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Khalil Mikaela Compilation-Of-Algorithems PDF

The document discusses various numerical methods for solving systems of linear algebraic equations and other problems. It covers matrix forms, small-scale methods like graphical methods, Cramer's rule and elimination of unknowns. For large-scale systems it discusses Gaussian elimination with row pivoting, LU decomposition and iterative methods like the Jacobi and Gauss-Seidel methods. It also covers numerical methods for solving nonlinear equations, curve fitting, numerical integration, ordinary differential equations, and includes case studies and references.

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0% found this document useful (0 votes)
81 views49 pages

Khalil Mikaela Compilation-Of-Algorithems PDF

The document discusses various numerical methods for solving systems of linear algebraic equations and other problems. It covers matrix forms, small-scale methods like graphical methods, Cramer's rule and elimination of unknowns. For large-scale systems it discusses Gaussian elimination with row pivoting, LU decomposition and iterative methods like the Jacobi and Gauss-Seidel methods. It also covers numerical methods for solving nonlinear equations, curve fitting, numerical integration, ordinary differential equations, and includes case studies and references.

Uploaded by

Marlon C. Manalo
Copyright
© © All Rights Reserved
We take content rights seriously. If you suspect this is your content, claim it here.
Available Formats
Download as PDF, TXT or read online on Scribd
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1

TABLE OF CONTENTS

 INTRODUCTION

I. Solving Systems of Linear Algebraic Equation


 Matrix Form
 Small Scale
a. Graphical Method
b. Cramer’s Rule
c. Elimination of Unknowns
 Large Scale
d. Gaussian Elimination with Row Pivoting
e. LU Decomposition
f. Iteration Method
i. Jacobi Method
ii. Gauss-Seidel Method
I. Solving Systems of Linear Algebraic Equation
 Open Method
a. Fixed- Iteration method
b. Newton- Raphson Method
c. Secant Method
 Bracketing Method
a. Bisection Method
b. False-Position Method pr Regula-Falsi Method
II. Curve Fitting and Interpolation
a. Least Square Regression
b. Polynomial Regression
III. Numerical Integration
a. Euler’s Method
b. Trapezoidal Method
c. Simpson’s Rule
IV. Solution to ordinary Differential Equation
a. Range-Kutta Methods
V. Case Studies
VI. References
3

INTRODUCTION

Numerical methods are methods for solving mathematical issues that include
analytical techniques cannot easily or possibly solve the engineering analysis. An
approximate computer method known as a numerical method is used to solve
mathematical problems, many of which lack an analytical solution. These
problems, which arise in the natural sciences, social sciences, engineering,
medicine, and business, typically come from real-world applications of algebra,
geometry, and calculus and involve variables that change constantly.

In mathematics, linear algebra is used to describe issues that need the solution of
networks of linear and nonlinear equations. In applied mathematics, resolving
linear programming systems is a common challenge. The standard notation for
linear systems is Ax = b, where x is the column vector of the unknown variables
x1, xn, and b is a predetermined column vector.

The goal is to find a set of values that simultaneously satisfies a collection of linear
algebraic equations. In engineering, these equations come up in a number of issue
scenarios. They have their roots in the mathematical modeling of vast systems of
connected elements like structures, electric circuits, and fluid networks.

Given that they are both concerned with values that satisfy equations, these issues
have a similar mindset as equations' roots. The goal is to find a set of values that
simultaneously satisfies a collection of linear algebraic equations, as opposed to
attempting to fulfill a single equation. In all engineering disciplines, these
equations come up in a number of issue scenarios. Specifically, they have their
roots in the mathematical modeling of vast systems of connected elements like
structures, electric circuits, and fluid networks. However, they are also seen in
other numerical method domains like curve fitting and differential equations.
4

I. Solving Systems of Linear Algebraic Equation

MATRIX FORM

A matrix is a parenthetically encircled rectangular array (or arrangement) of


numbers. A matrix element is any individual number in the configuration. Here is a
matrix illustration.

Systems of parallel equations naturally contain matrices. For the unknowns x and
y in the system below,
2x + 3y = 7

the array of numbers

is a matrix with the coefficients of the unknowns as its elements. These values and
their specific arrangement are totally necessary for the equations' solution. The
answer would differ if the numbers 3 and 4 were switched.
5
6

 SMALL SCALE

a. GRAPHICAL METHOD

The graphical approaches provide a basic comprehensive description of the


geometric aspect of the graphs of answers. The computer performs the numerical
work and plots the solutions, and the numerical methods then produce the actual
graphs with the desired level of precision.

1. For example: Consider 2x + 4y = 9 ⇒ 3x + 6y = 27/2

The graphs for the preceding equations match. The answers to the equations are
the locations of each point on the lines. The above equations can therefore have an
endless number of solutions.

2. For example: 2x + 3y = 6 ⇒ 4x – 3y = 12
2x + 3(0) = 6 4x – 3(0) = 12

2x = 6 4x = 12

x = 3 (3,0) x=3
7

b. CRAMER’S RULE

One of the essential methods used to analyze a linear equation is Cramer's rule.
The determinants of matrices are used in this method to derive the values of the
system's variables. Thus, the determinant technique is another name for Cramer's
rule.

The AX=B form of the matrices can be solved using Cramer's rule formula, which
is simple to understand. The formula can be used to determine the values of the n
variables in a linear equation. The steps listed below must be followed in order to
solve the problem AX=B using Cramer's rule:

 We must identify the determinants for matrix A, x1, x2, x3,..., xn in order
to solve by Cramer's rule.
 For example, D = |A|, Dx1, Dx2, Dx3,..., Dxn, denotes each of these
determinant matrices.
 Here, the determinant values of |A| are represented by the D, and the
determinant values of the x matrix are represented by Dxn, where the nth
column is replaced by the values of B.
 We use the formula: once we have all of the determinant values for the
equations.
8

 As many equations as there are in the matrix can be solved using the
formula Xn=Dxn/D. Never forget that the value of D should never be
zero (D0).

1. FOR EXAMPLE:
.x+y–z=6

3x - 2y + z = -5

x + 3y – 2z = 14

1 1 -1 6

3 -2 1 -5

1 3 -2 14

DETERMINANT 1 1 -1
3 -2 1
1 3 -2

DX -3
6 1 -1
-5 -2 1
14 3 -2
9

DY -9 1 6 -1
3 -5 1
1 14 -2

DZ 6
1 1 6
3 -2 -5
1 3 14

THEREFORE,

x=1

y=3

z = -2

c. ELIMINATION OF UNKNOWNS

On the Addition Property of Equality, the Elimination Method is based. According


to the Addition Property of Equality, equality persists even if you add the same
amount to both sides of an equation. When you add the same amount to both sides
of an equation, the results are equal. This is an extension of the Addition Property
of Equality.

FOR EXAMPLE:

3x+6y=14

7x-6y=36
10

First of all, take note of the y terms' 6 and -6 coefficients. Since they are additive
inverses, the total of these two numbers is 0. Therefore, the y terms will cancel
each other out if we add these equations.

Let us break down the second equation into two parts to get things started. Each
section might be broken up and rewritten as follows:

7x-6y=z and z=36

7x-6y=20 proves that the claims are accurate. As a result, if one side of this
equation equals z, then both sides must also equal z.

Now, we can rewrite the first equation in our system, 3x+6y=14, using the
Addition Property of Equality as follows:

3x+6y+z = 14+z

…and then substitute in our values of z to get:

3x+6y+(7x-6y) = 14+36

10x = 50

x=5

Then, using one of our initial equations with 5 in place of x, we can find the value
of y.

7(5)-6y=36

y= -0.167
11

 LARGE SCALE

d. GAUSSIAN ELIMINATION WITH ROW PIVOTING

The pivot is the name of this entry. If necessary, switch the rows around so that the
pivot is on the top row. Because you are less likely to add or subtract with
extremely small (or extremely large) values when pivoting, rounding errors are
reduced.
12

1. FOR EXAMPLE

2q + x – y + 2r = 5

4q + 5x – 3y + 6r = 9

-2q + 5x – 2y + 6r = 4

4q + 11x – 4y + 8r = 2

q x y r B

2 1 -1 2 5
PIVOT
4 5 -3 6 9
M21 = 2

M31 = -1 -2 5 -2 6 4

M41 = 2 4 11 -4 8 2

q x y r B

2 1 -1 2 5

0 3 -1 2 -1
PIVOT

M32 = 2 0 6 -3 8 9

M42 = 3 0 9 -2 4 -8
13

q x y r B

2 1 -1 2 5

0 3 -1 2 -1

0 0 -1 4 11
PIVOT
0 0 1 -2 -5
M43 = -1

r=3
y=1
x = -2
q=1

LU DECOMPOSITION
Lower-upper (LU) decomposition or factorization factors a matrix as the product
of a lower triangular matrix and an upper triangular matrix in numerical analysis
and linear algebra (see matrix decomposition).

With the aid of the solved example provided below, let's learn how to solve a
system of linear equations in three variables using the LU Decomposition method.
14

The formula for AX = B is now:

LUX = B….(1)

Let's suppose UX = Y... (2)

From equations (1) and (2), we have;

LY = B

On solving this equation, we get y1, y2, y3.

And lastly, substituting Y in equation (2), we get UX = Y

By solving equation, we get X, x1, x2, x3.

FOR EXAMPLE: Use the LU decomposition method to calculate the system of


equations x1 + x2 + x3 = 1, 3x1 + x2 - 3x3 = 5, and x1 - 2x2 - 5x3 = 10.

Solution:
15

Given system of equations are:

x1 + x2 + x3 = 1

3x1 + x2 – 3x3 = 5

x1 – 2x2 – 5x3 = 10

These equations are written in the form of AX = B as:

Now let us put LU = A in front of the matrix above.

That implies,

The results of enlarging the left side matrices are;

the following results from equating the respective elements:


u11 = 1, u12 = 1, u13 = 1

l21u11 = 3,
16

l21u12 + u22 = 1,

u21u13 + u23 = -3

l31u11 = 1,

l31u12 + l32u22 = -2,

l31u13 + l32u23 + u33 = -5

These equations are solved to yield;


u22 = -2, u23 = -6, u33 = 3

l21 = 3, l31 = 1, l32 = 3/2

LUX = B

Let UX = Y

So, y1 = 1
3y1 + y2 = 5

y1 + (3/2)y2 + y3 = 10

Solving these equations, we get;

y1 = 1, y2 = 2, y3 = 6

Now, consider UX = Y. So,


17

By expanding this equation, we get;

x1 + x2 + x3 = 1

-2x2 – 6x3 = 2

3x3 = 6

Solving these equations, we can get;

x3 = 2, x2 = -7 and x1 = 6

As a result, the given system of equations' solution is (6, -7, 2).

ANOTHER EXAMPLE FOR SIMPLE WAY:

2a – b + 3c = 9
a+b+c=6
a–b+c=2

a b c B
2 -1 3 9
PIVOT
1 1 1 6
m21=0.5

m31=0.5 1 -1 1 2
18

a b c B
2 -1 3 9
PIVOT
0 1.5 -0.5 1.5
m32=
0 -0.5 -0.5 -2.5
-0.333

a b c B
2 -1 3 9
0 1.5 -0.5 1.5
0 0 -0.667 -2

A L

2 -1 3 1 0 0

1 1 1 0.5 1 0

1 -1 1 0.5 -0.333 1

2 -1 3

0 1.5 -0.5

0 0 -0.667
19

L Y B
1 0 0 Y1 9
0.5 1 0 Y2 6
0.5 -0.333 1 Y3 2

Y1 = 9

Y2 = 1.5

Y3 = -2

U X Y

2 -1 3 a 9

0 1.5 -0.5 b 1.5

c -2
0 0 -0.667

a=1

b=2

c=3
20

e. ITERATION METHOD

A mathematical technique known as an iterative method employs an


initial value to produce a series of improved approximations to a set of
problems, with each approximation building on the one before it.

To approximate the solution of transcendental and algebraic equations,


the fixed point iteration method is employed in numerical analysis.
Finding answers to cubic, bi-quadratic, and transcendental equations
can get very tiresome at times. In those cases, we can use specific
numerical methods to obtain the answer; one of these approaches is the
fixed point iteration method.

i. JACOBI METHOD

One iterative technique for roughly approximating a system of n linear equations


in n variables is the Jacobi method. The diagonally dominant system of linear
equations in numerical linear algebra is solved using the Jacobi iterative
technique, which is regarded as an iterative process. Each diagonal component is
given a rough value in this manner.

The method is repeated up to convergence. The Jacobi transformation process of


matrix diagonalization was the original name for this approach. Simultaneous
displacement method is another name for the Jacobi method.
21

The system of Ax = b linear equations with an initial estimate of x(0) is shown


below.

FOR EXAMPLE:

4x - y- z =3 x=(y+z+3)/4

(-2x) + 6y+ z= 9 y=(2x-z+9)/6

(-x) + y +7z =-6 z=(x-y-6)/7

x y z B

4 -1 -1 3

-2 6 1 9

-1 1 7 -6
22

k x y z
0 0 0 0
1 0.750 1.500 -0.857
2 0.911 1.893 -0.964
3 0.982 1.964 -0.997
4 0.992 1.994 -0.997
5 0.999 1.997 -1.000
6 0.999 2.000 -1.000
7 1.000 2.000 -1.000
8 1.000 2.000 -1.000
9 1.000 2.000 -1.000
10 1.000 2.000 -1.000
11 1.000 2.000 -1.000
12 1.000 2.000 -1.000
13 1.000 2.000 -1.000
14 1.000 2.000 -1.000

ii. GAUSS SEIDEL METHOD

The Gauss-Seidel methodology begins with projections and then iterates to obtain
accurate estimation of the result. The Gauss-Seidel technique is extremely well
suited to huge numbers of problems. When applying elimination techniques in
certain circumstances, round-off errors may happen. Since round-off error is
determined by the number of repeats, the Gauss-Seidel method does not have an
issue with it. Although there are situations where the Gauss-Seidel method will not
23

determine the correct answer. These and other trade-offs between iterative
techniques and elimination procedures will be covered in the pages that follow.

FOR EXAMPLE:

Solving these equations, we can get,


24

OPEN METHOD
Open approaches start with a first estimate at the root and then iteratively improve
the guess. Bracketing techniques usually work but converge slowly on an absolute
error estimate of the root's location. Open techniques, however, don't necessarily
converge.

a. FIXED POINT ITERATION

Algorithm of Fixed Point Iteration Method

 Select xo as the starting point for the iterative process. Finding the
values of x = a and x = b for which f(a) 0 and f(b) > 0 is one method of
selecting xo. Take xo as the average of a and b after limiting the options
for a and b.

 In order to ensure that |g'(x)| 1 at x = xo, express the above equation in


the form x = g(x). Choose the g(x) that has the lowest value of g'(x) at x =
xo if there are multiple possible g(x)s.

 If f is a continuous function, we can apply the successive approximations


xn = g(xn - 1) to obtain a sequence of xn that converges to a point lo that
is roughly the approximate solution to the given equation.

FOR EXAMPLE:

Find the first approximate root of the equation 2x3 – 2x – 5 = 0 up to 4 decimal


places.

Given f(x) = 2x3 – 2x – 5 = 0


25

According to the procedure, we must discover a and b such that f(a) 0 and f(b) > 0
before we can determine the value of xo.

Now, f(0) = – 5

f(1) = – 5

f(2) = 7

Thus, a = 1 and b = 2

Therefore, xo = (1 + 2)/2 = 1.5

We will now locate g(x) such that |g'(x)| 1 at x = xo.

2x3 – 2x – 5 = 0

⇒ x = [(2x + 5)/2]1/3

g(x) = [(2x + 5)/2]1/3 which satisfies |g’(x)| < 1 at x = 1.5

Now, applying the iterative method xn,= g(xn – 1) for n = 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, …

For n = 1; x1 = g(xo) = [{2(1.5) + 5}/2]1/3 = 1.5874

For n = 2; x2 = g(x1) = [{2(1.5874) + 5}/2]1/3 = 1.5989

For n = 3; x3 = g(x2) = [{2(1.5989) + 5}/2]1/3 = 1.60037

For n = 4; x4 = g(x3) = [{2(1.60037) + 5}/2]1/3 = 1.60057

For n = 5; x5 = g(x4) = [{2(1.60057) + 5}/2]1/3 = 1.60059

For n = 6; x6 = g(x5) = [{2(1.60059) + 5}/2]1/3 = 1.600597 ≈ 1.6006

The approximate root of 2x3 – 2x – 5 = 0 by the fixed point iteration method is


1.6006.
26

b. NEWTON RAPHSON

A collection of varied nonlinear equations with an equal number of unknowns can


be solved iteratively using the Newton-Raphson method. There are two ways to
solve the load flow problem using the Newton-Raphson approach.

The variables in the first technique are given rectangular coordinates, whereas
they are given polar coordinates in the second. Out of these two approaches, the
polar coordinate form is most frequently utilized. The Newton-Raphson method,
commonly referred to as Newton's method, is a rapid way to approximate the real-
valued function f (x) = 0 f(x) = 0 f(x)=0's root. It makes use of the notion that a
straight line tangent can serve as an approximation for a continuous and
differentiable function.

Using this formula:


27

c. SECANT METHOD

The secant method is a technique used in numerical analysis to locate roots of


secant lines in order to more accurately approximation the root of a function f.
Newton's method made use of the tangent line to the curve of y = f(x) with the point
of tangency (x0, f(x0). The graph of the tangent line at the point where x = and y =
f(x) coincide is nearly identical. To get a rough idea of, use the tangent line's root.

FOR EXAMPLE:
28

k Xo X1 f(Xo) f(X1) e
1 1.00000 2.00000 -1.00000 5.00000
2 2.00000 1.16667 5.000000 -0.57870 0.50000
3 1.16667 1.25311 -0.57870 -0.28536 -0.71429
4 1.25311 1.33721 -0.28536 0.05388 0.06898
5 1.33721 1.32385 0.05388 -0.00370 0.06289
6 1.32385 1.32471 -0.00370 -0.00004 -0.01009
7 1.32472 1.32472 -0.00004 0.00000 0.00065
8 1.32472 1.32472 0.00000 0.00000 0.00001
9 1.32472 1.32472 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000
10 1.32472 1.32472 0.00000 0.00000 0.00000

THEREFORE, ROOT = 1.32472

 BRACKETING METHOD

In qualitative research, bracketing is a technique intended to reduce the possibly


harmful impacts of assumptions that could taint the research process. However,
due in part to a move away from its phenomenological roots, the mechanisms by
which bracketing occurs are poorly understood.

a. BISECTION METHOD

The bisection method divides the interval repeatedly to approximatively determine


the roots of the given equation. The interval will be divided using this technique
until an incredibly small interval is discovered.
29

FOR EXAMPLE:

f(x)=8x^2’-3

interval (0.1, 2)
30
31

b. FALSE-POSITION METHOD

The false position method, also known as the regula falsi method, is a traditional
approach to solving one-variable equations in mathematics. Using "false" or "test"
values for the variable and then changing the test value in response to the outcome
is how the method is best expressed in plain English. This article will teach you
how to use the fake position approach to solve a one-variable equation.
Additionally, find here solved examples of the regula falsi approach.

FOR EXAMPLE
Given equation: 2ex sin x = 3
This can be written as: 2ex sin x – 3 = 0
Let f(x) = 2ex sin x – 3
So, f(0) = 2e0 sin 0 – 3
=0–3
= -3 < 0

And
f(1) = 2e1 sin 1 – 3
= 2e sin 1 – 3
= 1.5747 > 0
That means the root of f(x) lies between 0 and 1.
Let a = 0 and b = 1.

The first approximation = x1 = [af(b) – bf(a)]/ [f(b) – f(a)]


= [0(1.5747) – 1(-3)]/ [1.5747 – (-3)]
= 3/4.5747
= 0.6557
Thus, x1 = 0.6557
32

Now, substitute x = 0.6557 in f(x).


So, f(0.6557) = 2e0.6557 sin(0.6557) – 3
= 2.3493 – 3
= -0.6507 < 0

As we know, f(1) > 0


That means a root lies between 0.6557 and 1.
Let a = 0.6557

The second approximation = x2 = [af(x1) – x1f(a)]/ [f(x1) – f(a)]


= [0.6557(1.5747) – 1(-0.6507)]/ [1.5747 – (-0.6507)]
= (1.0325 + 0.6507)/(2.2254)
= 1.6832/2.2254
= 0.7563
Therefore, x2 = 0.7563

Let us substitute 0.7563 in f(x).


So, f(0.7563) = 2e0.7563 sin(0.7563) – 3
= 2.9239 – 3
= -0.0761 < 0
We know that f(1) > 0
Thus, a root lies between 0.7563 and 1.

Hence, the third approximation = x3 = [af(x2) – x2f(a)]/ [f(x2) – f(a)]


= [(0.7563)(1.5747) – 1(-0.0761)]/ [1.5747 – (-0.0761)]
= (1.1909 + 0.0761)/1.6508
= 1.2670/1.6508
= 0.7675
So, x3 = 0.7675

Therefore, the best approximation of the root up to three decimal places is 0.768 (up to three
decimal places).
33

 POLYNOMIAL INTERPOLATION AND CURVE FITTING

Polynomials are mathematical formulas that are commonly employed for problem-
solving and modeling. In many situations, an equation that is written in the course
of addressing a problem is a polynomial, and the answer to the problem is the zero
of the polynomial. When we fit our data to the graph of a polynomial function, we
are doing polynomial curve fitting. The polynomial of a certain degree with the
least overall error can be found using the same least squares method.

 WHAT IS REGRESSION?

- Regression analysis is a type of predictive modeling technique that looks at


how a dependent and independent variable are related. Regression is simply
"using the relationship between variables to determine the best fit line or the
regression equation that may be used to create predictions," to put it in
plain English.

a. LEAST SQUARE REGRESSION

The least square approach involves minimizing the sum of the squares of the offsets
(residual component) of the points from the curve to obtain the curve or line of best
fit that best fits a set of data points. The trend of the results is quantitatively
measured during the process of establishing a relationship between two variables.
Regression analysis is the name given to this technique. Curve fitting is a
technique for performing regression analysis. The least squares approach to
equation fitting approximates curves to provided raw data.

Y = a + bX

Y – Essay Grade a – Intercept b – Coefficient X – Time spent on Essa


34

FOR EXAMPLE:
35

64.45 = a + 30.63

a = 64.45 – 30.63

a = 30.18

THEREFORE, y=ax+b

y=30.18+6.49x
36

b. POLYNOMIAL REGRESSION

As a specific case of multiple linear regression, polynomial regression is a type of


linear regression that estimates the connection as an nth degree polynomial. Due
to the sensitivity of polynomial regression to outliers, the existence of one or two
outliers might potentially have a negative impact on results.

FOR EXAMPLE:

1. Seniors who have never used the Internet before are offered instruction.
A random sample of 5 individuals had their monthly Internet usage hours
tracked for a period of six months. Determine whether a quadratic regression
line is a good fit for the data.
37

 NUMERICAL INTEGRATION

The general concept behind numerical integration methods is the combination of


integrand evaluations to approximate the integral. A weighted sum of these values
is used to approximation the integral after the integrand is evaluated at a finite set
of places known as integration points.

a. Euler’s Method
Ordinary differential equations (ODE) can be solved using the Euler's method, a
first-order numerical technique, with a specified beginning value. At Euler's
approach, the curve of the solution can be roughly approximated at steps of h by
the tangent in each interval (i.e., by a series of brief line segments).

FOR EXAMPLE:

Find y(1), given:

Analytical calculations reveal that the answer is y = ex and y(1)= 2.71828. (Note:
The purpose of this analytical solution is only to compare accuracy.)

The outcomes of Euler's approach can be seen in the diagram below when h = 0.2,
0.1, and 0.01.
38

When h = 0.2, y(1) = 2.48832 (error = 8.46 %)

When h = 0.1, y(1) = 2.59374 (error = 4.58 %)

When h = 0.01, y(1) = 2.70481 (error = 0.50 %)

You can notice, how accuracy improves when steps are small.

b. TRAPEZOIDAL METHOD

The Trapezoidal Rule divides the whole area into smaller trapezoids rather than
utilizing rectangles to calculate the area under the curves. This integration
determines the area by approximating the region beneath a function's graph as a
trapezoid.

The trapezoidal rule, also known as the trapezoid rule or trapezium rule, is a
method for approximating the definite integral in mathematics, more specifically in
numerical analysis.
39

The region under the graph of the function f(x) is approximated to be a trapezoid
in the trapezoidal rule, and its area is calculated.

The trapezoidal rule is a numerical approach to determine the precise value of a


specified integral. The Newton-Cotes formula, which claims that one may get the
exact value of the integral as an nth order polynomial, serves as the basic
foundation for this rule.

FOR EXAMPLE:

0 3 6 9 12

∆x= 3
T4 594
40

c. SIMPSON’s RULE

One of the numerical techniques used to calculate the definite integral is Simpson's
rule. Typically, we employ the calculus fundamental theorem to get the definite
integral, which requires us to use antiderivative integration techniques. Finding
the antiderivative of an integral can be challenging, though, especially in scientific
experiments where the function must be known. based on the recorded readings.
Therefore, to estimate the integral, numerical techniques are required.

FOR EXAMPLE:

0 3 6 9 12

∆x= 3
T4 576
41

 SOLUTION TO ORDINARY DIFFERENTIAL EQUATION

a. Range-Kutta Methods

The Runge-Kutta method is a reliable and popular approach for resolving


differential equation initial-value issues. Without the necessity for high order
derivatives of functions, the Runge-Kutta method can be utilized to build high
order accurate numerical methods by functions alone.

FOR EXAMPLE:
42

 CASE STUDIES

1. CASE STUDY LINEAR EQUATIONS (SMALL SCALE)

x−7=7(y−7)

x−7=7y−49

x−7y=−49+7

x−7y=−42

x+3=3(y+3)

x+3=3y+9

x−3y=9−3

x−3y=6

From the graph we can see that two lines will intersect at a point.

x−7y=−42

x−3y=6
43

On subtracting the two equations, we get

4y=48

or y=12

Substituting value of y in (2),

x−36=6

∴x=42
44

2. CASE STUDY LINEAR EQUATION (LARGE SCALE)


45
46
47

3. CASE STUDY (POLYNOMIAL INTERPOLATION


48

REFERENCES

Euler integration method for solving differential equations – x-engineer.org.


(n.d.). xengineer.org. Retrieved from https://x-engineer.org/euler-integration/

Kiusalaas, J. (n.d.). Chapter 3: Interpolation and Curve Fitting |


Engineering360.

GlobalSpec. Retrieved from

https://www.globalspec.com/reference/72167/203279/chapter-3-interpolation-
andcurve-fitting

Least Square Method - Formula, Definition, Examples. (n.d.). Cuemath.


Retrieved from

https://www.cuemath.com/data/least-squares/

Least Squares Fitting--Polynomial -- from Wolfram MathWorld. (n.d.).


Wolfram

MathWorld. Retrieved from

https://mathworld.wolfram.com/LeastSquaresFittingPolynomial.html

Runge Kutta RK4 Method | Fourth Order Runge Kutta Method. (n.d.).
Byju's. Retrieved

from https://byjus.com/maths/runge-kutta-rk4-method/

Seeburger, P. (2021, July 25). 2.5: Numerical Integration - Midpoint,


Trapezoid,

Simpson's rule - Mathematics LibreTexts. Math LibreTexts. Retrieved from

https://math.libretexts.org/Courses/Mount_Royal_University/MATH_2200%
3A_

Calculus_for_Scientists_II/2%3A_Techniques_of_Integration/2.5%3A_Nume
rical
49

_Integration_-_Midpoint%2C_Trapezoid%2C_Simpson's_rule

What is polynomial interpolation? | Definition from TechTarget. (n.d.).


TechTarget.

Retrieved from
https://www.techtarget.com/whatis/definition/polynomialinterpolation

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