3.
4 | Ionic Compounds 81
Formulas of Ionic Compounds
We have noted that metals combine with nonmetals to form ionic compounds. In such
reactions, metal atoms lose one or more electrons to become positively charged ions and
nonmetal atoms gain one or more electrons to become negatively charged ions. In refer-
ring to these particles, a positively charged ion is called a cation (pronounced CAT-i-on)
and a negatively charged ion is called an anion (pronounced AN-i-on).1 Thus, solid NaCl
is composed of sodium cations and chloride anions.
Ions of Representative Metals and Nonmetals
The periodic table can help us remember the kinds of ions formed by many of the repre-
sentative elements (elements in the A-groups of the periodic table). For example, except
for hydrogen, the neutral atoms of the Group 1A elements always lose one electron each
when they react, thereby becoming ions with a charge of 1+. Similarly, atoms of the
Group 2A elements always lose two electrons when they react, so these elements always
form ions with a charge of 2+. In Group 3A, the only important positive ion we need
consider now is that of aluminum, Al3+; an aluminum atom loses three electrons when it
reacts to form this ion.
All these ions are listed in Table 3.3. Notice that the number of positive charges on each of
the cations is the same as the group number when we use the North American numbering of the
groups in the periodic table. Thus, sodium is in Group 1A and forms an ion with a 1+
Predicting cation charge
charge, barium (Ba) is in Group 2A and forms an ion with a 2+ charge, and aluminum is
in Group 3A and forms an ion with a 3+ charge. Although this generalization doesn’t
work for all the metallic elements (for example, the transition elements), it does help us
remember what happens to the metallic elements of Groups 1A and 2A and aluminum
when they react.
Among the nonmetals on the right side of the periodic table we also find some useful
generalizations. For example, when they combine with metals, the halogens (Group 7A)
form ions with one negative charge (written as 1-) and the nonmetals in Group 6A form
ions with two negative charges (written as 2-). Notice that the number of negative charges
on the anion is equal to the number of spaces to the right that we have to move in the periodic
table to get to a noble gas.
Predicting anion charge
Two steps, so oxygen
forms O2−.
N O F Ne
Three steps, so nitrogen
forms N3−.
Table 3.3 Some Ions Formed from the Representative Elements
Group Number
1A 2A 3A 4A 5A 6A 7A
+
H
Li+ Be2+ C4- N3- O2- F-
Na+ Mg2+ Al3+ Si4- P3- S2- Cl-
K+ Ca2+ Se2- Br-
Rb+ Sr2+ Te2- I-
Cs+ Ba2+
1
The names cation and anion come from the way the ions behave when electrically charged metal plates called
electrodes are dipped into a solution that contains them. We will discuss this in detail in Chapter 20.
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82 Chapter 3 | Elements, Compounds, and the Periodic Table
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
n A substance is electrically neutral, All chemical compounds are electrically neutral, so the ions in an ionic compound always
with a net charge of zero, if the occur in a ratio such that the total positive charge is equal to the total negative charge. This
total positive charge equals the total
is why the formula for sodium chloride is NaCl; the l-to-l ratio of Na+ to Cl- gives electri-
negative charge.
cal neutrality. In addition, as we’ve already mentioned, discrete molecules do not exist in
ionic compounds, so we always use the smallest set of subscripts that specify the correct
ratio of the ions. The following, therefore, are the rules we use in writing the formulas of
ionic compounds.
Rules for Writing Formulas of Ionic Compounds
1. The positive ion is given first in the formula. (This isn’t required by nature, but it is a
Formulas for ionic custom we always follow.)
compounds 2. The subscripts in the formula must produce an electrically neutral formula unit.
(Nature does require electrical neutrality.)
3. The subscripts should be the smallest set of whole numbers possible. For instance, if
all subscripts are even, divide them by 2. (You may have to repeat this simplification
step several times.)
4. The charges on the ions are not included in the finished formula for the substance.
When a subscript is 1 it is left off; no subscript implies a subscript of 1.
Example 3.3
Writing Formulas for Ionic Compounds
Write the formulas for the ionic compounds formed from (a) Ba and S, (b) Al and Cl, and
(c) Al and O.
n Analysis: To correctly write the formula, determine the charges on the anion and the
cation and then follow the rules for writing ionic compounds listed above.
n Assembling the Tools: First, we need the tool to figure out the charges of the ions
from the periodic table. Then we apply the tool that summarizes the rules for writing the
formula of ionic compounds.
n Solution:
(a) The element Ba is in Group 2A, so the charge on its ion is 2+. Sulfur is in Group
6A, so its ion has a charge of 2-. Therefore, the ions are Ba2+ and S2-. Since the charges
are equal but opposite, a 1-to-1 ratio will give a neutral formula unit. Therefore, the for-
mula is BaS. Notice that we have not included the charges on the ions in the finished
formula.
(b) By using the periodic table, the ions of these elements are Al3+ and Cl-. We can
obtain a neutral formula unit by combining one Al3+ with three Cl-. (The charge on Cl
is 1-; the 1 is understood.)
1(3+) + 3(1-) = 0
The formula is AlCl3.
(c) For these elements, the ions are Al3+ and O2-. In the formula we seek there must be
the same number of positive charges as negative charges. This number must be a
whole-number multiple of both 3 and 2. The smallest number that satisfies this condition
is 6, so there must be two Al3+ and three O2- in the formula.
2Al3+ 2(3+) = 6+
3O2- 3(2-) = 6-
sum = 0
The formula is Al2O3.
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3.4 | Ionic Compounds 83
A “trick” you may have seen before is to use the number of positive charges for the sub-
script of the anion and the number of negative charges as the subscript for the cation as
shown in the diagram.
Al 3 + O 2 −
When using this method, always be sure to check that the subscripts cannot be reduced
to smaller numbers.
n Are the Answers Reasonable? In writing a formula, there are two things to check.
First, be sure you’ve correctly written the formulas of the ions. (This is often the main
reason for a lot of mistakes.) Then check that you’ve combined them in a ratio that gives
electrical neutrality. Performing these checks assures us we’ve got the right answers.
3.10 | Write formulas for ionic compounds formed from (a) Na and F, (b) Na and O, Practice Exercises
(c) Mg and F, and (d) Al and C. (Hint: One element must form a cation, and the other will
form an anion based on its position in the periodic table.)
3.11 | Write the formulas for the compounds made from (a) Ca and N, (b) Al and Br,
(c) K and S, (d) Cs and Cl.
Many of our most important chemicals are ionic compounds. We have mentioned
NaCl, common table salt, and CaCl2, which is a substance often used to melt ice on walk-
ways in the winter. Other examples are sodium fluoride, NaF, used by dentists to give fluo-
ride treatments to teeth, and calcium oxide, CaO, an important ingredient in cement.
Cations of Transition and Post-transition Metals
The transition elements are located in the center of the periodic table, from Group 3B on
the left to Group 2B on the right (Groups 3 to 12 if using the IUPAC system). All of them
lie to the left of the metalloids, and they all are metals. Included here are some of our most
familiar metals, including iron, chromium, copper, silver, and gold.
Most of the transition metals are much less reactive than the metals of Groups 1A and Transition metals
2A, but when they react they also transfer electrons to nonmetal atoms to form ionic com-
pounds. However, the charges on the ions of the transition metals do not follow as straight-
forward a pattern as do those of the alkali and alkaline earth metals. One of the characteristic
features of the transition metals is the ability of many of them to form more than one posi-
tive ion. Iron, for example, can form two different ions, Fe2+ and Fe3+. This means that
Post-transition metals
iron can form more than one compound with a given nonmetal. For example, with chlo-
ride ion, Cl-, iron forms two compounds, with the formulas FeCl2 and FeCl3. With Distribution of transition and
oxygen, we find the compounds FeO and Fe2O3. As usual, we see that the formulas con- post-transition metals in the
tain the ions in a ratio that gives electrical neutrality. Some of the most common ions of periodic table.
the transition metals are given in Table 3.4. Notice that one of the ions of mercury is
diatomic Hg 22+. It consists of two Hg+ ions joined by the same kind of bond found in
molecular substances. The simple Hg+ ion does not exist.
3.12 | Write formulas for the chlorides and oxides formed by (a) chromium and (b) copper. Practice Exercises
(Hint: There are more than one chloride and one oxide for each of these transition metals.)
3.13 | Write the formulas for the sulfides and nitrides of (a) gold and (b) titanium.
The post-transition metals are those metals that occur in the periodic table immediately n The prefix post means “after.”
following a row of transition metals. The two most common and important ones are tin
(Sn) and lead (Pb). Except for bismuth, post-transition metals have the ability to form two
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84 Chapter 3 | Elements, Compounds, and the Periodic Table
different ions and therefore two different compounds with a given nonmetal. For example,
tin forms two oxides, SnO and SnO2. Lead also forms two oxides that have similar formulas
(PbO and PbO2). The ions that these metals form are also included in Table 3.4.
Compounds Containing Polyatomic Ions
The ionic compounds that we have discussed so far have been binary compounds—com-
pounds formed from two different elements. There are many other ionic compounds that
Polyatomic ions contain more than two elements. These substances usually contain polyatomic ions, which
are ions that are themselves composed of two or more atoms linked by the same kinds of
bonds that hold molecules together. Polyatomic ions differ from molecules, however, in
that they contain either too many or too few electrons to make them electrically neutral.
n A substance is diatomic if it is Table 3.5 lists some important polyatomic ions. It is very important that you learn the
composed of molecules that contain formulas, charges, and names of all of these ions.
only two atoms. It is a binary compound
if it contains two different elements,
The formulas of compounds formed from polyatomic ions are determined in the same
regardless of the number of each. way as are those of binary ionic compounds: the ratio of the ions must be such that the
Thus, BrCl is a binary compound formula unit is electrically neutral, and the smallest set of whole-number subscripts is
and is also diatomic; CH4 is a binary used. One difference in writing formulas with polyatomic ions is that parentheses are
compound but is not diatomic. needed around the polyatomic ion if a subscript is required.
Ions of Some Transition Metals Table 3.5 Formulas and Names of Some Polyatomic Ions
Table 3.4 and Post-transition Metals Ion Name (Alternate Name in Parentheses)
Transition Metals NH4+ Ammonium ion
Titanium Ti2+, Ti3+, Ti4+ H3O+ Hydronium iona
Chromium Cr2+, Cr3+ OH- Hydroxide ion
Manganese Mn2+, Mn3+ CN- Cyanide ion
Iron Fe2+, Fe3+ NO2- Nitrite ion
Cobalt Co2+, Co3+ NO3- Nitrate ion
Nickel Ni2+ ClO- or OCl- Hypochlorite ion
Copper Cu+, Cu2+ ClO2- Chlorite ion
Zinc Zn2+ ClO3- Chlorate ion
Silver Ag+ ClO4- Perchlorate ion
Cadmium Cd2+ MnO 4- Permanganate ion
Gold Au+, Au3+ C2H3O2- Acetate ion
Mercury Hg22+, Hg2+ C2O 42- Oxalate ion
Post-transition Metals CO 32- Carbonate ion
Tin Sn2+, Sn4+ HCO3- Hydrogen carbonate ion (bicarbonate ion)b
Lead Pb2+, Pb4+ SO32- Sulfite ion
Bismuth Bi3+ HSO3- Hydrogen sulfite ion (bisulfite ion)b
SO 42- Sulfate ion
HSO 4- Hydrogen sulfate ion (bisulfate ion)b
SCN- Thiocyanate ion
S2O 32- Thiosulfate ion
n In general, polyatomic ions are not formed by the direct
CrO 42- Chromate ion
combination of elements. They are the products of reactions
between compounds. Cr2O 72- Dichromate ion
PO43- Phosphate ion
HPO 42- Monohydrogen phosphate ion
H2PO 4- Dihydrogen phosphate ion
a
You will only encounter this ion in aqueous solutions.
b
You will often see and hear the alternate names for these ions.
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