A Problem

The following describes a problem which will help us to think about

finding/designing the best (efficient) data structures and algorithms for its
solution.

- We want to store a large number integers.

- We will get the integers from the user.
- At any time the user can insert, delete or search for an integer.
- For simplicity we will assume that the integers will be stored in the RAM
(not on the hard disk)

- What type of data structures and algorithms can we use for an efficient
solution?
 Array
0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

10 15 20 90 45 80 90 100 120

NOTES
- insert(40)
- search(90)
- deleteAt(0)
- Use a variable to store the size of the list.

- arrayListType<char> list;
- list.insert(‘a’)
- list.delete(‘f’)
 Array-based list Linked-list based list

sorted unsorted sorted unsorted

search O(lgn) O(n) O(n) O(n)

insert O(n) O(1) O(n) O(1)

Time
Complexity
delete O(n) O(n) O(n) O(n)

deleteAt O(n) O(1) O(n) O(n)

Data Structures Using C++ 2E

Data Structures Using C++ 2E

Chapter 3
Array-based Lists
 Array-Based Lists

• List
– Collection of elements of same type
• Length of a list
– Number of elements in the list
• Many operations may be performed on a list
• Store a list in the computer’s memory
– Using an array

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 5

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)
• Three variables needed to maintain and process a
list in an array
– The array holding the list elements
– A variable to store the length of the list
• Number of list elements currently in the array
– A variable to store array size
• Maximum number of elements that can be stored in the
array
• Desirable to develop generic code
– Used to implement any type of list in a program
– Make use of templates

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 6

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)

• Define class implementing list as an abstract data

type (ADT)

FIGURE 3-29 UML class diagram

of the class arrayListType
Data Structures Using C++ 2E 7
 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)

• Definitions of functions isEmpty, isFull,

listSize and maxListSize

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 8

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)

• Template print (outputs the elements of the list)

and template isItemAtEqual

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 9

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)

• Template insertAt

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 10

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)

• Template insertEnd and template removeAt

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 11

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)
• Template replaceAt and template clearList

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 12

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)
• Definition of the constructor and the destructor

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 13

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)

• Copy constructor
– Called when object passed as a (value) parameter to
a function
– Called when object declared and initialized using the
value of another object of the same type
– Copies the data members of the actual object into the
corresponding data members of the formal parameter
and the object being created

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 14

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)

• Copy constructor (cont’d.)

– Definition

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 15

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)

• Overloading the assignment operator

– Definition of the function template

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 16

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)
• Searching for an element
– Linear search example: determining if 27 is in the list
– Definition of the function template

FIGURE 3-32 List of seven elements

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 17

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)

• Inserting an element

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 18

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)

• Removing an element

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 19

 Array-Based Lists (cont’d.)
TABLE 3-1 Time complexity of list operations

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 20

 Programming Exercises

• Chapter 3 – Exercise 1
• Chapter 3 – Exercise 2
• Chapter 3 – Exercise 3
• Chapter 3 – Exercise 4

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 21

Data Structures Using C++ 2E

Chapter 5
Linked Lists
 Objectives

• Learn about linked lists

• Become aware of the basic properties of linked lists
• Explore the insertion and deletion operations on
linked lists
• Discover how to build and manipulate a linked list
• Learn how to construct a doubly linked list
• Become aware of circular linked lists

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 23

 Linked Lists

• Collection of components (nodes)

– Every node (except last)
• Contains address of the next node
• Node components
– Data: stores relevant information
– Link: stores address

FIGURE 5-1 Structure of a node

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 24

 Linked Lists (cont’d.)
• Head (first)
– Address of the first node in the list
• Arrow points to node address
– Stored in node
• Down arrow in last node indicates NULL link field

FIGURE 5-2 Linked list

FIGURE 5-3 Linked list and values of the links

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 25
 Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Two node components

– Declared as a class or struct
• Data type depends on specific application
– Link component: pointer
• Data type of pointer variable: node type itself

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 26

 Linked Lists: Some Properties

• Head stores address of first node

• Info stores information
• Link stores address of next node
– Assume info type int
TABLE 5-1 Values of head and some of
the nodes of the linked list in Figure 5-4
FIGURE 5-4 Linked list with four
nodes

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 27

Linked Lists: Some Properties (cont’d.)

• Pointer current: same type as pointer head

– current = head;
• Copies value of head into current
– current = current->link;
• Copies value of current->link (2800) into
current

FIGURE 5-5 List after the statement

current = current->link; executes

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 28

Linked Lists: Some Properties (cont’d.)

FIGURE 5-5 List after the statement

current = current->link; executes

TABLE 5-2 Values of current, head, and

some of the nodes of the linked list in Figure
5-5

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 29

 Traversing a Linked List

• Basic linked list operations

– Search list to determine if particular item is in the list
– Insert item in list
– Delete item from list
• These operations require list traversal
– Given pointer to list first node, we must step through
list nodes

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 30

 Traversing a Linked List (cont’d.)

• Suppose head points to a linked list of numbers

• Code outputting data stored in each node

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 31

 Item Insertion and Deletion

TABLE 5-3 Inserting a node in a linked list

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 32

 Item Insertion and Deletion (cont’d.)

• Sequence of statements to insert node

– Very important
• Use only one pointer (p) to adjust links of the nodes
• Using two pointers
– Can simplify insertion code somewhat

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 33

 Item Insertion and Deletion (cont’d.)

• Memory still occupied by node after deletion

– Memory is inaccessible
– Deallocate memory using a pointer to this node

FIGURE 5-10 List after the statement

p->link = p->link->link; executes

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 34

 Building a Linked List
• If linked list data unsorted
– Linked list unsorted
• Ways to build linked list
– Forward
• New node always inserted at end of the linked list
• See example on page 274
• See function buildListForward on page 277
– Backward
• New node always inserted at the beginning of the list
• See example on page 277
• See function buildListBackward on page 278

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 35

 Linked List as an ADT

• 11 basic operations
• Two types of linked lists: sorted, unsorted
• class linkedListType
– Implements basic linked list operations as an ADT
– Derive two classes using inheritance
• unorderedLinkedList and orderedLinkedList
• Unordered linked list functions
– buildListForward and buildListBackward
– Two more functions accommodate both operations
• insertFirst and insertLast
Data Structures Using C++ 2E 38
 Structure of Linked List Nodes

• Node has two instance variables

– Simplify operations (insert, delete)
• Define class to implement linked list node as a struct
• Definition of the struct nodeType

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 39

 Member Variables of the class
linkedListType
• class linkedListType
– Three instance variables

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 40

 Linked List Iterators

• To process each node

– Must traverse list starting at first node
• Iterator
– Object producing each element of a container
– One element at a time
• Operations on iterators: ++ and *
• See code on pages 280-281
– class linkedListType
– Functions of class linkedListIterator

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 41

 Linked List Iterators (cont’d.)

• Abstract class linkedListType

– Defines basic properties of a linked list as an ADT
– See code on page 282
– Empty list: first is NULL
• Definition of function isEmptyList

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 42

 Linked List as an ADT (cont’d.)

• Default constructor
– Initializes list to an empty state
• Destroy the list
– Deallocates memory occupied by each node
• Initialize the list
– Reinitializes list to an empty state
• Must delete the nodes (if any) from the list
– Default constructor, copy constructor
• Initialized list when list object declared

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 43

 Linked List as an ADT (cont’d.)

• Print the list

– Must traverse the list starting at first node
• Length of a list
– Number of nodes stored in the variable count
– Function length
• Returns value of variable count
• Retrieve the data of the first node
– Function front
• Returns the info contained in the first node
• If list is empty, assert statement terminates program
Data Structures Using C++ 2E 46
 Linked List as an ADT (cont’d.)

• Retrieve the data of the last node

– Function back
• Returns info contained in the last node
• If list is empty, assert statement terminates program
• Begin and end
– Function begin returns an iterator to the first node in
the linked list
– Function end returns an iterator to the last node in the
linked list

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 47

 Linked List as an ADT (cont’d.)

• Copy the list

– Makes an identical copy of a linked list
• Create node called newNode
• Copy node info (original list) into newNode
• Insert newNode at the end of list being created
– See function copyList on page 289

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 48

 Linked List as an ADT (cont’d.)

• Destructor
– When class object goes out of scope
• Deallocates memory occupied by list nodes
– Memory allocated dynamically
• Resetting pointers first and last
– Does not deallocate memory
– Must traverse list starting at first node
• Delete each node in the list
– Calling destroyList destroys list

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 49

 Linked List as an ADT (cont’d.)

• Copy constructor
– Makes identical copy of the linked list
– Function copyListc checks whether original list
empty
• Checks value of first
– Must initialize first to NULL
• Before calling the function copyList
• Overloading the assignment operator
– Similar to copy constructor definition

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 50

 TABLE 5-6 Time-complexity of the operations of the
class linkedListType

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 51

 Unordered Linked Lists

• Derive class unorderedLinkedList from the

abstract class linkedListType
– Implement the operations search, insertFirst,
insertLast, deleteNode
• See code on page 292
– Defines an unordered linked list as an ADT
– class unorderedLinkedList

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 52

 Unordered Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Search the list

– Steps
• Step one: Compare the search item with the current
node in the list. If the info of the current node is the
same as the search item, stop the search; otherwise,
make the next node the current node
• Step two: Repeat Step one until either the item is found
or no more data is left in the list to compare with the
search item
– See function search on page 293

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 53

 Unordered Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Insert the first node

– Steps
• Create a new node
• If unable to create the node, terminate the program
• Store the new item in the new node
• Insert the node before first
• Increment count by one
– See function insertFirst on page 294

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 55

 Unordered Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Insert the last node

– Similar to definition of member function
insertFirst
– Insert new node after last
– See function insertLast on page 294

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 57

 Unordered Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Delete a node
– Consider the following cases:
• The list is empty
• The list is nonempty and the node to be deleted is the
first node
• The list is nonempty and the node to be deleted is not
the first node, it is somewhere in the list
• The node to be deleted is not in the list
– See pseudocode on page 295
– See definition of function deleteNode on page 297

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 58

 Unordered Linked Lists (cont’d.)
TABLE 5-7 Time-complexity of the operations of the
class unorderedLinkedList

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 60

 Header File of the Unordered Linked
List
• Create header file defining class
unorderedListType
– See class unorderedListType code on page
299
• Specifies members to implement basic properties of an
unordered linked list
• Derived from class linkedListType

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 61

 Ordered Linked Lists

• Derive class orderedLinkedList from class

linkedListType
– Provide definitions of the abstract functions:
• insertFirst, insertLast, search, deleteNode
– Ordered linked list elements are arranged using some
ordering criteria
• Assume elements of an ordered linked list arranged in
ascending order
• See class orderedLinkedList on pages 300-
301

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 62

 Ordered Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Search the list

– Steps describing algorithm
• Step one: Compare the search item with the current
node in the list. If the info of the current node is greater
than or equal to the search item, stop the search;
otherwise, make the next node the current node
• Step two: Repeat Step one until either an item in the list
that is greater than or equal to the search item is found,
or no more data is left in the list to compare with the
search item

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 63

 Ordered Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Insert a node
– Find place where new item goes
• Insert item in the list
– See code on page 304
• Definition of the function insert

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 64

 Ordered Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Insert a node (cont’d.)

– Consider the following cases

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 65

 Ordered Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Insert first and insert last

– Function insertFirst
• Inserts new item at beginning of the list
• Must be inserted at the proper place
– Function insertLast
• Inserts new item at the proper place

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 66

 Ordered Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Delete a node
– Several cases to consider
– See function deleteNode code on page 306

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 67

 Ordered Linked Lists (cont’d.)

TABLE 5-8 Time-complexity of the operations of

the class orderedLinkedList

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 68

 Header File of the Ordered Linked List

• See code on page 308

– Specifies members to implement the basic properties
of an ordered linked list
– Derived from class linkedListType
• See test program on page 309
– Tests various operations on an ordered linked list

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 69

 Doubly Linked Lists
• Traversed in either direction
• Typical operations
– Initialize the list
– Destroy the list
– Determine if list empty
– Search list for a given item
– Insert an item
– Delete an item, and so on
• See code on page 311
– Class specifying members to implement properties of
an ordered doubly linked list
Data Structures Using C++ 2E 70
 Doubly Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Linked list in which every node has a next pointer

and a back pointer

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 71

 Doubly Linked Lists (cont’d.)

– Every node contains address of next node

• Except last node
– Every node contains address of previous node
• Except the first node

FIGURE 5-27 Doubly linked list

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 72

 Doubly Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Default constructor
– Initializes the doubly linked list to an empty state
• isEmptyList
– Returns true if the list empty
• Otherwise returns false
– List empty if pointer first is NULL

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 73

 Doubly Linked Lists (cont’d.)
• Destroy the list
– Deletes all nodes in the list
• Leaves list in an empty state
• Traverse list starting at the first node; delete each node
• count set to zero
• Initialize the list
– Reinitializes doubly linked list to an empty state
• Can be done using the operation destroy
• Length of the list
– Length of a linked list stored in variable count
• Returns value of this variable
Data Structures Using C++ 2E 74
 Doubly Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Print the list

– Outputs info contained in each node
• Traverse list starting from the first node
• Reverse print the list
– Outputs info contained in each node in reverse order
• Traverse list starting from the last node
• Search the list
– Function search returns true if searchItem found
• Otherwise, it returns false
– Same as ordered linked list search algorithm
Data Structures Using C++ 2E 75
 Doubly Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• First and last elements

– Function front returns first list element
– Function back returns last list element
– If list empty
• Functions terminate the program

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 76

 Doubly Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Insert a node
– Four cases
• Case 1: Insertion in an empty list
• Case 2: Insertion at the beginning of a nonempty list
• Case 3: Insertion at the end of a nonempty list
• Case 4: Insertion somewhere in a nonempty list
• Cases 1 and 2 requirement: Change value of the
pointer first
• All Cases: After inserting an item, count incremented by
one

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 77

 Doubly Linked Lists (cont’d.)

• Insert a node (cont’d.)

– Figures 5-28 and 5-29 illustrate case 4
– See code on page 317
• Definition of the function insert

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 78

 Doubly Linked Lists (cont’d.)
• Delete a node
– Four cases
• Case 1: The list is empty
• Case 2: The item to be deleted is in the first node of the
list, which would require us to change the value of the
pointer first
• Case 3: The item to be deleted is somewhere in the list
• Case 4: The item to be deleted is not in the list
– See code on page 319
• Definition of function deleteNode

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 79

 Circular Linked Lists

• Last node points to the first node

• Basic operations
– Initialize list (to an empty state), determine if list is
empty, destroy list, print list, find the list length, search
for a given item, insert item, delete item, copy the list

FIGURE 5-34 Circular linked lists

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 80
 Summary
• Linked list topics
– Traversal, searching, inserting, deleting
• Building a linked list
– Forward, backward
• Linked list as an ADT
• Unordered linked lists
• Ordered linked lists
• Doubly linked lists
• Circular linked lists

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 81

 Programming Exercises (1/2 )
• Chapter 5 – Exercise 2

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 82

 Programming Exercises (2/2 )
• Chapter 5 – Exercise 6

Data Structures Using C++ 2E 83