IGCSE CHEMISTRY

MADE BY RIANA CORDOVA

 WHAT IS IT ?

An electric current is passed through a molten ionic compound which

decomposes
•

( or breaks down .
process also occurs in aqueous solutions of ionic

compounds)
anode to cathode L
solid ionic compounds cannot conduct electricity due to the lack
e r
I n
of delocalized / free moving ions .

-
Which electrode is which ?

/eigtafewe"YAnaIde/
cathode is Reduction
Anode is oxidation PA N l C !
MOLTEN COMPOUNDS
.
Electrolyte :
must be molten
t electrodes &
f Molten lead ( Il ) bromide
L

f .
electrode

✓
platinum
:
must be connected to a battery source -

* Negative ions ( anions) move to the positive electrode ( anode) and will lose

two electrons to form bromide molecules

f ]
-
-

Br,
.

Br → t e
-
Bubbling at anode :
brown bromide gas .

* Positive ions ( cations) move to the negative electrode ( cathode) and gains

electrons to form the lead molecules

)
.

( pbzt
-

Pb
/
+ e -
"
Electrodes must be inert metals L
Metal deposits :
grey lead metal .

u(Graphile1/
-
Platinum

A Q V E O VS SOLUTIONS
→
Anodes Cathodes

/
→ * Rules :

Ht and metal ions attracted Always have water ( H2O)

-

L
•

OH ions and non metal ions .

attracted to positive electrode to the negative but only Ht and OH

-

. one in
ions involved .

-
.

Depends on concentration will gain electrons .

oxidised produced
-

L
Dilute OH Either hydrogen gas or metal will be
-
: .

( )
Oat 2h20 the L
Reactivity series If the metal above hydrogen in the rea
-

* 4OH
-

→ : is -

oxygen produced Ctivity series → hydrogen produced and bubbling will be

L concentrated :
Anion oxidised seen .

( )
-

@ Cathodes
-

* For reactions *
. Ex : ICI →
Cla t 2e

chlorine gas produced

s.int/*.noeIEio:tsir: sn:Yotb:iaM:u:I.a:I
G AS PRO D u c e p / NO
-
' -

* so , ,
never discharges
"
At cathode : Hydrogen
L
Burns with a pop sound when ( O P P E R RE F I N I N G
lit with a burning splint .
.

Electrolysis of Cusa, →
produces oxygen and copper .

It :S:
"

Ya!!!.in :&: : :: :#
"

. . rating them from their impurities .

Bromine red brown Always the impure metal The metal

'
L : - .
.

pure
.

L chlorine : yellow -

green * Copper atoms :

.

Gains the electrons from copper and forms purified copper

pale yellow L lose electrons atoms

L Fluorine : .

✓ L
go into Sol . as ions .
Becomes thicker due to the deposit of copper .

L attracted to cathode * Reduction occurs

"
Cup Cu
-

L
cathode gains electrons L t 2e →

Anode becomes thinner .

I
.

Impurities fall to the bottom E XT R AS

" " "" e .
-
colour of copper ( Il ) sulphate solution does not change because

:c:::::c:::::::c:c:::::÷m:insta::S: ::c . . . one .

Cult ions getting lost at anode while they form at the cathode .

-
 AL VM V N lV M E X T R A C T 1 ON
* Metals above
"
carbon
"
are extracted

by electrolysis because they are too

reactive .

Process

A SUB TOPIC
#
-
TO ELECTROLYSIS ① Raw material :
Aluminium Ore

( Bauxite) is purified to produced

E L E C T R O P L AT I N G Aluminium oxide ( Ak Os ) .

A process in which a metal is coated with L Ak Oz has a high melting point so it is first dissolved in molten

a layer of a different metal . Cryolite ( Naz Al Fa ) .

-
Metal being used to coat must be less * Lowers melting point
reactive than the metal to be coated * Better conductor of electricity

with .
* Reduces production cost

* Anode must be made from the pure metal ② Negative Electrode ( cathode)
* cathode is the object to be coated .
L
Aluminium melts and collects at the bottom of the cell and then is

* Electrolyte must be an aqueous solution of a Sol - tapped off .

able salt of the pure metal at anode . * Al

't
t 3e → Al

commonly used metals :

copper ,
tin ,
chromium and silver .
Positive Electrode ( Anode )
uses of electroplating L
Oxygen produced reacts with ( carbon) electrode to produce CO2 gas .

resistant to corrosion / damage 202

- -

Make metals more . * Oz -

t 4e

Improve appearance of metals .

* C (s ) t 02 (g) →
CO2 ( g)
* causes the carbon anodes to burn away → must be replaced

C O P P E R E X T R A C T 1 ON regularly .

Ore :
chalcopyrite ore ( Cu Fes
) * Collected at the electrolytic cell in the liquid .

L
concentration of ore by froth floatation Properties

L Heating in a blast furnace with Cac Oz ,

Si O, and Oz * Aluminium is not as reactive because a thin layer of aluminium oxide

L
Blister copper obtained ( remaining sulphure trapped quickly forms on it 's surface and prevents further reactions .

as bubbles of Sulfur dioxide

L Copper obtained is then used for copper refining .

 I R O N E X T R A C T l ON
* Metals below carbon in the reactivity series can be extracted by heating

with carbon .

Raw materials : Iron Ore ( Hae matile ) Coke Limestone and Oxygen ( Air)
, , .
( 600°C)
Process
* ZZ one 't : Coke in the furnace burns in hot air blast to form CO2 ( exothermic reaction) .
( 1000°C)
L
C (s ) t 02 ( g ) → CO2 ( g)

* Zone 2 : At high temperatures CO2 reacts with Coke to form carbon monoxide .
12000°C)
-
CO2 (g ) t C (s) →
201g)
* Zone 3 :
carbon monoxide ( reducing agent) reduces the iron ( 1111 oxide in the

iron ore to form iron which melts and will collect at the bottom of the furnace .

L
Fez Os ( s) t 3. CO ( g ) →
2 Fe t 3 CO2 (g)
: Limestone added to remove impurities from Ore .
Calcium carbonate decomposes to form calcium oxide .

L
Ca COs (s ) → CaOcs ) t CO2 ( g)
:
Calcium oxide reacts with the silicon dioxide impurity in the iron ore and forms calcium silicate .
This melts and collects as molten slag

on top of iron because it is less dense than iron .

I
L Ca Ocs) t Si 02 ( s ) →
Casi Os S T E E L M A K I NG
* waste gases escape from the blast furnace carbon monoxide Molten iron transferred to a tilting furnace
.

: .

.
Oxygen and powdered calcium oxide are added .

Z l N C E X T R A C T lO N L
oxygen oxidises the carbon ,
phosphorous ,
silicon and sulfur
.

Zinc ore :
Zinc blende ( 2ns ) to their oxides → all acidic .

① First converted to zinc oxide by heating in air L

CO2 and 502 are gaseous so they escape .

L
22ns t 302 → 22 no t 25oz L Acidic silicon and phosphorus oxides react with powdered

② carbon monoxide is the reducing agent ( formed inside furnace) calcium oxide and forms a
slag .
( Sio, t Cao → Casi Oz
)
and reduces the zinc oxide to zinc .
L
Molten iron turns to molten steel as it has been reacted with
L
ZnO t CO →
Zn t CO2 scrap steel and slag is tapped off .

③ Zinc produced is gaseous

L
passes out of the furnace ,
cooled and condensed in a tray at the top of the furnace .
 T Y PE S OF OX l D E S
Acidic oxides

* Non metal t oxygen

•
React w/ bases → salt and water

AC l DS .
React w/ water → acidic solutions

Substances that can neutralize a base →

forming salt and Basic oxides

water .
* Metal t oxygen

"

pH values below 7
,
have a sour taste and are corrosive .
.
Reacts w/ acids → salt t water

Turns blue litmus paper red .

.
Reacts w/ water → basic solution
- -

Methane indicator turns red Neutral oxides

Acids lose electrons when they are reacted to form Ht ions .

.

Do not react with either base or salt .

L
Donate Ht ions .
Ex :
Hz Soc, → 2 Ht ions .
* Nz O ,
NO and CO

L
Presence of Ht ions makes a solution acidic . Amphoteric oxides

types of reactions * Group of oxides that can react with both acid and base

* Acids t Metals .
React w/ acids or bases → salt and water

L
Only metals above Hydrogen L
Zinc oxide and aluminium oxide as well as it 's hydroxide

L forms : metal salt t hydrogen

fil ation
* Acids t Bases ( Alkalis ) I N D l C AT O RS
L Neutralisatin reaction * Litmus * Pheno phthalein

L Forms : metal salt t water acidic :

red acidic : colourless

::S:'t't .ci:::it:* :::: anti:::: :c:i::e

* " "

me .ae .
-
water .

B A S E S * Methyl orange
. substances that can neutralize an acid , forming salt and water .
acidic : red

pH values above 7 alkaline : yellow * Universal indicator

* water soluble bases are called alkalis

neutraliorangei.iiiismnefn.it
.

:::P:::*:: 'm
""

I
. .. .. .

.
Usually oxides or hydroxides of metals .

Gain reacted to form OH

-

electrons when they are ions .

L
Accepts Ht ions . Ex :
H2O →
Hz Ot
Presence of OH ions solution
-

L makes aqueous an alkali .

Types of reactions

÷÷÷÷:÷":::n a

. . . ..

* Alkalis t Ammonium salts

decomposition
L Ammonium salts undergo

when warmed with an

alkali .

L Metal salt t water t ammonia

L
Test the presence of N Hat .

#
 /
SOLUBLE EXCEPTIONS ( INSOLUBLE )

* Nitrates ( Nos ) * None ( all nitrates are soluble )

SHY!%! !
" "
¥ IT : th:
*
"""""""""
*
I
* A salt is formed when the H atom replaces the metal in an acid in a compound .

INSOLUBLE EXCEPTIONS ( SOLUBLE)

SO L U B L E S A L T S (cozy N Ha
-

Carbonates * Na K
-

*
, ,

* Method A adding acid to a solid metal base carbonate * Hydroxides ( OH I * Na K NH4- Ba

-

:
, ,
or .

, , ,
-
L For acids : if salt produced is soluble t safe reaction with acid .

L For bases and carbonates : if salt produced is soluble t below hydrogen . I NS O L V BLE S A L TS
① Add a dilute acid to a beaker * Precipitation Method : by using two soluble reactants

and heat with a bunsen burner .

① Choose two soluble reagents that when mixed together

Then add the insoluble metal ,

will produce the insoluble salt .
Then add the two reagents

base or carbonate slowly to the in a beaker and use a stirring rod .

Removal of
acid and stir until base is in excess base ② Filter off to remove precipitate .
Wash the filtrate with water

excess .
to remove excess solution and leave in the oven to dry .

② Filter the mixture to remove excess

base heat to evaporate water .

③ Dip a cold glass rod into the solution and see if crystals form and leave the

filtrate in a warm place and allow to dry .

* Method B :
a dilute acid t alkali

L Titration method

① Add the acid into the burette and

the alkali into the conical flask by using

a pipette . Then add a few drops of

indicator into the alkali .

I Remember

to note the volumes )

② Add the acid very slowly to the alkali

until there is a sudden colour change .

③ Record the volume of acid left and the volume of acid added to the

alkali .
( Neutralis a lion point )
④ Repeat the experiment with the same volumes recorded but do not add

the indicator solution .

⑤ Heat to evaporate ,
leave to crystallize then filler ,
wash and dry the
crystals obtained .
 A QUE O US A NI ONS
( 032 ) ( HCl)
-

o carbonate t dilute acid

L
Effervescence → CO2 produced → limewater Milky

) acid
-

( Cl Br I dilute nitric
-

and silver nitrate

-

o Halides , ,
t aq .

( AT l O N S L
chloride : white Ppt .

Test for aqueous cations n Bromide : cream ppt . Wh

o
metal cations in aqueous solutions can be identified by the L
iodide : Yellow Ppt .
Nth
( Nos )
"
colour of the precipitate they form with sodium hydroxide 0
Nitrate t aq . NaOH and aluminium foil then warm gently

and ammonia .
L
Ammonia produced → pungent smell → turns red litmus paper blue

L
Ammonia or sodium hydroxide must be added very slowly o sulfate ( 5042 ) t dilute nitric acid and aq .
barium nitrate

because when added too quickly and precipitate is soluble a

while ppt .

precipitate may sulfite ( 5032 ) ( HCl )

-

in excess formation of initial be missed out .

o t dilute acid
,

* preciate formed from either NaOH NHC, produced turns blue litmus paper red
If or
Cag ) then the L
sulfur dioxide →

metal hydroxide is insoluble in water .

* Calcium hydroxide does not dissolve in excess NaOH .

G A S ES
✓
Zinc and aluminium's hydroxides do .
0
Ammonia ( MHz) → colourless ,
pungent smell 0
Hydrogen ( Hz ) → colourless ,
odour less

* Zinc hydroxide dissolves in excess ammonia .

L
Damp red litmus paper → turns
blue
L Lighted splint →
Bums with squeaky pop sound

✓
Aluminium hydroxide does not .
0
Carbon Dioxide ( CO2 ) → colourless ,
odourless o oxygen ( Oz ) - colourless
,
odour less

* Transition metals produce precipitate with colours .

L
Bubble through limewater
-
turns it milky L
Glowing splint → it relights .

Test for regular cations o

chlorine ( Ch ) → pale green ,
choking smell o sulfur dioxide ( 502 ) →
colourless , pungent smell

°
Flame test :
L
Damp blue litmus paper →
turns it red L
Acidified aq . potassium manganate ( VII ) →
from
- -

L
)
Lithium ( Lit : red
T
purple
-
to colourless

|*GlowingsplintforOxygen#
-
sodium ( Nat ) :
yellow N OT E
-
potassium ( Kt ) :
lilac * Lighted splint for Hydrogen

-
calcium (Ca
't
) :
Orange red
-

copper ( Cu )
't
- : blue -

green

f-

÷÷÷÷i:÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷ ÷.in:1
/

÷ ÷:÷ ÷
Cation sodium Hydroxide Ammonia solution summary
-
-

( ) calcium and zinc precipitates

't
Aluminium Al while ppt .
that dissolves in excess while ppt .
does not dissolve in excess * Aluminium ,
are all while .

- - -

L * DOESN'T dissolve but zinc DOES

( NH at) Aluminium Ppt ammonia
in excess
Ammonia produced when Light blue gelatinous ppt
.

and dissolves
.

Ammonium warmed .

#igdeepbyewlour_
Therefore :
Aluminium and zinc → soluble in excess NaOH

↳ Does not dissolve in excess ammonia .

:÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷ :÷÷÷÷::÷:m: :÷ :: :::*

i

::
- -

( Il ) ( Felt ) but Iron ( Il ) is INSOLUBLE

L
Iron Green ppt . insoluble in excess Green ppt insoluble in excess .
* Chromium Ppt .
is SOLUBLE in excess NaOH
- -
Iron ( 111 ) ( Fest ) Red brown Ppt
- .
insoluble in Red -
brown ppt .
insoluble in excess * Copper forms a light blue precipitate * Iron ( ill) forms a red -
brown

excess L * INSOLUBLE in excess NaOH . precipitate that is INSOLUBLE

- -

zinc ( Zn
't
) while Ppt . dissolves in excess white ppt .
dissolves in excess
L * SOLUBLE in excess ammonia .
in both excess NaOH and

- ↳ forms dark blue ammonia .

Sol .

1*1%7%9 )
NOTE
"" " that

::
* Clear : solution you can

see through like water

-
 MO L E A N D V O L V M E
* Any gas at room temperature and pressure ( r t.pl
.

'
will have a volume of 24dm / 24000cm?
'
A V O G A DR O S N U M B E R
' '
L
1dm 1000cm
÷ 1000
-

the mole is the unit representing the amount of atoms ,

ions or molecules .

/(mol)2# V0tOf9dm)
L one mole is the amount of a substance that contains 6.023 x 1023 General Equation :
Amt of gas
.
=

particles .

L 6.023 x 1023 is Avogadro's Number .

.
One mole of any element is equal to the relative atomic mass of that element

in grams . Ex :
I mole →
6.023 X 1023 particles →
12g of carbon .

C O N C E N T R A T I ON
M A SS MOL ES M O LA R MASS * Increasing the mass of solute and keeping the volume
, ,

the same increases concentration

i::÷
"
.

in:c:::: : :: :::::S:: ::: : ::::::

'

÷::
"

concentration

m.
:: *

molar mass
moi 1dm
's
the mass of the solute the same ,
decreases

concentration .

Example : /\
-
Mmr IV C = X
"
L
Decreased conc . = increased volume t same

→
10 moles of CO2 has a mass of 440g .
g 1dm
's mass

what is the relative formula mass of CO2 .

L
Mr =
I
M
P E R C E N TA G E Y l E LD / PUR I T Y
Percentage Yield
= 440g
TO calculation of the percentage yield obtained from the
a

= 44 91mm theoretical yield .

↳
( Yield obtained theoretical Yield ) X 100

P E R C E NT AG E C O M P O S lT l O N ① Calculate the amount in moles .

* percentage composition is found by calculating the ② Calculate the maximum amount of element asked ( from question ) from
percentage by mass of each particular element in a molar ratio .

Compound . ③ Calculate the maximum mass of element asked that could be formed

Example : ④ calculate percentage purity .

( Mass ( Maximum mass ) x 100

→ Calculate the percentage of oxygen in CO2 . Percentage Purity

① Calculate the molar mass of compound .

.

( Mass of pure / Mass of impure ) x 100

( 2x ) ①
"

44g Imo I
L
16 t 12 =
Calculate Mr of element asked .

② Add the atomic mass of the element ② calculate theoretical mass .

required from the question ③ Calculate percentage purity .

L
16 t 16 =
3291 Mol
③ calculate percentage

fLIMITINGREACTI.tl
txexces reactant.wnat.is/eftoveraflerareactionsto#
L
32/44 × 100 = 72 .

71 .

"

Reactant which is not present in excess in a reaction .

L
First to be used up which causes reaction to stop
M O L E C U L AR AN D E MP l R l C AL FOR M V t A
.

•
Finding the molecular formula from empirical formula .

What we multiply by :
Example :

→
Empirical formula of X is Cc, H ios , and the

molar mass of molecular relative formula mass is 180 .

formula L C :
12 H : l
,
S : 32
,

(32×1)
-

molar mass of empirical

L
(12×4) t ( 10×1 ) t =
90
formula L
180/90 =
2
<
( 4×2 H 10×251×2
=
( 8 H2o S2
EXO AND ENDO REACTIONS
Exothermic Endothermic

° Heat exits the system gives out heat and feels hot .
°
Heat enters the system .

is released than absorbed in More energy is absorbed than released

°
0 When more energy a reaction .
.

L More energy released when new bonds form : MEXO .

L More energy needed to break the bonds : BEN DO

*
Change in energy is negative ( negative DH value
) .
* change in energy is positive → reactants have more energy

n than the products ( positive DH value

)

.E / i: ear:iefeiteaseai
^
activation
^

.¥*.¥¥¥as
"
"" % " " "" ° "

energy

f
products I positive DH
Hp - -
n
- - - - - - -
e-
( energy
-

absorbed )
# HR - - - - - - - - - - - - -

reactants
RATE OF REACTION
-
RATE OF REACTION
°
Examples :

L
combustion o
Examples :

( acid )
'
L Neutral isation t base L
Photosynthesis

L
Melting ice

ENERGY TRANSFER
Hydrogen Fuel cells

° A fuel is a substance which releases energy when burned .

L If fuel is a hydrocarbon → water and carbon dioxide are the products during combustion .

along with the production

*
Hydrogen Fuel cells : cell which makes use of hydrogen as a fuel and reacts with oxygen to produce water of electrical energy .

Advantages
L L
Disadvantages

Releases more energy Expensive

- -

Does not pollute Difficult and dangerous

-
-

o Reactions ( Redox )
-

H2 →
2 Ht t 2e
-
Anode :

4 Ht Oz
-

L
cathode : t t 4e → 2h20

< Overall reaction : 2Hz t 02 →

2h20
y,

produces ON't

waeur

l v
l l n

Negative Post
proton Exchange positive Post
conducts electrons membrane electrons
from Hz to be
conducts conducts external
external
ONI ions from
back
used in positive recombine
circuit to
circuit
.

ions

W/
hydrogen
 DATA
concentration
-
^

(
/YI7ghnfLY!/ * Steeper gradient =
high concentration

I:mm:in/
-

Amount of
* Becomes horizontal
1-
u y products
sooner

§
←
-

/* )
III.÷ ::'m:I.im?i...:::I.:wi..in.easeitsrate.reac.on :
:c: .in::::::: :
"

¥ .

as the reactant particles →

frequent collisions per second frequent
more .
E particle space = more

F
-
Time from start of reaction collisions .

Particle size / surface Area

* lumps chips

qsGIfftaYea①
smaller surface area =
,

j
°
Increasing the surface area of the particles will increase the rate of * Greater surface area =
powdered
& →
reaction as the particles will be exposed more to the reactants → on * Amount of products remains constant
so

more tranent and successful collisions Per second .

-
g
G
s
E
¥
-
→
Time from start of reaction

o increasing the temperature will increase the rate of reaction as the

particles gain kinetic energy than the required activation energy → Temperature

y ftiegmhpe.RO
more frequent and successful collisions per second ,
* Amount of products remain the same .

±
S

§ '

* catalysts reduce +neae.ua, on energy , providing an anemone

pathway that requires less activation energy .

8

§
o when a catalyst is used ,
rate of reaction increases →

1-

more successful and frequent collisions .

#
Time at start of reaction

THE COLLISION THEORY

°
In order for a reaction to occur it is necessary for the reactants
,

to collide with each other .

L
Not all collisions bring a chemical change →
only effective collisions .

* Effective collisions :

L sufficient amount of energy = activation energy .

L orientation must be in a favourable manner .

L
Reactant molecules must collide .
REVERSIBLE REACTIONS
°
It is when the forward reaction equals the backwards reaction .

* The product molecules can react with each other or decompose and form the reactant molecules again .

T.im?: : t:n+s./.?n: niga::no7:: knamid:o. n /

L Reaction always occurs in both directions . Ex : Haber 's Process ( Nz t 3 Hz f- 2N Hz ) concentration

III.Yar:::c:
" o
increase -
msn.tsnn-snt.name increase a- concentration in

* When the rate of forward reactions equal to Hydrated copper sulphate o Decrease → Equilibrium shifts to left to reduce decrease in concentration
-

the rate of backward reactions ,

overall reaction of reactant ( or increase of conc . in product ) .

is in equilibrium .

HABER'S PROCESS ( making Ammonia )

CONCEPT OF EQUILIBRIUM * Nz t 3Hz I 2MHz

Dynamic Equilibrium 1) Nitrogen obtained from air using fractional distillation .

°
Rate of forward reaction equals the rate of backward reaction . 2) Hydrogen from methane reacted with steam ( CHL, t H2O ( g ) → CO t 3. Hz ) .

/ /
the left and right of equation Yield of ammonia depends the pressure and temperature Ideal conditions
Molecules changing *
L
on are into each other .
on .
:

°
concentration of reactants and Products remain the same loons tant ( it there
-
tow temp .
→ slow reaction - low Production time .
-

450°C

is no change to
system → temp and pressure
) -
200 atm

Vas
.
.

°
Only occurs in a closed system so no molecules escape the reaction vessel . CONTACT 'S PROCESS ( Making sulfuric -

Fe ( iron catalyst
-
n

¥
1-
IT
Forward rate increases ( Products ) * 502 t Oz 503 Acid )
€
L S ,
02
,
H2O used .

.mn/I7.: ai /
-

Equilibrium reached
" ""

II:S:
" '

Reverse rate increases

arm .
.

. ... esto . - so , .m. .

( Reactants) dioxide .
-
l -
2 atm

-
TIME
L React sulfur dioxide with oxygen ( 502 t Oz I 502 t heat ) -

Vz Os ( vanadium penta

Equilibrium Position

/
to make sulfur trioxide . oxide ) as catalyst
-

* Relative concentrations of reactants and products at equilibrium . L sulfur trioxide NEVER directly reacted with water → highly exothermic t dangerous .

°
When position shifts to left → reactant concentration increases .
It is added to dilute sulfuric acid to make oleum ( 503 t Hz 504 →
Hz Sz Oa , ) .

°
When position shifts to right →
product concentration increases .
Oleum is then reacted with water to make sulfuric acid ( Hz 5207 t H2O → 2
Hz 504 ) .

Effect of catalyst

:÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷:÷::::÷: :÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷::÷÷÷::* ::
i
""

"

providing an alternate pathway with less activation energy .

0
Anhydrous cu 504 crystals added to

o concentration of reactants and products are the same . water → turns blue t heat given off .

|i
°
Cusa, crystals healed blue crystals

F1
→

€
Forward rate

F-
Forward rate with catalyst
turn to white powder t water collects at top .

E
"
- -
- - - - Equilibrium reached 0
Hydrated cu Soc, healed → loses water of
- -

Backward rate with catalyst

cnn.anisan.on-mmswann.am , c. so. .

'

I
J
-
Dehydration of Hydrated cobalt ( Il ) chloride
I ✓
Backward rate
6h20
Coclz .
6h20 ( s ) F- Cock ( s ) t (l)
-9
TIME 0
Anhydrous blue Cock crystals added to

water → turn pink .

LE CH ATELIER'S PRINCIPLE o when Cock crystals healed →

pink crystals

* when a change is made to conditions of a system at equilibrium ,

the turn back to blue .

System automatically moves to oppose the change loses water of

0
When hydrated Cock is healed →
.

Temperature crystallisation → turns to anhydrous Cock .

°
Increase → Equilibrium moves in endothermic direction .

° Decrease →
Equilibrium moves in exothermic direction .

Pressure

° Increase → Equilibrium shifts to the smaller no -

of molecules

o Decrease → Equilibrium shifts to larger no .

of molecules .
 NOMENCLATURE
Wheim ? isomerism :
compounds that have the same molecular formula but different structural formula .

* Isomers have different physical properties like their melting point and
boiling point .

Example :

¥:Cut ① Butane ② 2 -

methyl propane
They are isomers of each other
H H H H Y
l l l l
H -
C -
H
H -
C -
C -

C -

C -

H H H
because they have two completely , i i ,
l l l

H C C C H
H H
-

H
- -
-

H
l l
different
l
molecular structures .

H
H H

How to name
- organic Step
-
one

Hh .
*
If it is a branched chain hydrocarbon , identify the longest chain of carbon → it is the parent chain to decide the root name .

"

Nomenclature prefix
"
:
wPACnomen-_ * Example :
it there are four carbons in the chain → root name :
but .

the set of rules

#
dative is to Step Two
#

generate systematic names * Name the remaining substituents →

CH , ( methyl)
.
Br ( Bromo) ,
U ( chloro)

chemical compounds
for .

* Determine their position along the parent chain → second position : 2 -

methyl . . .

Prefixes : * when there are two or more identical substituents →

number accordingly and how many times it gets repeated will be determined by the

/
Monkeys meth t prefixes : (di ) -

,
Eri ) -

,
(tetra ) ( penta )
-

,
-

, Chex a- ) ,
etc .
.

Eat Eth 2
* when there are two or more different substituents → Number accordingly and write down the substituents in alphabetical order while

Peanut Prop 3
naming the compound .

Butter But 4 in receives the smallest

*
Identify the functional group and number a
way
that the functional group position .

the same
IUPAC :
international union *
identify double bonds and follow numbering system e .

of pure and applied chemistry

Notes
* If substituents are placed in different positions ,
add a comma to separate the numbers .

*
Number the chain in a way
that the substituent is in the smallest position in the parent chain .

*
Always remember to order alphabetically .

#
Ez

AL KENEMA
#

containingdoublec-cbondsformulaifcntb.NO
alkenes have the general alkenes : an uns# hydrocarbon compound

* Alkenes are easier to break because the double bond between carbon is weak .

* They are also more reactive than alkanes .

W¥¥ytcg ? catalytic cracking : the breakdown of long hydrocarbon chains into smaller hydrocarbon chains that have more important use .

Refinery Gases →
( LPG ) liquid Petroleum Gas for cooking
* Alkenes and hydrogen are * The process includes fractional distillation and is done in a fractionating column .

the products ( alkanes too) Gasoline → Fuel for ears

* crude oil is a hydrocarbon that has to be retired .
-

aeffhmeiwi thmcatanahdtssh.eu?tcon
" " tha chemicals
-
making
separated into fractions that vaporized and pass the
catalyst to break apart the
1/1/1
salts * are over
kerosene Aircraft fuel
L
→

f2aluminosat#
-

covalent bonds →
41¥ Diesel oil
#
→ tail for vehicles

¢
Heated
Fuel oil
* Heated
6009-7000 fractionating
→
too column : crude oil tail for ships power stations
✓ ,

K€11 Bitumen →
Making roads
* TOP low of
→ low boiling points ,
viscosity ,
less no .
carbon atoms .

Trends
lighter fractions
→
-

Are the that condense further up .

As you the
along
homologous
move
*
M p
BOTTOM → High boiling points high viscosity ,
more no .

of carbon atoms .

series →
B. p and . ,

increase because there are → Are the heavier fractions that condense near the bottom .

stronger inter molecular forces .

Addition * Alkenes undergo addition reactions that test their chemical properties .

* Reagents that are added breaks the C

-

-
C double bond and the molecule adds to free bond .

Bwminatioh :
differentia test di bromo ethane
Bwmination forms 1 2 -

:
,
-

between alkenes

)
H

(
and alkanes H
"

. -
H l l
l l ,
2 -

di bromo ethane ) C2H4 t Br , → I , 2 -

di bromo ethane

/ Brown to colourless
H
-

#
Br Br → H C
- -
- - -

c = c t
' ' l l
H
H ( Bromine)
Br Br
( Ethene)
 /

/
Hydrogenation : addition of Hydrogenation :
change vegetable oils to
margarine
hydrogen to form alkanes .

H
l
H
l
H
l r
H ( Ethane ) ( Ca H 4 t H2 →
Cz Ha
)
H
H
-

C = c -
H t H -

H - H - c -
C
T
l
H
H
( Hydrogen )
-

I ( Ethene)

Hydration : addition of Hydration :

Industrial Production of alcohols

c ,
,÷÷;m
* am .
. .. c. ..

.÷÷
. . .. ..
... . , . -

¥
.

. ,
.
.
.

+ .

. .

H
( steam) H o H
-

1607004mF
- ( Ethene )
#

Conc Phosphoric Acid

I
.

ALCOHOL
#
alcohol general formula : alcohols :
organic compound that contains the OH functional group hence it is not a hydrocarbon .

* Ethanol is one type of alcohol found in alcohol drinks .

✓
Used as fuel → wa and water when it combusts ( Ha instead of H2O in excess oxygen )
alcohol functional

group
:
he
Used as a solvent → -

OH group allows alcohol to

fully dissolve in water ( larger alcohol chains = less soluble )
( intermolecular ) amounts of energy to break bonds
-

|- * hydrogen force higher m p and B. p greater

bonds → →
contain strong
-

* Ethanol produces a blue flame

→
f Advantage
Disadvantage →
* Reaction with sodium → sodium substitutes H in -
OH .

÷:;÷÷÷÷÷ . ±;;÷÷
.. . . . .. . . .. ..
.. .

.÷ ± . . .. ..

/nnaerobicRespirati#
# ① starch ( sugar dissolved in water and yeast is added .

( → conditions aren't
I ② Mixture is fermented w/o oxygen → anaerobic respiration so extreme C Advantage )

/
Yeast as catalyst
is too low the reaction will be slow
If temp
enzymes get denatured and it
* . is too hot the temp .

* Ethanol produced is removed by distillation .

I 15°C 350C /
-

te -

CARBOXYLIC ACIDS
#

:÷ ÷ ÷ §÷ ÷ ÷ ÷ ÷
carboxylic acid general formula :
carboxylic acids : form different chain isomerism .

/CnH2ntI-C0
# * colourless liquids that are weak acids .

* React with alkaline solution → turn blue litmus red and form elhanoate salts .

Functional group :

* High B P and M.P → due to Hydrogen Bonding

-

* soluble →
Hydrogen Bonding

* characteristic smell .

÷÷÷mt÷÷÷÷÷t
-

strong Acid weak Acid

÷ :÷:÷÷÷÷:
"

weak acids :
partially dissociates low conc .
of Ht ions .
magnesium ( chemical ) rapid effervescence gentle effervescence
, -

Reactions of carboxylic Acids Hydroxides : CH z COO H t NaOH → CH z COO Na t H2O

-

CH z COOH carbonates 2C Hz COOH t Nazca → 2CHz COO Na t cost H2O

* Metal replaces It in
:

* Forms salt ethanoate Sodium : 2C Hz COOH t 2N a → LCH z COO Na t H2

*
Mainly etnanoic acid
 !
tha? Esterification :
the process in which carboxylic acids and alcohols react together to form esters in the presence of conc .
Has 04 .

Esters general formula :

* sweet smelling oily liquids →
food flavorings and perfumes
#

|CnH2nti E CnH2nH/
€
°

O 11
-
- -

Cz C O GHz
-
-
-

Functional group : alkyl alkanoate

( from alcohol ) ( from carboxylic acid )

÷÷÷÷÷÷
:÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷::÷÷÷÷:
H
I
H
l
H
l l

H
l
H H
l l

H
.±÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷
H
l l

H
l
H
H
l

H H
l

H
. ". .

POLYMERS
#

÷ ÷ ÷f
Wholym@? Polymers :
large macromolecules which are formed by the repeated combination of monomers .

natural * connected together by covalent bonds

* Two types of polymers are

and synthetic .

Monomers : simplest unit of a Addition Polymerisation

polymerisation
polymer which leads to
* that f- C double bonds
.

Joining up of many monomers only contain .

::÷m÷ti÷tt÷÷÷t÷÷÷'t ÷÷¥t÷÷÷'t
Polymerisation : the process in F F

n n
F F N

( Polyvinyl chloride) Poly butene from from

Teflon PVC
polystyrene poly butene
But -
I -

ene But -2 -
ene

condensation Polymerisation

* Monomer molecules are linked together with removal of water .

÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷÷i÷÷*i÷÷
"

..
*÷÷÷÷:÷:÷i.
Terepthalic Acid

* Amides A.K.A peptides Polyesters * Dion Acid and Terylene

fo of ¢! of
° Diols

eriaenimneaiyowiacidmd
*

i
11

Polyamides mum "

-

a. u o c.
-

:
-
- -
.

. .

and proteins
n

Polyesters :
Terylene and
Fats

proteins carbohydrates

! **oTm÷7I÷fg
¥ YnoYaYIa7n.mu.ws,
f I
"
"
f- of
Poly ethers :
carbohydrates

" o c

I H
-
-
- -
-

* pousmusarebaaar.ae
environment because :

-
Bio -

degradable Tryglyceride
fatty acids
produce greenhouse gases
-

glycerol °
* Ester linkage
o
11
when burned it

R CHI
-

O -

c -

R
cuz
-

o -

H H -

o -

C -

* Fatty Acids
when recycled expensive
-

→
°
I " I
o

11
→
t H O c
-

R R
CH O c
-
- -

- -

CH -
O -

H
l O O
11 1 11

CHI
-

O -

H H -

O -

c -
R CH z -
O -

c -