurements below was that the multimeter

measurement had not allowed for change in frequency.

LCR Meter with Probes: Aluminum Electrodes at 100 Hz

200
180.33
180

160

140
Capacitance (pF)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Al and PLA Al and PP Al and PC

Figure 30: LCR with Probes Measurement: Aluminum Electrode at 100 Hz

Figure 31 displayed the results of the LCR meter with probes at 120 Hz where each

of the following figures were increasing frequency. From this data, it was confirmed that

when the frequency was increased, then the capacitance was decreased. The percent

decreased for this model taken at the 0.25 mm dielectric thickness was PLA 1.54%, PP

0.46%, and PC increased slightly at 0.48%.

54
 LCR Meter with Probes: Aluminum Electrodes at 120 Hz
200
179.5
180

160

140
Capacitance (pF)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Al and PLA Al and PP Al and PC

Figure 31: LCR with Probes Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 120 Hz

Figure 32 displayed the capacitance of the aluminum plate electrode at the

frequency of 1 kHz. The percent changes were as follows: PLA 3.53%, PP 3.69% and PC

0.08% decreased from the previous frequency.

55
 LCR Meter with Probes: Aluminum Electrodes at 1 kHz
200
172.88
180

160

140
Capacitance (pF)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Al with PLA Al and PP Al and PC

Figure 32: LCR with Probes Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 1 kHz

Figure 33 displayed the results of the same capacitor model with the aluminum as

the electrode at a higher frequency of 10 kHz. These data demonstrated the pattern of

increase in frequency and decrease in capacitance. The percent decreases were PLA 2.35%,

PP 1.41%, and PC 0.08% decreased from the previous frequency of 1kHz.

56
 LCR Meter with Probes: Alumiunum Electrodes at 10 kHz
200

180 170.44

160

140
Capacitance (pF)

120

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Al and PLA Al and PP Al and PC

Figure 33: LCR with Probes Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 10 kHz

4.2.4 LCR with Alligator Clips: Aluminum Electrode

This section included the various graphs for the LCR with Alligator Clips. This

technique was utilized since the LCR meter original was supplied with alligator clips. The

alligator clips were displayed in Figure 34. This section primarily included the plotted

results for the aluminum plate electrodes model.

57
 LCR with Alligator Clips: Aluminum Electrodes at
100 Hz
120
104
100
Capacitance (pF)

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Al PP with Al PC with Al

Figure 34: LCR with Alligator Clips Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 100 Hz

Figure 35 displayed the capacitance at the frequency of 120 Hz with the aluminum

electrode. The percent decreases were PLA 0.16%, PP 0.54%, and PC 0.98.

58
 LCR with Alligator Clips: Aluminum Electrodes at 120 Hz
120
103.83
100

80
Capacitance (pF)

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Al PP with Al PC wwtih Al

Figure 35: LCR with Alligator Clips Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 120 Hz

Figure 36 depicted the same characteristics as the previous graph, which illustrated

an increase in frequency while the capacitance of the parallel plate capacitor model

decreased. This figure displayed the capacitance when the frequency was increased to 1

kHz. The percent decreases were PLA 6.37%, PP 2.90%, and PC 1.65%.

59
 LCR with Alligator Clips: Aluminum Electrodes at 1kHz
120

97.22
100

80
Capacitance (pF)

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Al PP with Al PC with Al

Figure 36: LCR with Alligator Clips Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 1 kHz

Figure 37 displayed the capacitance measurements at the increased frequency of 10

kHz. The percent decreases were PLA 2.30%, PP 0.72%, and PC 1.10%. Still, PLA

displayed the highest percent decrease.

60
 LCR with Alligator Clips: Aluminum Electrodes at 10 kHz
120

100 94.99

80
Capacitance (pF)

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Al PP with Al PC with Al

Figure 37: LCR with Alligator Clips Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 10 kHz

4.2.5 EVAL: Aluminum Electrode

This section displayed the results for the third device implemented in this research.

The device was unique since it allowed for a broad range of frequencies rather than the

preprogrammed standard frequencies given off by the LCR device. The impedance of the

models was measured at the frequencies of 1 kHz, 5 kHz, 7.5 kHz, and 10 kHz frequency

range. The capacitance was calculated when having used the capacitance formula that was

displayed below. The dielectric constant was also calculated using a formula displayed

later in the Results Section. The results were measured using the EVAL meter at the various

frequencies; 1 kHz, 5 kHz, 7.5 kHz, and 10 kHz. As the results demonstrated, some errors

occurred when implementing this device. Compared to the previous results, the increase in

frequency also showed a decrease in capacitance. Contrary to these previous findings, the

61
results for the EVAL measurements using the aluminum plate electrodes did not display

this same pattern. Each measurement from the EVAL was taken at the 200-point interval.

This discrepancy was due to the different discharge and charge cycles of each different

electrode and dielectric material being used. The percent decrease was still calculated as in

the previous section, but in some cases the percent increase was calculated instead due to

an increase in the results rather than a decrease.

EVAL: Aluminum Electrodes at 1kHz

120
101.04
100

80
Capacitance (pF)

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Al PC with Al PP with Al

Figure 38: EVAL: Aluminum Electrodes at 1kHz

The graph displayed the capacitance at the given frequency of 5 kHz. As noted above, there

was a slight variation between the previous data graphs and the EVAL graphs with

aluminum electrodes. In Figure 39 below, the highest capacitance recorded was

approximately around 107.29 pF, which was an increase compared to the previous 101.04

62
pF measurement. The percent increase PLA was 1.62%, PP 6.18%, and PC had a percent

decrease of 0.18%. PP material had the highest percent change based on frequency

compared to PLA.

EVAL: Aluminum Electrode at 5 kHz

120
107.29
100

80
Capacitance (pF)

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Al PC with Al PP with Al

Figure 39: EVAL: Aluminum Electrode at 5 kHz

Figure 40 displayed the data at an increased frequency of 7.5 kHz. The percent increases

were PLA 4.05%, PP 6.39%, and PC 1.81%. In that collection of data, PP still represented

the highest amount of percent change based on the graphs.

63
 EVAL: Aluminum Electrode at 7.5 kHz
120
114.15

100

80
Capacitance (pF)

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Al PC with Al PP with Al

Figure 40: EVAL: Aluminum Electrode at 7.5 kHz

Figure 41 displayed the EVAL collected data at the increased frequency of 10 kHz.

The percentages were PLA 2.22%, PP 1.71%, where PC displayed a percent decrease of

0.56%. PLA in that case experienced the highest amount of percentage change.

64
 EVAL : Aluminum Electrode at 10 kHz
120
111.62
100

80
Capacitance (pF)

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Al PC with Al PP with Al

Figure 41: EVAL Measurements: Aluminum Electrode at 10 kHz

4.2.6 Observations Aluminum Electrode

The aluminum electrode was utilized as the control capacitor for this research.

These capacitors results were compared to the theoretical calculated capacitor with the

dielectric permittivity constant of air. The multimeter was implemented for this comparison

since the devices demonstrated a fixed low frequency that was unable to be changed. The

increase in capacitance can account for the differences in the dielectric constants. The

dielectric constant of air was around 1, based on the surrounding literature, while the

dielectric constant for PLA which was used as the dielectric below was around 2.7. These

expected results are produced in the table below.

65
 Table 14: Calculated Capacitance vs Aluminum Plate Electrodes Capacitance

Aluminum Plate
Electrodes
Calculated Capacitance with PLA
Distance Thickness (mm) Theoretical Capacitance with Air (pF) (pF)
1.5 14.757 40.67
1 22.135 49.17
0.5 44.271 69.17
0.25 88.542 104

Some other observations included in the table emphasized that as the dielectric thickness

was decreased, then the overall capacitance of the capacitance was increased. Also, when

the frequency was increased, then the overall capacitance was decreased. In terms of which

dielectric displayed the highest capacitance, the thermoplastics PP had the highest with

PLA as the second highest capacitance.

4.2.7 LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrodes

In this section, a fully 3D printed electrode was utilized in place of the cut aluminum

plate electrode. The same tests were run that implemented the same devices as before. The

first subsection consisted of the multimeter method.

66
 Multimeter: Protopasta Electrode
160
140
140

120
Capacitance (pF)

100

80

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Proto PC with Proto PP with Proto

Figure 42: Multimeter Measurement: Protopasta Electrode

4.2.8 LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrodes

Figure 43 included the measurements for the LCR with Probes at 100 Hz, 120 Hz,

1 kHz, and 10 kHz frequencies. These tests followed the same previous pattern that when

frequency increased, then the capacitance decreased. The percent changes of each material

were displayed below similar to the previous section.

67
 LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 100 Hz
210
200.17

160
Capacitance (pF)

110

60

10

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

-40
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Proto PP with Proto PC with Proto

Figure 43: LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 100 Hz

Figure 44 displayed the total capacitance of each model with different dielectric

materials and thicknesses as before. The percent changes were PLA 0.19% decrease, PP

1.25% decrease and PC percent increase at 0.54%. PP in that case yielded the highest

percent decrease.

68
 LCR with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 120 Hz
210
197.67

160
Capacitance (pF)

110

60

10

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

-40
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Proto PP with Proto PC with Proto

Figure 44: LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 120 Hz

Figure 45 displayed the increased frequency of the capacitor with the different

dielectric mediums. The different percentage changes were PLA 5.52% decrease, PP

5.09% decrease, and PC 5.95% decrease. The PC and PLA yielded the highest percent

calculated percent decrease.

69
 LCR with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 1 kHz

210
187.6

160
Capacitance (pF)

110

60

10

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

-40
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Proto-Pasta PP with Proto PC with Proto

Figure 45: LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 1 kHz

Figure 46 displayed the capacitance as the frequency increased. The percent

changes were PLA 5.95% decrease, PP 1.62% decrease, and PC at 2.39% decrease. The

data represents that PLA had the highest percent change at that specific frequency.

70
 LCR with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 10 kHz
210
184.57

160
Capacitance (pF)

110

60

10

0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6

-40
Dielectric Thickenss (mm)

PLA with Proto PP with Proto PC with Proto

Figure 46: LCR Meter with Probes: Protopasta Electrode at 10 kHz

4.2.9 LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Electrode

This section implemented the same LCR meter as the previous section, which

replaced the probes with the provided alligator clips. The aluminum electrode plates were

also interchanged for the printed Protopasta plates. The calculated percent change was

displayed below for each frequency range; 100 Hz 120 Hz, 1kHz, and 10 kHz.

71
 LCR with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Electrode at 100 Hz
90
79.5
80

70

60
Capacitance (pF)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA PP PC

Figure 47: LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Measurements: Protopasta Electrode
at 100 Hz

Figure 48 displayed the results for capacitance at the increased frequency of 120

Hz compared to the previous frequency of 100 Hz. The percent changes were PLA 0.81%

decrease, PP 1.64% decrease, and PC 0.80% decrease. PP demonstrated the highest amount

of percent change based on the results below.

72
 LCR with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Electrode at 120 Hz
90 79.17
80

70

60
Capacitance (pF)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA PP PC

Figure 48: LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Measurements: Protopasta

Electrode at 120 Hz

The following graph displays the capacitance of the models where the frequency

was increased to 1 kHz. The percent changes were PLA 1.64% decrease, PP 2.82%

decrease, and PC 1.06% decrease. PP in this frequency range ultimately represented the

highest percent change.

73
 LCR with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Electrode at 1 kHz
90
76.93
80

70

60
Capacitance (pF)

50

40

30

20

10

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA PP PC

Figure 49: LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Electrode at 1 kHz

The percent changes were PLA 0.80% decrease, PP 0.45% decrease, and PC 0.36%

decrease. PLA in this frequency range yielded the highest percent change.

74
 LCR with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Electrode
at 10 kHz
90 79.53

80
70
Capacitance (pF)

60
50
40
30
20
10
0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA PP PC

Figure 50: LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Electrode at 10 Hz

4.2.10 EVAL: Protopasta Electrodes

The following culmination of tests involved the operation of the EVAL at the test

frequencies of 1 kHz, 5 kHz, 7.5 kHz, and 10 kHz. The results were depicted below. Then,

the printed Protopasta was replaced as the electrode for each capacitor model. The percent

change was also calculated as in the previous sections.

75
 EVAL: Protopasta Electrode at 1kHz
120
100.50
100

80
Capacitance (pF)

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Al PC with Al PP with Al

Figure 51: EVAL: Measurements: Protopasta Electrode at 1 kHz

Figure 52 represents the collected data as the frequency increased from 1 kHz to 5

kHz. The percent changes for the data were PLA 0.61% decrease, PP 0.36% decrease, and

PC 3.69% decrease. PP yielded the highest percent change based on the provided data.

76
 EVAL: Protopasta Electrode at 5 kHz
120

96.24
100

80
Capacitance (pF)

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Proto PC with Proto PP with Proto

Figure 52: EVAL: Measurements: Protopasta Electrode at 5 kHz

Figure 53 represents the collected data at the frequency of 7.5 kHz. The percent

changes were PLA 5.43% increase, PP 1.10% increase, and PC 4.71% increase. PLA

demonstrated the highest percent change overall.

77
 EVAL: Protopasta Electrodes at 7.5 kHz
120

97.34
100

80
Capacitance (pF)

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA with Proto PP with Proto PC with Proto

Figure 53: EVAL: Measurements: Protopasta Electrode at 7.5 Hz

The next figure displays the increase at the frequency of 10 kHz. The percent

changes were PLA 0.85% decrease, PP 0.35% increase, and PC 3.74% increase. PC in this

case demonstrated the highest percent change, although PLA was the only dielectric

material that decreased its capacitance as frequency increased.

78
 EVAL: Protopasta Electrodes at 10 kHz
120

97.68
100

80
Capacitance (pF)

60

40

20

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA PP PC

Figure 54: EVAL Measurements: Protopasta Electrode at 10 kHz

4.2.11 Observations Protopasta Electrode

The Protopasta electrode was a 3D printed electrode compared to the previous

aluminum plate electrode measured. This capacitor exhibited different capacitance than the

aluminum electrode and in some of the measurements above yielded a higher overall

capacitance. The device that displayed the most consistent and similar results throughout

was the LCR meter with the alligator clips. This method allowed various frequencies

100Hz, 120Hz, 1kHz, and 10 kHz. This comparison below was at the lowest frequency

tested, 100 Hz; this frequency provided the highest capacitance values. For the results

displayed with the LCR with alligator clips on the aluminum plates, The results were

expected since the aluminum plate was made of pure conductive material.

79
 On the other hand, the Protopasta is a fused thermoplastic material with additives

of black carbon deposits. Therefore, it was not fully conductive when compared to

aluminum.

Table 15: Aluminum Plate Capacitor vs Protopasta Electrode

Protopasta Electrode
Aluminum Plate Capacitor Capacitor Capacitance
Distance Thickness (mm) Capacitance (pF) (pF)
1.5 40.67 34.33
1 49.17 40.83
0.5 69.17 63.67
0.25 104 82.17

Some other observations concluded that as the dielectric thickness decreased, then the

overall capacitance of the capacitor was increased. Also, when the frequency was

increased, then the overall capacitance was decreased. In terms of which dielectric

displayed the highest capacitance, the thermoplastics PP yielded the highest with PLA as

the second.

4.2.12 Multimeter Results: Aluminum Electrodes, Protopasta Electrodes and Protopasta

Fully-Fused Capacitor Model with PLA

The following sections exhibited the use of a fully printed capacitor compared to

the previous capacitor models. The electrodes were printed with Protopasta, and the

selected dielectric was PLA based on its ease of operation, print properties, and adhesion

to other printed materials. The results emphasized that the inclusion of a parallel plate

capacitor almost doubled the overall capacitance.

80
4.2.13 Multimeter Aluminum Electrode with PLA

The next three graphs below presented the comparison between the aluminum

electrode with PLA (Figure 55) to the Protopasta printed electrodes and PLA (Figure 56)

to the fully printed model (Figure 57).

Multimeter: Aluminum Electrode with PLA

350

300

250
Capacitance (pF)

200

150
111.67

100
70.00

50 36.67 30.00

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 55: Multimeter: Aluminum Electrode Capacitor

As the data displayed below, the printed Protopasta electrode yielded higher

capacitance than the capacitor with the aluminum plates.

81
4.2.14 Multimeter Protopasta Electrodes with PLA

The data below displayed the multimeter results with the Protopasta electrode

capacitor model. The highest capacitance value at 136.67 was compared to the aluminum

electrode at 111.67 pF.

Multimeter: Protopasta Electrode with PLA

350

300

250
Capacitance (pF)

200

136.67
150

100
65.00

50 30.00
20.00

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 56: Multimeter: Protopasta Electrode with PLA

4.2.15 Fully-Fused Printed Protopasta with PLA

The figure below displayed the results for the dual extruder 3D printed capacitor.

As the figure illustrated, the overall capacitance was almost doubled to 296.67 pF

compared to 136.67 pF for the previous capacitor model.

82
 Multimeter: Fully-Fused Protopasta Capacitor with PLA
350

296.67
300

250
Capacitance (pF)

200

150
106.67
100
50.00
50
20.00

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 57: Multimeter: Fully-Fused Protopasta Capacitor with PLA

From Figure 58, it was observed that first being able to print with the Electrode

with the Protopasta filament increased its capacitance compared to the wrought cut

aluminum electrode model.

4.2.16 LCR with Probes Fully Printed Capacitor Fully-Fused Model

This section consisted of the same fully-fused capacitor model with PLA that

implemented the dual extrusion capabilities. The yielded highest capacitance value at the

dielectric thickness of 0.25 mm was 348.67 pF.

83
 LCR with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with
PLA at 100 Hz
400
348.67
350

300
Cpacitance (pF)

250

200
146.33
150
89.33
100
61.33
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thiickness (mm)

Figure 58: LCR with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with

PLA at 100 Hz

Figure 59 displayed the same printed capacitor model with PLA as the dielectric at

the frequency of 120 Hz. The percent change was 2.84% decrease as the frequency was

increased.

84
 LCR Meter with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with
PLA at 120 Hz

400
347.67
350

300
Capacitance (pF)

250

200
146.67
150
88.00
100
59.00
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 59: LCR with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with

PLA at 120 Hz

Figure 60 displays the model at the increased frequency of 1 kHz. The percent

change for the PLA model was an approximate 1.91% decrease from 347.67 to 337.80 pF.

85
 LCR Meter with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with
PLA at 1 kHz

400
337.80
350

300
Capacitance (pF)

250

200
137.63
150

100 80.67
56.53
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 60: LCR with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with

PLA at 100 Hz

Figure 61: LCR with Probes: displays the capacitance of the model at the increased

10 kHz frequency.

The percentage change was an estimated 1.66% for the model with the PLA dielectric

medium.

86
 LCR Meter with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor
with PLA at 10 kHz

400

350 331.36

300
Cpacitance (pF)

250

200
134.73
150

100 78.49
54.37
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 61: LCR with Probes: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with

PLA at 100 Hz

4.2.17 LCR with Alligator Clips Protopasta Fully-Fused Model

The next figures below display the results for the different fully-fused models that

utilized the LCR Meter with alligator clips instead of the probes. The percent decrease was

also calculated as the previous sections.

87
 LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Fused Protopasta Capacitor
with PLA at 100 Hz

350 328.00

300

250
Capacitance (pF)

200

150 131.33

100 73.00
48.33
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 62: LCR with Alligator Clips: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with
PLA at 100 Hz

Figure 63 displays the capacitance for the fully-fused model at 120 Hz. The

decreased percent change yielded 0.31 %.

88
 LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Fused Protopasta Capacitor
with PLA at 120 Hz

350 327.00

300

250
Capacitance (pF)

200

150 130.67

100 71.33
46.67
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 63: LCR with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Fully-Fused Model with PLA at 120 Hz

Figure 64 displays the capacitance for the fully-fused model at 1 kHz. The

decreased percent change yielded 0.30 %.

89
 LCR Meter with Alligator Clips: Fused Protopasta Capacitor
with PLA at 1 kHz
350
322.93
300

250
Capacitance (pF)

200

150 126.50

100 68.67
44.70
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 64: LCR with Alligator Clips: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with
PLA at 1 kHz

The Figure 65 displays the fully-fused Protopasta capacitor at the frequency of 10

kHz. The percent decrease for that range from the previous frequency yielded 1.17%.

90
 LCR Meter with Allgator Clips: Fused Protopasta Capacitor
with PLA at 10 kHz

350 319.16

300

250
Capacitance (pF)

200

150 124.50

100 67.24
43.48
50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 65: LCR with Alligator Clips: Protopasta Fully-Fused Model with PLA at 10 kHz

4.2.18 EVAL- Protopasta Fully-Fused with PLA

The following graphs displayed the capacitance measurements with the EVAL for

the printed fully-fused Protopasta capacitor with PLA. The figure below displayed the

capacitor with PLA at 1kHz.

91
 EVAL: Protopasta Fused Protopasta Capacitor with PLA at 1
kHz

400
351.41
350

300
Capactiance (pF)

250

200
148.33
150

100 82.40
66.59

50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectirc Thickness (mm)

Figure 66: EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with

PLA at 1 kHz

Figure 67 displayed the results at 5 kHz. The decreased percent change from the

previous graph was 0.18%.

92
 EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with
PLA at 5 kHz

400
345.62
350

300
Capacitance (pF)

250

200
147.70
150

100 79.85
65.85

50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectic Thickness (mm)

Figure 67: EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with

PLA at 5 kHz

Figure 68 displayed the measurement results for the EVAL at the increased

frequency of 7.5 kHz.

93
 EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with
PLA at 7.5 kHz

400
345.36
350

300
Capacitance (pF)

250

200
147.59
150

100 80.70
65.89

50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 68: EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with

PLA at 7.5 kHz

Figure 69 displayed the measurement results for the EVAL at the increased

frequency of 10 kHz.

94
 EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with
PLA at 10 kHz

400
344.74
350

300
Capaacitance (pF)

250

200
147.82
150

100 65.86 65.86

50

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 1.4 1.6
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 69: EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor with

PLA at 10 kHz

The fully-fused Protopasta capacitor was a 3D printed capacitor for which both the

dielectric and conductive electrodes were fabricated .This capacitor exhibited three to four

times overall higher capacitance than the printed capacitors with either aluminum or

Protopasta electrodes. The measurement device that yielded the most consistent and similar

results throughout was the LCR meter inclusive with the alligator clips. This method

allowed testing at the frequencies of 100Hz, 120Hz, 1kHz, and 10 kHz. The comparison

displayed in table 16 depicted the lowest frequency tested, 100 Hz; this frequency provided

the highest capacitance values for the results displayed with the LCR meter and alligator

clips for the aluminum electrode assembled capacitor.

95
 Table 16 : Aluminum Plate Capacitor, Protopasta Plate Capacitor,
and Fused Protopasta Capacitor

Protopasta Fused Protopasta

Dielectric Aluminum Plate Capacitor Electrode Capacitor Electrode Capacitor
Thickness (mm) Capacitance (pF) Capacitance (pF) Capacitance (pF)
1.5 40.67 34.33 48.33
1 49.17 40.83 73.00
0.5 69.17 63.67 131.33
0.25 104 82.17 328.00

Table 17 depicted the highest capacitance with the use of various measurement

devices. There are three different capacitor models exhibited in the table; aluminum,

Protopasta, and the fused 3D printed capacitor model. The highest capacitor model was the

fused 3D printed capacitor which displayed three to four times the capacitance of the

regular aluminum and Protopasta model. This data demonstrated that at the lower

frequency of 100 Hz, the capacitor models displayed the highest capacitance except for the

fused model when measured with the EVAL device.

96
 Table 17: Highest Capacitance Compared to Different Measurement Devices with PLA
as the Dielectric (0.25 mm)

Maximum Frequency
Method Electrode Material Capacitance (Hz)
Multimeter Aluminum 111.67 N/A
Multimeter Protopasta 136.67 N/A
Fused 3D printed
Multimeter Capacitor 296.67 N/A
LCR with Probes Aluminum 151.33 100.00
LCR with Probes Protopasta 178.83 100.00
Fused 3D printed
LCR with Probes Capacitor 348.67 100.00
LCR with Alligator
Clips Aluminum 104.00 100.00
LCR with Alligator
Clips Protopasta 79.50 100.00
LCR with Alligator Fused 3D printed
Clips Capacitor 328.00 100.00
EVAL Aluminum 103.86 7500.00
EVAL Protopasta 89.50 7500.00
Fused 3D printed
EVAL Capacitor 351.41 1000.00

Figure 70 below depicted that when frequency was increased, then the capacitance

also decreased. As displayed below, the average capacitance at 100 Hz yielded the highest

result at 351.41 pF while the lowest capacitance ranged from 10 kHz at 344.74 pF.

97
 EVAL: Fused Protopasta Capacitor 1 kHz, 5kHz, 7.5kHz, and
10 kHz
352 351.41

351

350
Capacitance (pF)

349

348

347

346 345.62
345.36
344.74
345

344
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Frequnecy (kHz)

Figure 70: Fused Protopasta Capacitor 1 kHz, 5kHz, 7.5kHz, and 10 kHz

The overall results from this section indicate that when the frequency was

increased, the maximum capacitance decreased. Furthermore, the data exhibited that the

3D printed fully-fused capacitor almost quadrupled the capacitance compared to the regular

parallel plate capacitor models.

The initial test measurement used for this capacitor was based on the dimensions

for testing the dielectric constant for a diameter size sample of 5 cm or 50 mm [44].

However, this article did not calculate the overall capacitance with white PLA based on the

measured dielectric constant for a 1 mm sample and dielectric constant of 3.2. An ideal

capacitance could still be calculated. From this data, the overall capacitance for this sample

is displayed below. The capacitance for this measurement was approximately 55.6 pF.

98
 𝜀 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑘 8.85 ∗ 10−12 ∗ 1963.5 ∗ 3.2
𝐶= = = 55.6 𝑝𝐹
𝑑 1

This value was equivalent to the ideal capacitance at the dielectric thickness of 1

mm. The overall total capacitance of this ideal model using the literature values for the

dielectric material was lower than the measured capacitance for the fully-fused capacitor

model. The fully-fused capacitor created and tested in this thesis was 73.00 pF with the

LCR meter attached to the alligator clips at 100 Hz. This was a percent increase of

31.295%. Then, utilizing the same calculation as before for the dielectric thickness of 0.5

mm, the capacitance was calculated. This result is displayed below.

𝜀 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑘 8.85 ∗ 10−12 ∗ 1963.5 ∗ 3.11

𝐶= = = 108 𝑝𝐹
𝑑 0.5

This 108 pF was less than the measured capacitance of 131.33 pF of the created

fully-fused capacitor at the same dielectric thickness. This was a percent increase of

23.45%. The highest increase in capacitance occurred when the dielectric material was

printed at a thickness of 0.25 mm. However, this article only measured the dielectric of

PLA at the thickness size of 1 mm and 0.5 mm. Using the same calculation as noted before,

while also utilizing the dielectric constant with the dielectric thickness at 0.25 mm, the

ideal capacitance was computed using the EVAL device in this research as provided below.

𝜀 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑘 8.85 ∗ 10−12 ∗ 1963.5 ∗ 1.20

𝐶= = = 83.4 𝑝𝐹
𝑑 0.25

99
 This calculated capacitance at 83.4 pF was then compared to the capacitance of the

fully-fused capacitor at 328.00 pF for the capacitor with a dielectric thickness of 0.25 mm.

This is a percent increase of 253.448%. If the ideal capacitance was calculated using the

dielectric values found in this thesis research as displayed below, then the calculated ideal

capacitance of 50 x 50 mm squares would be approximately 106 pF compared to the fully-

fused model at the same dielectric thickness using the EVAL device which was used to

determine the dielectric constant at 1 kHz. The capacitance value at that desired thickness

was 351.41 pF. This is a calculated percent increase of 231.519%.

𝜀 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑘 8.85 ∗ 10−12 ∗ 2500 ∗ 1.20

𝐶= = = 106 𝑝𝐹
𝑑 0.25

Even if the dielectric constant from the research article [44] for the higher dielectric

constant of 3.2 was used with a thickness of 0.25 mm which was calculated below, the fully

fused model at the thickness of same 0.25 mm overall capacitance was greater.

𝜀 ∗ 𝐴 ∗ 𝑘 8.85 ∗ 10−12 ∗ 1963.5 ∗ 3.2

𝐶= = = 223 𝑝𝐹
𝑑 0.25

According to the expected results as displayed in this thesis, when the dielectric

thickness of material was increased, then the overall dielectric constant was also increased.

The fully fused capacitor that was created and tested in this thesis yielded an overall

capacitance of 328.00 pF, which was one of the lower measurements with the LCR using

alligator clips compared to the EVAL at 1kHz which was 351.41 pF. This yielded an

100
overall percent increase of 47.09%, or in the case of the EVAL measurement at 1 kHz,

which was a 57.58% increase.

4.3 Results-Dielectric Constant

The dielectric constant measurement was calculated by the EVAL device. This device

measured the impedance of the model, then the capacitance was calculated in MATLAB.

Figure 71 displayed the sample code that was utilized after it was used to calculate the

capacitance and the dielectric constant. The capacitance was calculated by the formula

below. This formula considered that the resistance was negligible, and the magnitude was

the value Xc which was the capacitive reactance of the capacitor.

1
𝐶=( ∗ 𝑓 ∗ 𝑚𝑔) (4)
2∗𝜋

This equation was derived from the formula for reactance which is depicted below.

1
𝑋𝑐 = (5)
2∗𝜋∗𝐶

𝑋𝑐 = 𝑚𝑔 (6)

101
 Figure 71: Sample MATLAB Code for Calculation of Dielectric Constant

The dielectric constant was calculated by the formula above and the sample outputs were

displayed in the figure below.

Figure 72: Example MATLAB Outputs for Capacitance and Dielectric Constant

102
 Figure 73 exhibited the data for the variations of dielectric thickness at increasing

frequencies (1kHz, 5kHz, 7.5 kHz, 10 kHz). The data depicted demonstrated that by

increasing the dielectric thickness, then the overall dielectric constant was also increased.

Dielectric Constant at 1 kHz

4.5
4
3.5
3
Dielectric Constant

2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1.5 1 0.5 0.25
PLA 3.93405 3.009416667 1.862416667 1.199446667
PP 3.3733 2.964966667 2.043066667 1.141203333
PC 3.55925 2.99305 1.9017 1.049956667
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA PP PC Linear (PLA) Linear (PP) Linear (PC)

Figure 73: Derived Dielectric Constant at 1 kHz

Figure 74 depicted the dielectric constant at an increased frequency of 5 kHz. When

the frequency was increased based on the data, then the overall dielectric proportionally

increased. The figure below depicted the same pattern as before; when the dielectric

thickness was increased, then the overall dielectric constant increased.

103
 Dielectric Constant at 5 kHz

Dielectric Constant
4.5
4
3.5
3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1.5 1 0.5 0.25
PLA 4.119016667 2.834041667 1.8019 1.138055
PP 3.373816667 2.736683333 2.02945 1.172558333
PC 3.985625 2.8323 1.761325 1.04016
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA PP PC Linear (PLA) Linear (PP) Linear (PC)

Figure 74: Derived Dielectric Constant 5 kHz

Figure 75 exhibits the dielectric constant results at the increased frequency of 7.5

kHz. The figure below depicted the same pattern as before; when the dielectric thickness

was increased, then the overall dielectric constant increased.

104
 Dielectric Constant at 7.5 kHz
4.5
4
3.5
Dielectric Constant

3
2.5
2
1.5
1
0.5
0
1.5 1 0.5 0.25
PLA 4.1318 2.816233333 1.851016667 1.139988333
PP 3.412516667 2.757666667 2.0717 1.20454
PC 3.91975 2.9057 1.8883 1.040998333
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

PLA PP PC Linear (PLA) Linear (PP) Linear (PC)

Figure 75: Derived Dielectric Constant 7.5 kHz

Figure 76 displays the dielectric constant at the frequency of 10 kHz. The figure

below depicted the same pattern as before; when the dielectric thickness was increased,

then the overall dielectric constant increased.

105
 Dielectric Constant at 10 kHz
4.50

4.00

3.50
Dielectric Constant

3.00

2.50

2.00

1.50

1.00

0.50

0.00
1.50 1.00 0.50 0.25
PLA 3.75 2.39 1.84 1.13
PP 3.43 2.63 2.15 1.21
PC 3.93 2.99 1.89 1.04
Dielectric Thickness (mm)

Figure 76: Derived Dielectric Constant at 10 kHz

The data collected was in the range of the values found in the research. The reported

dielectric constant was at 2.7 for a 3 mm sample. One discrepancy between the literature

values and the data exhibited above was that the dielectric measurements were taken at

different frequencies. The previous values in the research were measured at the high

frequencies at the 1 MHz level. The method utilized in the previous literature was printed

at a disk shape of 54 mm with a thickness of 3 mm using an 0.4 mm nozzle at the frequency

of 1 MHz [53]. As exhibited through the recent bar graphs above, the increased dielectric

material thickness also increased the overall dielectric constant. These results displayed

that when the frequency was increased, then the overall dielectric constant decreased for

the thermoplastic PLA material.

106
 CHAPTER 5

CONCLUSION AND FUTURE WORK

5.1 Conclusion

The first major contribution of this research was the design and fabrication of a

fully-fused 3D printed capacitor using a simultaneous dual extrusion process with

conductive and dielectric filaments. The overall capacitance of a fused 3D printed capacitor

displayed three to four times compared to the traditional aluminum parallel plate capacitor.

This fully-fused 3D printed capacitor, which implemented Protopasta conductive filament

for the electrodes and PLA as a dielectric, yielded the highest overall capacitance when

measured at 100 Hz. The LCR meter measured the overall capacitance with alligator clips

to be 348.67 pF compared with the aluminum parallel plate capacitor at 151.33 pF, which

illustrates an increase of 215.39% using the 3D printed fabrication technique.

The second significant contribution of this research was the utilization of a high-

resolution 0.25 mm nozzle and the exploration of printing different conductive materials

with this novel size. Preliminary print jobs with Electrifi conductive filament resulted in

problems associated with clogging the print nozzle. However, Protopasta conductive

filament was successfully extruded through the reduced nozzle size of 0.25 mm. A

multimeter was used to measure the resistance of the printed material. Several other

conductive filaments (marketed as antibacterial) were tested in the development of a fully-

fused 3D printed capacitor. However, it was found that these filaments did not print

107
accurately with the 0.25 mm print nozzle, nor did they contain enough conductive material

for use in the design of an electrode.

The third contribution was the measurement and calculation of the dielectric

constant of different thermoplastics at various low-range frequencies since the values found

in the literature were at a higher range from 1MHz-100MHz. This research yielded the

dielectric constants of each material PLA, PP, and PC at the frequencies of 1 kHz, 5 kHz,

7.5 kHz, and 10 kHz. As expected, the results demonstrated that as the dielectric thickness

increased, the dielectric constant also increased.

The fourth contribution of this research was the analysis of the percent change in

the dielectric constant for several common FDM polymer filament materials at different

frequencies. PLA and PP yielded the highest percent change when averaged across all

measured frequencies. This indicates that these materials that could be implemented for the

design of tunable 3D printed capacitors that have operating requirements over a diverse

range of frequencies.

5.2 Future Work

This research demonstrates the successful design and fabrication of a fully-fused

3D printed capacitor through low-cost, dual-extrusion FDM fabrication methods.

However, there are still many issues that remain before this technology could be

commercialized. First, the overall footprint of the fully-fused 3D printed capacitor needs

to be decreased, as this capacitor is significantly larger compared to other capacitors on the

market today. However, this 3D printed capacitor allows for flexibility and durability based

upon the properties of the thermoplastic filament materials.

108
 Future work should include resolving the nozzle-clogging issues experienced when

printing with Electrifi conductive filament. The material properties published by the

manufacturer of Electrifi indicate a significantly higher conductivity when compared to

Protopasta. As a result, it is anticipated that the measured capacitance in a fully-fused 3D

printed capacitor would be substantially higher using the Electrifi conductive filament.

Another benefit of printing with Electrifi over Protopasta is that Electrifi material is more

flexible. Further experimentation on how the different nozzle diameters affect the overall

electrical properties of a fully-fused 3D printed capacitor can be explored as well.

Another feature to be researched in the future that concerns a capacitor’s quality is

the (Equivalent Series Resistance). This is the “sum of in-phase AC resistance of a

capacitor and implemented to rate a capacitor’s quality” [54]. A calculated ideal

capacitance would have a loss which is equivalent to an ESR of zero. The LCR meter that

was implemented in this thesis can be utilized to also measure the loss tangent of the

capacitance to truly exhibit if this capacitor can work in an electrical circuit properly.

Furthermore, another benefit of 3D printing are its capabilities of being able to print

complex structures and geometries. Also, the capacitor design of an interdigitated capacitor

is a plausible future topic. This opens the door for future testing knowing that possibly

increasing the print z-direction increases the capacitance, while printing multiple fingers

and interconnected parts increases the capacitance as well. One question explored in future

research could be “how does changing the print orientation affect the final resistance?” The

question regarding print orientation is conceived based on the datasheet provided by

Protopasta below. Due to time constraints, this question could not be answered using the

test samples printed.

109
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 APPENDIX A

MATLAB Code

%% Frequency Dielectric constant measurement

close all;
clc;
clear all;

% Define
A=0.0025;
E0=8.85418782 *10^(-12);
f_1=1000;
f_5=5000;
f_7_5=7500;
f_10=10000;

d_1_5=0.0015;
d_1_0=0.001;
d_0_5=0.0005;
d_0_25=0.00025;

%Define mg (magnitude)
mg_1_1_5=
mg_5_1_5=
mg_7_5_1_5=
mg_10_1_5=

mg_1_1_0=
mg_5_1_0=
mg_7_5_1_0=
mg_10_1_0=

mg_1_0_5=
mg_5_0_5=
mg_7_5_0_5=
mg_10_0_5=

mg_1_0_25=
mg_5_0_25=
mg_7_5_0_25=
mg_10_0_25=

115
mg_1_0_25=
mg_5_0_25=
mg_7_5_0_25=
mg_10_0_25=

%% 1kHz and 1.5 mm

C_1_1_5= (1/(2*pi*f_1*mg_1_1_5))

k_1_1_5=C_1_1_5*d_1_5/(E0*A)

%% 1kHz and 1.00 mm

C_1_1_0= (1/((2*pi)*f_1*mg_1_1_0))

k_1_1_0=((C_1_1_0*d_1_0)/(E0*A))

%% 1 kHz and 0.5 mm

C_1_0_5= (1/((2*pi)*f_1*mg_1_0_5))

k_1_0_5=((C_1_0_5*d_0_5)/(E0*A))

%% 1kHz and 0.25 mm

C_1_025= (1/((2*pi)*f_1*mg_1_0_25))

k_1_025=((C_1_025*d_0_25)/(E0*A))

%% 5kHz and 1.5mm Frequency Dielectric constant measurement

C_5_1_5= (1/((2*pi)*f_5*mg_5_1_5))

k_5_1_5=((C_5_1_5*d_1_5)/(E0*A))

%% 5kHz and 1.00 mm

C_5_1_0= (1/((2*pi)*f_5*mg_5_1_0))

k_5_1_0=((C_5_1_0*d_1_0)/(E0*A))

%% 5 kHz and 0.5mm

116
C_5_0_5= (1/((2*pi)*f_5*mg_5_0_5))

k_5_0_5=((C_5_0_5*d_0_5)/(E0*A))

%% 5kHz and 0.25mm

C_5_025= (1/((2*pi)*f_5*mg_5_0_25))

k_5_025=((C_5_025*d_0_25)/(E0*A))

%% 7.5kHz and 1.5mm Frequency Dielectric constant measurement

C_7_5_1_5= (1/((2*pi)*f_7_5*mg_7_5_1_5))

k_7_5_1_5=((C_7_5_1_5*d_1_5)/(E0*A))

%% 7.5kHz and 1.00 mm

C_7_5_1_0= (1/((2*pi)*f_7_5*mg_7_5_1_0))

k_7_5_1_0=((C_7_5_1_0*d_1_0)/(E0*A))

%% 7.5 kHz and 0.5mm

C_7_5_0_5= (1/((2*pi)*f_7_5*mg_7_5_0_5))

k_7_5_0_5=((C_7_5_0_5*d_0_5)/(E0*A))

%% 7.5kHz and 0.25mm

C_7_5_025= (1/((2*pi)*f_7_5*mg_7_5_0_25))

k_7_5_025=((C_7_5_025*d_0_25)/(E0*A))

%% 10kHz and 1.5mm

C_10_1_5= (1/((2*pi)*f_10*mg_10_1_5))

k_10_1_5=((C_10_1_5*d_1_5)/(E0*A))

%% 10kHz and 1.0mm

C_10_1_0= (1/((2*pi)*f_10*mg_10_1_0))

117
k_10_1_0=((C_10_1_0*d_1_0)/(E0*A))

%% 10kHz and 0.5mm

C_10_0_5= (1/((2*pi)*f_10*mg_10_0_5))

k_10_0_5=((C_10_0_5*d_0_5)/(E0*A))

%% 10kHz and 0.25mm

C_10_0_25= (1/((2*pi)*f_10*mg_10_0_25))

k_10_0_25=C_10_0_25*d_0_25/(E0*A)

118