Final

ETHICS

Qayser D.Siblante

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The Difference Between Reasons and Will

MODULE 5
LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Distinguish between reason and will.

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY

Driftwood at Sea
a.) To which direction is the driftwood going?
b.) When can you or any person be like the driftwood?
ANALYSIS
1. Could Judas be held answerable/accountable for having betrayed Jesus?
2. On what factors (at least three) would you base Judas accountability?

ABSTRACTION
The moral person is endowed with an intellect and will. The "will" is what
“disposes” what the “the intellect proposes.” Reason conducts the study, research,
investigation, fact-finding. It uses logic, the principle of consistency, avoids fallacious
reasoning to come up with a truthful and accurate proposition. In a research study, the

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product or work of reason is the body of facts gathered, organized, synthesized and
evaluated. The job of the will is to make a decisive conclusion.
The will is the faculty of the mind that is associated with decision making. It's the
one that says yes or no. This author says this, that author says that, all others are
saying the same thing. Now, decide with your will what you yourself should say or think.
Decision making which is an activity of the will can be developed. Early in life,
like children, one should already be given the opportunity to exercise his will, like being
trained to make choices from alternative. Do you want to eat or not? Rice or bread?
Coffee or tea? This is true of societies where a culture of choice give opportunities for
the development of the will. A culture of spoon feeding does not develop the will.
Banking education, a method of teaching where the teacher simply deposits facts and
concepts and withdraw the same periodically during quizzes and tests without
encouraging the students to think and reflect, does not promote the development of the
will.
Jean Paul Sartre, the French Philosopher, and the most popular existentialist
was saying that an individual person is nothing until he/she starts making decisions.
What ultimately constitutes who a person is are his/her decisions. The essence of being
a person equals his/her bundle of decisions. Apparently, the mark of the maturation of
culture is manifested through the development of a culture of moral strength or virtue, or
will power, its free will. “Free Will” is the “capacity of rational agents to choose a course
of action from among various alternatives.”
Free will is the ability to choose between different possible courses of action
unimpeded, the power or right to act, speak, or think as one wants. It is the power of
self-determination. When the will is free, there is freedom.
To Hornedo (1972), the stuff of the free will is a multi-dimensional power, energy,
or strength. One is free to the degree that he has energy, that is, physically free to the
degree that he is physically strong; materially or economically free to the degree that he
is materially or economically strong, and so on.
Emphasis is made on what freedom is, and not on what it is not. To say that one
is free when there is an absence of obstacle is to give a picture of a weak person who
cannot walk to get out his room despite an open door. Freedom must not only be
understood as the absence of obstacle; it must be an autonomous energy. It is useless
talking about being free to move, walk, if you have not strength to move or walk. It is
useless saying you are free to go to Manila by bus, if you have no money for your fare.
Freedom implies power, energy, strength in all human dimensions, as the stuff of
freedom. A free person is one who is physically healthy and strong, psychologically
normal, financially stable. It is useless shouting in the streets for "economic freedom” if
one is economically weak. In terms of morality, moral strength is moral freedom. Morally
strong people would not allow a tyrant to thrive or last long. In the words of Jose Rizal is
the statement, “ there can be no tyrants where there can be no slaves.”

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The Courage To Be
“Purity of heart is to will one thing,” says Kierkegaard. But to "will one thing” needs
courage. According to Paul Tillich (1952), “(c)ourage is self-affirmation 'in-spite-of,' that
is in spite of that which tends to prevent the self from affirming itself.” Courage is “the
affirmation of being inspite of non-being.” This implies affirming, accepting oneself
inspite of one's defects, lack, or imperfections, affirming the world we live in inspite all
that it lacks. In specific terms, courage is affirming, allowing the drug addict or drug
dependent to live inspite of his drug addiction. “Our greatest glory is not in never falling,
but in rising every time we fall.” Courage is not giving up because of setbacks and
failures. It is keeping right on keeping on. In politics, courage is affirming or accepting
one's people inspite of their ignorance, poverty. Political will means the courage to
promote the greatest good of the greatest number inspite of their selfishness, greed,
and unruly behavior. Commitment, engagement, fidelity, authentic existence are all
forms of "affirmation of being inspite of non-being." Courage is affirming the world
inspite of its tragedies. The last line in Desiderata says it so, "(w)ith all its sham,
drudgery and broken dreams, it is still a beautiful world.”

APPLICATION
1. St Paul said: "I know the good to do but why is it that I do the opposite of the
good that I know?”
a. Do you experience the same? Does this mean unity of the intellect and will
or lack of unity?
b. For individual persons to be truly moral, how should their intellect and the
will function?
2. When is a person said to be weak-willed? Would you consider Governor Pontius
Pilate weak-willed? Why?
3. Interpret Robert Frost's immortal lines in the context of making moral decisions.
Two roads diverged in a wood, and I
I took the one less traveled by,
And that has made all the difference.
4. Relate Kierkegaard's “purity of heart is to will one thing," Paul Tillich's "courage is
self-affirmation ‘in-spite-of,' and Hornedo's stuff of free will as a multidimensional
matter to leading a moral life.

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KEY POINTS
 The moral person is endowed with an intellect and will.
 Reason conducts the study, research, fact-finding, investigation, by using logic,
to arrive at a correct proposition.
 The will is the faculty of the mind that is associated with decision making. It's the
one that says yes or no.
 The "will" is what “disposes" what "the intellect proposes."
 Strengthening of the will calls for courage which is self-affirmation in spite-of non-
being (Paul Tillich). Purity of heart is to will one thing. (S. Kierkegaard). The stuff
of free will is a multidimensional matter (Hornedo) - physical, economic, political,
etc. It is autonomous energy.

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it is now
time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. On every module’s “End of
Module Assessment” (this part), write your answers on separate sheet/s provided. (See
separate sheets for the questions.)

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT (Answer Sheet)

(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)
Name: _______________________ Course& Year: _____________
Module Number and Title: ________ Date accomplished: _________

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it is now
time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. Create your poster on a
separate one whole short bond paper.

Make a poster distinguishing the difference between Reason and Will. Make
it creative!!

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LOOKING AHEAD
Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! If you aced the assessments, I
am happy for you. If you have not reached your desired level of competence, just keep
going! Remember that an expert was once a beginner. The next topic will be
Accountability of Moral Act. Happy learning

REFERENCES

Ethics by: Ruben A. Copuz, AB English-Philo, Lib, PhD, Brenda B. Corpuz, BSE,
MAEd, PhD and Lorimar Publishing, INC 10-B Boston Street, Brgy. Kaunlaran,
Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines.

FRAMEWORKS AND PRINCIPLES BEHIND MORAL

FOCUS QUESTIONS: FRAMEWORKS
 What is an ethical framework?
 What are the 5 ethical frameworks?
 What is ethical and moral according to each ethical framework?
 How is each ethical framework applied?

Chapter IV

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The Meaning of Ethical Framework

MODULE 6

OVERVIEW

It is good to understand what an ethical framework is before studying the 5 most

common ethical frameworks in detail. These ethical frameworks were cited in passing
Lesson 2, Chapter 1 and are again introduced in this Lesson.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
 Explain the meaning of ethical framework.
 Distinguish among five ethical frameworks.

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY
1. Match the items in Column 1 with Column 2. You may repeat an answer.

Column 1 Column 2
Ethical Statements Ethical Frameworks
_1. The ethical person develops good A. Virtue on Character Ethics of Aristotle
character

_2. An act is ethical if one gives the B. Natural Law or Commandment

other what he/she is due. Ethics of St. Thomas

_3. An act is ethical if it is an obligation C. Deontogical and Duty Framework

expected of every man or woman. of Immanuel Kant,

_4. That which is right follows the rule "do D. Utilitarian, Teleological and
good and avoid evil." Consequentialist

_5. That which is ethical is that which has E. Love and Justice Framework
good consequences.

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6. An act is ethical if one gives the

other more than what he is due.

_7. To act ethically, one must act in a

way that he wishes others to act in the
same way.

_8. An act is ethical if it brings about

the greatest good for the greatest
number of those affected by the act

_9. What is good is written in a person's

very being

ANALYSIS
The pretest is on various ethical frameworks. Based on the you just did, what is
meant by ethical framework?

ABSTRACTION
An ethical framework is a set of codes that an individual uses to guide his or her
behavior. It is just another term for "moral standards” as discussed in the early part of
this text. It is what people use to distinguish right from wrong in the way they interact
with the world. It is used to determine the moral object of an action. An ethical
framework guides an individual in answering these two questions: “What do I ought to
do?” and Why do I ought to do so”? So ethical frameworks serve as guideposts in moral
life.
The various dominant mental frames may be classified as follows: 1) virtue or
character ethics of Aristotle, 2) natural law or commandment ethics of St. Thomas and
others, 3) deontogical and duty framework of Immanuel Kant, 4) utilitarianist,
teleological and consequentialist approach and 5) Love and justice framework. They will
be introduced here but will be discussed more in detail in the succeeding lessons.
Virtue or Character Ethics of Aristotle
Virtue ethics asks, who is the ethical person? For Aristotle, the ethical person is
virtuous, one who has developed good character or has developed virtues. One attains
virtues when he/she actualizes his/her potentials or possibilities, the highest of which is
happiness. Happiness is the joy of self-realization, self-fulfillment, the experience of
having actualized one's potentials.

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Natural Law or Commandment Ethics of St. Thomas

For St. Thomas, what is right is what follows the natural law, the rule which says,
“do good and avoid evil.” In knowing the good as distinguished from evil, one is guided
by the Ten Commandments which is summed up as loving God and one's fellowmen.

Deontological and Duty Framework of Immanuel Kant

Kant's framework is deon or duty or deontological framework. Deontology
centers on “the rights of individuals and the intentions associated with particular
behavior... equal respect... given to all persons." The “deontological approach is based
on universal principles such as honesty, fairness, justice and respect for persons and
property.” It is based on the categorical imperative, that is, one must act such that
his/her maxim will be the maxim of all. This acting based on a maxim that can be the
maxim of all is a duty, an obligation of every man or woman. Acting out of duty (deon) is
acting out of good will or intentions. Treating man as an end, not a means to an end is
acting with good will or intentions.

Utilitarianist, Teleological and Consequentialist Framework

The utilitarianist teleological approach focuses on consequences. "The decision
maker is concerned with the utility of decision. What really counts is the net balance of
good consequences over bad." The rightness of an action depends on the said net
balance of good consequences.
Love and Justice Framework
What is ethical is that which is just and that which is loving. Justice giving what is
due to others (justice) while is giving even more than what is due to others.

APPLICATION

1. Explain ethical framework by means of an analogy. e.g. Ethical framework is to

ethical and moral behavior as conceptual and theoretical framework is to a
research paper.
Other clues - What is an “ethical framework” for a guided tour?
- What is an “ethical framework” of a functioning organization for a
year or more?
Or think of words like guidepost, blueprint.
2. For easier recall and for mastery, develop at least one mnemonic device on the
ethical frameworks.
e.g. Deontological framework - Duty framework

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3. For mastery, formulate a matching type of test like the one you did in the Activity
phase. Exchange test with your seatmate and answer the test separately then
correct answers together.
 4. Compose a cinquain describing the ethical person based on any of the
ethical frameworks. (Note: A cinquain is A 5-line poem that consists of the following:)
Line one – one word
Line 2– 2 words that describe line one
Line 3 – 3 action words (-ing verbs_ that relate to line 1)
Line 4 – 4 words (feelings or a complete sentence) that relate to line
Line 5 - 1 word, synonym of line 1 or a word that sums it up
Person
Just, loving
Thinking, deliberating, choosing
I am grateful he is
Ethical

KEY POINTS
• An ethical framework is a set of moral standards that serves as a guide for all
persons to behave ethically and morally.
• Most common ethical frameworks are:
- Virtue or character ethics of Aristotle,
- Natural law or commandment ethics of St. Thomas and others,
- Deontogical and duty framework of Immanuel Kant,
- Utilitarianist, teleological and consequentialist approach, and
- Love and justice framework

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it is now
time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. On every module’s “End of
Module Assessment” (this part), write your answers on separate sheet/s provided. (See
separate sheets for the questions.)

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT (Answer Sheet)

(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)
Name: _______________________ Course& Year: _____________
Module Number and Title: ________ Date accomplished: _________

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 Final

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it is now
time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. Write your answers on a one
whole short bond paper.

1. What is an ethical framework?

2. Give 5 ethical frameworks and explain each in a sentence.

LOOKING AHEAD
Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! If you aced the assessments, I
am happy for you. If you have not reached your desired level of competence, just keep
going! Remember that an expert was once a beginner. The next topic will be Aristotle’s
Virtue Ethics. Happy learning

REFERENCES

Ethics by: Ruben A. Copuz, AB English-Philo, Lib, PhD, Brenda B. Corpuz, BSE,
MAEd, PhD and Lorimar Publishing, INC 10-B Boston Street, Brgy. Kaunlaran,
Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines.

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Aristotle’s Virtue Ethics

MODULE 7

OVERVIEW
What is the moral or ethical thing to do according to Aristotle's virtue ethics? This is
the concern of this Lesson.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
• Articulate what virtue ethics is
• Cite some criticisms or questions against virtue ethics

LEARNING EXPERIENCES & SELF-ASSESSMENT ACTIVITIES

ACTIVITY
1. Give examples of virtuous persons you admire.
2. Why do you consider them virtuous persons? What virtues do they possess?
3. Share your answers with your group.

ANALYSIS
1. Based on your examples, who then is a virtuous person? 2. How did this virtuous
person become one? Was he born already virtuous or did he inherit his virtuous life?

ABSTRACTION
Virtue or character ethics
The following excerpts clarifies what virtue ethics is:

An ethical act is the action that a virtuous person would do in the same
circumstances. Virtue ethics is person-based rather than action-based. It looks at
the virtue or moral character of the person carrying out an action, rather than at
ethical duties and rules or the consequences of particular actions.

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Virtue ethics does not only deal with the rightness or wrongness of individual
actions. It provides guidance as to the sort of characteristics and behaviors a
good person will seek to achieve. In that way, virtue ethics is concerned with the
whole of a person's life, rather than particular episodes or actions. A good person
is someone who lives virtuously – who possesses and lives the virtues.

Virtue ethics uses the following as a framework for ethical decision making. This
is how it is done:

In the Virtue framework, we try to identify the character traits (either positive or
negative) that might motivate us in a given situation. We are concerned with what kind
of person we should be and what our actions indicate about our character. We define
ethical behavior as whatever a virtuous person would do in the situation, and we seek
to develop similar virtues.
Obviously, this framework is useful in situations that ask what sort of person one
should be. As a way of making sense of the world, it allows for a wide range of
behaviors to be called ethical, as there might be many different types of good character
and many paths to developing it. Consequently, it takes into account all parts of human
experience and their role in ethical deliberation, as it believes that all of one's
experiences, emotions, and thoughts can influence the development of one's character

Stated similarly, virtue ethics is “the ethics of behavior” which “focuses on the
character of the persons involved in the decision or action. If the person in question has
good character, and genuine motivation and intentions, he or she is behaving ethically.”
The rightness or wrongness of one's action, or the goodness or badness of one's
personality depends on his character, motivations and intentions.
Virtue ethics, "is an ethics whose goal is to determine what is essential to being a
well-functioning or flourishing human person. Virtue ethics stresses an ideal for humans
or persons. As an ethics of ideals or excellences, it is an optimistic and positive type of
ethics."

Basic Types of Virtue (Excellence)

Aristotle gave two types of virtue. These are 1) intellectual virtues and 2) moral
virtues. Intellectual virtues refer to excellence of the mind while moral virtues refer to a
person's dispositions to act well.
Intellectual virtues include ability to understand, reason and judge well while
moral Virtues dispose a person to act well.
In the context of Aristotle, virtue is an attained, actualized or self-realized
potential or possibility. It can serve as a moral framework. When one has the potential
or possibility of becoming a musician, he tries to train and study to become a musician
following a musician's virtue as a framework. .

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Aristotle (384–323 BC) posited an ethical system that may be termed "self
realizationism.” In Aristotle's view, when a person acts in accordance with his
nature and realizes his full potential, he will do good and be content. At birth, a
baby is not a person, but a potential person. To become a “real” person, the
child's inherent potential must be realized. Unhappiness and frustration are
caused by the unrealized potential of a person, leading to failed goals and a poor
life. Aristotle said, “Nature does nothing in vain” Therefore, it is imperative for
people to act in accordance with their nature and develop their latent talents in
order to be content and complete. Happiness was held to be the ultimate things,
such as civic life or wealth, are merely Self-realization, the awareness of one's
nature and the of one's talents, is the surest path to happiness.

The material world is in state of actualizing, realizing what it is potential for.

Everything has its potency for something, its nature. Nature unfolds naturally, it has no
obligation to be so. It has no intellect and will. But a person has an obligation to be what
he/she is meant or in potency to be. It his/her obligation to develop his/her talent and
virtues. The highest good or end, telos, of a person is the fullness of his/her self-
development or actualization. The concomitant result of this development or
actualization of his/her potentials is what Aristotle termed as happiness or the
experience of happiness.
In short, virtue means excellence and virtue ethics is excellence ethics
Virtue as a Mean
For Aristotle, virtue is the Golden Mean between two extremes. The virtue of
courage is a mean between two extremes of deficiency and extreme, namely,
cowardice and foolhardiness, respectively. Too little courage is cowardice and too much
courage is foolhardiness (MacKinnon, et al 2015)

Virtue Ethics in Other Traditions

Confucius emphasized two virtues, jen (or ren) and li Jen means humaneness,
human-heartedness and compassion. Li means propriety, manners or culture.

Hinduism emphasizes five basic moral virtues: non-violence, truthfulness,

honesty, chastity, freedom from greed. It also emphasizes mental virtues: calmness,
self-control, self-settledness, forbearance, faith and complete concentration, hunger for
spiritual liberation. (George, V, 2008)

Buddhism also has its intellectual and moral virtues. From the eightfold path are
the intellectual virtues of right understanding and right mindfulness and the moral virtues
of right speech, right action and right livelihood.

Jesus Christ preached the virtues of love, mercy and compassion, hunger for
justice, patience, kindness, gentleness, self-control. St. Thomas Aquinas taught the
theological virtues - faith, hope and love. Christian tradition teaches four cardinal moral
virtues, namely: prudence, justice, temperance and fortitude.

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St. Thomas being an eclectic philosopher, integrated into his own philosophy
anything that is good conceived by his predecessors like Aristotle. But he enriched their
thoughts with his own insights or learning. The attainment of the highest good, which is
happiness, includes its diffusion. “Bonum difusivum est." Goodness as goodness
necessarily diffuses itself. A person's virtue diffuses itself in a right action. Goodness
hares itself, like a light that shines before all men.

One more point regarding various potentials of man which when actualized
becomes virtues is Hans George Gadamer's re-interpretation of Aristotle definition of
man as a “homo logos,” a speaking animal. In other words, in the light Aristotle's
wisdom, the virtue of being man is being a speaking animal, meaning, his attainment of
a meaningful, refined, and civilized language. Gutter language is vice; beautiful,
meaningful and refined language is virtue. One who has a virtue of a refined language
speaks rightfully.
The virtuous person did not inherit his/her virtues. Neither were these virtues
simply passed on to him automatically. His being a person of virtue is a product of
deliberate, consistent, continuous choice and practice of living the virtue or virtues.

Questions Raised About Virtue Ethics

Here are some questions raised about virtue ethics:

1) How do we determine which traits are virtues and whether they are virtues in all
circumstances. Are the virtues for the Christian culture the same with those of the
Muslim, Buddhist and Hindu cultures?
2) Mac Intyre, a contemporary philosopher, believes that virtues depend at least
partly on the culture of society. A warlike society will value heroic virtues whereas
a peaceful society may think of generosity as a more important virtue.
3) Who is more courageous – the person who wants to run away but does not or
that one who does not even want to run away? This has something to do with the
degree of effort and discipline required to be virtuous.

APPLICATION
1. The ethical person is a person of virtue/s. Describe this person of virtue based on:
a. Aristotle b. Confucius
d. Buddhist c. Hindu
e. Christian f. Gadamer
2. A morally virtuous person habitually determines the good and does the right actions.
How did Aristotle distinguish philosophic wisdom from practical wisdom? How do you
apply these thoughts in your self-project to become a virtuous person?

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3. The virtuous person did not inherit his/her virtues. Neither die virtuous person just
pop up. Neither were these virtues simply passed on to him automatically. What
message does this tell you?

4. Here is a quote attributed to Lao Tzu.

"Watch your thoughts; they become your words.
Watch your words, they become your actions.
Watch your actions; they become your habits.
Watch your habits; they become your character.
Watch your character; it becomes your destiny."
How does this apply to you in your desire to become a virtuous, ethical person?

6. Gutter language is vice; beautiful, meaningful and refined language is virtue. One
who has a virtue of a refined language speaks rightfully. A young engineer once visited
a project site in a barangay. He was so shocked to hear everyone ending every
statement with bad words like putang ina, (literal translation bitch mother). How did
these people arrive at that habit of speaking bad language which to them is no longer
unusual or strange?

7. Knowing what is good is not synonymous to doing what is good. What does this
mean in the context of Aristotle's virtue ethics?
Virtue is a perfection of the will rather than of body or mind. Do you agree? Why or why
not?

9. Why is it difficult to be a person of virtue?

KEY POINTS
• For virtue ethics framework, ethical behavior is what a virtuous person would do
in a situation.
• Aristotle gave two types of virtue – intellectual and moral.
• Intellectual virtues refer to excellence while moral virtues dispose a person to act
well.
• The highest good of a person is the fullness of his self-actualization.
• For Aristotle, virtue is the Golden Mean between two extremes.
• For Confucius two virtues jen (humaneness) and li (propriety) are most important.
• Hinduism emphasizes five basic moral virtues: non-violence, truthfulness,
honesty, chastity and freedom from greed.
• Buddhism has intellectual virtues – right understanding and right mindfulness.
The moral virtues are right speech, right action and right livelihood.
• Jesus Christ preached the values of love, mercy and compassion.
• Virtue diffuses itself in a right action.

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END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it is now
time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. On every module’s “End of
Module Assessment” (this part), write your answers on separate sheet/s provided. (See
separate sheets for the questions.)

END OF MODULE ASSESSMENT (Answer Sheet)

(Please do not forget to provide information on this part)
Name: _______________________ Course& Year: _____________
Module Number and Title: ________ Date accomplished: _________

Now that you have finished the review of the various concepts outlined above, it is now
time for an assessment to see how far you have improved. Write your answers on a one
whole short bond paper.

1. What is ethical or who is an ethical person according to Aristotle's virtue ethics?

2. Cite virtue ethics-based actions taken by parents, teachers and other persons in
authority in support of children's moral development.

LOOKING AHEAD
Congratulations for making it till the end of this module! If you aced the assessments, I
am happy for you. If you have not reached your desired level of competence, just keep
going! Remember that an expert was once a beginner. The next topic will be Aristotle’s
Virtue Ethics. Happy learning

REFERENCES

Ethics by: Ruben A. Copuz, AB English-Philo, Lib, PhD, Brenda B. Corpuz, BSE,
MAEd, PhD and Lorimar Publishing, INC 10-B Boston Street, Brgy. Kaunlaran,
Cubao, Quezon City, Metro Manila, Philippines.

OSMEÑA COLLEGES College of Teacher Education

Aspire…Achieve…Advance!