Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

CHPTER 3
SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS
Instrumentation plays a key role in the modern technological world. Sensor is
an essential component integrally linked to instrumentation. Its function is to
“Provide a mechanism for collecting different types of information about
a particular process”.

Sensors can translate a physical phenomenon into an acceptable signal that

can be analysed for decision making.

Sensors transform real-world data into electrical signals. So; it can defined as
“A device that produces an output signal for the purpose of sensing of a
physical phenomenon”.

Sensors are also referred to as transducers. A transducer is defined as “A

device that converts a signal from one physical form to a corresponding
signal, which has a different physical form”.

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

1 Introduction to Sensors and Transducers

The use of sensors and transducers depends upon the level of automation
and the complexity of the control system.

Modelling of the complex control systems needs for fast, sensitive, and
precise measuring devices. So; sensors are being implemented in a
microscale by combining several sensors and data-processing mechanisms.

Selection of a sensor or a transducer depends on;

❖ Measured variables and application.
❖ The required precision and sensitivity for the measurement.
❖ Dynamic range.
❖ Level of automation.
❖ Complexity of the control system and modelling requirements.
❖ Cost, size, usage, and ease of maintenance.

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The accuracy of the system is controlled by the sensitivity of the individual

sensors and the internally noise of the sensor itself.
Any parameter change either in measurands (variables to be measured) or in
signal conditioning, has a direct effect on the sensitivity of the model.

Elements of a sensor-based measurement system.

Element Function
Sensor Sense the information of interest
Signal conditioner Convert this information into an acceptable form
Display-readout Present it in a displayable fashion
Measured signal is, also, manipulated and fed back to the source from which
the original signal was measured

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

GENERAL INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM AND ITS

COMPONENTS

1.1 Sensor Classification

Analog sensors: Analog is a term used to convey the meaning of a

continuous. Its output is normally supplied to the computer using an analog-to-
digital converter.

Digital sensors: Digital refers to a sequence of discrete events. They are

known for their accuracy and precision, and do not require any converters
when interfaced with a computer monitoring system.

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

Active sensors: Active sensors require external power for their operation.
Passive sensors: the output is produced from the input parameters.

Deflection sensors: used in a physical setup where the output is proportional

to the measured quantity that is displayed.
Null sensors: deflection due to the measured quantity is balanced by the
opposing calibrated force so that any imbalance is detected.

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

1.2 Parameter Measurement in Sensors and Transducers

ELEMENTS OF AN INSTRUMENTATION SYSTEM

EXAMPLE: Home Heating System

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

1.3 Quality Parameters

Sensor characteristics are described in terms of seven properties;

1. Sensitivity; is the property of respond to changes in the measured

quantity. It can be expressed as the ratio of output change to input
change. . Change in output ∆𝑂
𝑆(Sensitivit) = =
Change in input ∆𝐼
2. Resolution; is the smallest increment in the measured value that can be
detected. It is also known as the degree of fineness with which
measurements can be made.

3. Accuracy is a measure of the difference between the measured value and

actual value, called bias (error). It depends on the instrument limitations.
An accuracy of 0.001 means that the measured value is within 0.001 units
of actual value. In practice, the accuracy is defined as a percentage of the
true value.

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

4. Precision; is the ability of an instrument to reproduce a certain set of

readings within a given accuracy. Precision is dependent on the reliability
of the instrument.

Precision vs
accuracy

5. Backlash; is maximum change in the measured phenomena without

causing any change in the instrument reading. It is an undesirable
phenomenon.
6. Repeatability; is the ability to reproduce the output signal exactly when
the same measurand is applied repeatedly under the same environmental
conditions.
7. Linearity; The characteristics of precision instruments are that the output
is a linear function of the input. The linearity is expressed as the
percentage of departure from the linear value.

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

1.4 Errors and Uncertainties in Mechatronic Modelling Parameters

The control of mechatronic systems would be very difficult without accurate
sensors (measurement systems).
The economical production of a mechatronic control system requires the
proper choice of sensors, material, and hardware and software design.
The final choice of an instrument (for any application) depends upon the
desired accuracy.
The uncertainty may be caused by the individual inaccuracy of sensors,
random variations in measurands, or environmental conditions.
The accuracy of the total system depends on the interaction of the
components and their individual accuracy.
The errors and inaccuracies in each of these components can have a large
cumulative effect.

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

2 Sensitivity Analysis (Influence of Component Variation)

For experimental work that has a number of component sources (measured
individually with independent instruments) a procedure to compute the total
accuracy is necessary.
This procedure must account for variations in each component tolerances.
The error analysis method helps in identifying the effect of component error in
accuracy calculations.
Vice versa, the procedure can help to allocate components’ tolerances
(variations) if the total design tolerance is known.
Computing the error in a quantity N that is measured with n independent
variables (x1, x2, x3…., xn )

The individual errors in each of the quantities are;

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

Approximate solutions can be obtained using Taylor’s series

Since, the ∆x’s is small quantities, hence ∆x2 terms can be negligible.

The absolute error, Ea, is defined by

This illustrates which of the variables exert the strongest influence on the
accuracy of overall results.

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If the overall accuracy is known and the individual component accuracies are
needed, the method of equal effects is employed.

Ex.; Speed Control System Example where

F the force applied in newtons
r radius of rotation
m mass of the rotating weight
Determine the uncertainty in the rotational speed, If;
m = 200  0.01 g, r = 25  0.01 mm and F = 500  0.1% N

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

If the error is limited to 0.05%, what accuracies will be allocated to individual

measurement?
316.23
∆𝑁 = 0.05 ∗ = 0.158115
100
0.158115
∆𝑚 = = 6.67 ∗ 10−5 = 0.067 g
3∗790.57

0.158115
∆𝑟 = = 8.33 ∗ 10−6 = ±0.00833 𝑚𝑚
3 ∗ 6324. 56
0.158115
∆𝑓 = = ±0.1667 𝑁
3 ∗ 0. 3162

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

Ex.: RLC Circuit

The impedance of the RLC circuit operating on alternating current is given
Uncertainty of R, L, and C is 5%, calculate the uncertainty in the measurement
of Z. Where; R = 2 k, L = 0.8 H, and C = 5 μF.

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

EX. Resistance Measurement

Constantan is an alloy (with 55% copper and 45% nickel), which is used in the
construction of strain gauges. The length of the constantan wire is calculated
using the formula.
The uncertainty of R, A, and c is about 10%.
Calculate the absolute error in measuring wire length.
If the total error is to be limited to half of the calculated value, how do you
allocate the accuracy to individual measurements?
c =

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

3- Data Conversion Process

Data acquisition systems in the real-time environment, using microcomputers,
has become an important need in many automated manufacturing situations.
In several cases, the computer reads the information from several channels
one at a time using a device called multiplexer.
The multiplexer is a switching device which enables each of the inputs to be
sampled in turn. It is a data selector that allows only one of the inputs to get
through to the output.

MULTIPLEXER IN AN ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION ENVIRONMENT

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

3.1 The Analog-to-Digital Converter

It is necessary for sensors to use an analog-to-digital converter (ADC) to
transform an analog voltage into a binary number through a process called
quantization.

FUNCTIONS OF ANALOG-TO-DIGITAL CONVERSION

The conversion process involves:
• Sampling the continuous signal.
• Storing this voltage, and, before the next sample is taken.
• Converting the stored number to the binary number, which typically
consists of a n-bit binary output word length.
The A/D converter has two sides: one is the analog side and the other is the
digital side. The analog-side specification includes a full-scale reference
voltage range (VR).

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

The digital side is specified in terms of the number of bits of its register. A n-bit
A/D converter will output n-bit binary numbers.
If the A/D converter has a range of 10 bits, 1024 (210) different values of the
input voltage can be represented. A typical voltage range for these systems is
10 V. Therefore, the resolution would be (10/1024) or about 10 mV, which
yields about 0.1% accuracy.

Sampling Rate; determines how often conversions can take place. A faster
sampling rate acquires more data in a given time and therefore can form a
better representation of the original signal.
Resolution; The number of bits that the ADC uses to represent the analog
signal is the resolution. The higher the resolution, the larger the number of
divisions the range is broken into and, therefore, the smaller the detectable
voltage change. RADC = Range / (2n)
Range; refers to the minimum and maximum voltage levels that the ADC can
quantize.

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

The error that results from the quantization process is called the quantization
error. The quantization error can be as large as one-half the quantization level
spacing.
Quantization error =  0.5 RADC
As a typical example, in a 8-bit A/D converter, the number of quantization
levels are 256 which is (28). For a maximum possible range of the voltage
signal 0 to 10 V, the resolution is 0.0391 V, and the quantization error 0.0195
V.
VX = VR (b12-1 + b22-2 + .. + bn2-n)

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Mechatronics Systems Design MPE 301

3.2 Successive Approximation Type of A/D Converter

A/D CONVERSION (SUCCESSIVE

APPROXIMATION CONVERSION)

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Input Input signal 6.8 V

voltage 6.8V Full scale range 10 V
6 bit register
1.8V
0.55
0.238

0.15625
0.3125
0.625
1.25
2.5 V
Trial 5V
voltage
Digital
1 0 1 0 1 1
output

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The converted value = 5*1+0*2.5+1*1.25+ 0*0.625+ 1*0.3125

+ 1* 0.15625 =6.718 V
Error = 6.8 – 6.71875 = 0.08125
RADC = 10/(26) = 10/63= 0.1587302
Q error = 0.0793651

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Arabic Republic of Egypt ‫جمهورية مصر العربية‬
Zagazig University ‫جامــــعة الزقازيق‬
Faculty of Engineering ‫كلية الهندســـــــة‬
Mechatronics Engineering Program ‫برنامج هندسة الميكاترونيات‬
Mechatronics System Design ‫تصميم منظومات الميكاترونيات‬

Sheet 3

SENSORS AND TRANSDUCERS

1. State the factors at which the selection of a sensor or a transducer depends
2. Discuss the elements of an instrumentation system.

3. Discuss the properties that can describe sensor characteristics.

4. What are the differences between;

a. Sensitivity and Resolution
b. Accuracy and Precision

5. Define; Backlash, Repeatability, Linearity and Accuracy

6. A torque transducer is used to measure the power of a rotating shaft.

During the mode of measurement, the following parameters are monitored.

Speed of rotation of the shaft during the time t, (R),
Force at the end of the torque arm, (F)
Length of the torque arm, (L)
Time (t)
The errors in each of the measurements are
Shaft speed, R= 2502 ± 1 revolutions
Force on the arm, F= 55.02 ± 0.18 N
Length of the arm, L= 0.0397 ±0.0013 m
Time in seconds, t = 30 ± 0.50 s
Determine the absolute error in the measurement of power.
7. In the previous problem, it is required to locate the accuracy to individual
measurements to obtain an accuracy of 5% for the power.

8. The resistance of certain length of wire R is given by

Where;

Determine the nominal resistance and the uncertainty in resistance of the wire with
the following data.
Arabic Republic of Egypt ‫جمهورية مصر العربية‬
Zagazig University ‫جامــــعة الزقازيق‬
Faculty of Engineering ‫كلية الهندســـــــة‬
Mechatronics Engineering Program ‫برنامج هندسة الميكاترونيات‬
Mechatronics System Design ‫تصميم منظومات الميكاترونيات‬

9. In the previous problem, it is required to locate the accuracy to individual

measurements to obtain an accuracy of 10 % for the power.

10.It is required to convert the shown analog signal into digital signals using the
successive approximation method. Find the resulting binary digitsif;
a- The sampling rate is 1 sample/sec.
b- The ADC has full range scale of 10 V and 8 bit register.

time (sec)