BIOCHEMISTRY REVIEWER

INTRODUCTION
 BIO means life
 CHEMISTRY means the study of structure, properties, composition, and changes (SPCC) of
matter
 EUKARYOTIC CELL is a true cell
 Cell membrane regulates the transport of materials entering and exiting the cell.

COMPOSITION OF THE CELL

 Phospholipid
- main chemical composition of an animal membrane

 Glycoproteins and Glycolipid

Glycoproteins: protein with carbohydrate attached
Glycolipid: lipid with carbohydrate attached
 Cholesterol
- main precursor of all steroids (ex. Cortisone – anti-inflammatory)
 Arachidonic Acid

ORGANELLES

 MITOCHONDRION
- powerhouse of the cell

3 Parts of Mitochondria:

 Mitochondrial Matrix
- where KREB’s cycle occurs
 Cristae
- site of ETC (electron transport chain)
 Intermembrane space
- the space between the outer and inner membrane
 LYSOSOMES
- “Garbage Collector”
- contains digestive enzymes
 - Absence of lysosomes may lead to accumulation of waste in the cell making it toxic causing
diseases such as cancer
- Tay-Sachs Disease
- Aids in APOPTOSIS
- Programmed Cell Death
 RIBOSOMES
- Site of Protein Synthesis
- 2 subunits
 Small Ribosomal Unit
- Reads the mRNA
 Large Ribosomal Unit
- Forms polypeptide chain of amino acids
- 2 forms
 70s – prokaryotic cells
 80s – eukaryotic cells
 ENDOPLASMIC RETICULUM
- Network of membranes
- 2 FORMS
 SOFT ER
- Storage organelle
- Lipid and Steroid formation
 ROUGH ER
- Aids in protein synthesis
 GOLGI BODY
- also known as Golgi Apparatus, discovered by Camillo Golgi
- Series of stacked membranes
- Helps process and package lipids and proteins that are exported out of the cell
 MICROTUBULES
- Microscopic hollow tubes
- gives the cell shape

- Function:

 Cell Division
 Cell Movement
 Cell Transport
 NUCLEUS
- Control center of the cell
- Contains DNA
- Surrounded by a double membrane
- Easiest organelle visible to microscope
- one per cell
 TRISOMY 21
- DOWN SYNDROME
 TRISOMY 13
- PATAU SYNDROME
 TRISOMY 18
- EDWARD SYNDROME
  MONOSOMY X
- TURNER’S SYNDROME
 23 CHROMOSOMES
- SEX CHROMOSOMES
- XX – FEMALE, XY – MALE

CARBOHYDRATES SUGAR UNITS

(MONOSACCHARIDE, DISACCHARIDE,
POLYSACCHARIDE)
LIPIDS GLYCEROL AND FATTY ACIDS
PROTEINS AMINO ACIDS
NUCLEIC ACIDS NUCLEOTIDES

CARBOHYDRATES
(Polyhydroxy aldehyde, polyhydroxy ketone)

- most abundant macromolecules in nature

- composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen

- main source and storage of energy in the body

- during digestion and cellular metabolism

 Carbohydrates to glucose
 Glucose – immediate energy
 Glycogen – reserve or stored energy

3 UNITS OF SUGAR

 MONOSACCHARIDES
- GLUCOSE
- GALACTOSE
- FRUCTOSE
 DISACCHARIDES
- MALTOSE
- LACTOSE
- SUCROSE
 POLYSACCHARIDES
- STARCH
- GLYCOGEN
- CELLULOSE

CHIRALITY

 Handedness = monosaccharides
 MIRROR IMAGE
- the reflection of an object in a mirror
 2 classes
 SUPERIMPOSABLE
- Images that coincide all points
 NONSUPERIMPOSABLE
- Images where not all points coincide
 CHIRAL CENTER
- an atom in a molecule that has four different groups bond to it
 CHIRAL MOLECULE
- molecule whose mirror images are not superimposable
 ACHIRAL MOLECULE
- molecule whose mirror images are superimposable
 STEREOISOMERS
- Isomers that have the same molecular and structural formulas but differ in the orientation
of atoms in space
 ENANTIOMERS
- Stereoisomers whose molecules are nonsuperimposable mirror images
 DIASTEREOMERS
- Stereoisomers whose molecules are superimposable mirror images

MONOSACCHARIDES
 GLUCOSE
- “grape sugar”, “dextrose”, “blood sugar”
- aldohexose
- most important member of the sugar family (carbohydrates)
- one of the main sources of calorie
- can across the Blood Brain Barrier (BBB)
- increase in glucose = Diabetes Mellitus (DM)
- DM type 1 (insulin dependent)
- DM type 2 (adult-onset diabetes)
 Symptoms (4Ps)
 POLYURIA
-excessive urination
 POLYDIPSIA
- excessive thirst
 POLYPHAGIA
- excessive hunger
 POUND LOSS
 FRUCTOSE
- ketohexose
- “fruit sugar”, “levulose”
- commonly found in honey, fruits and vegetables
- sweetest of all sugars (1.5x sweeter than sucrose)
 GALACTOSE
- “brain sugar”
- sugar found in dairy products
- GALACTOSEMIA
 DISACCHARIDES
 SUCROSE
- table sugar
- found naturally on plants
- GLUCOSE + FRUCTOSE = SUCROSE
 LACTOSE
- primary sugar in milk and milk products
- GLUCOSE + GALACTOSE = LACTOSE
 MALTOSE
- found in molasses
- major degradation product of starch
- GLUCOSE + GLUCOSE = MALTOSE

 LACTOSE INTOLERANCE/ LACTASE PERSISTENCE

- a condition in which people lack the enzyme “LACTASE” that may result to abdominal
pain, bloating, and diarrhea.

POLYSACCHARIDES
- composed of more than 3 monosaccharides
- long chains of glucose
 NUTRIENT (DIGESTIBLE) POLYSACCHARIDES
- STARCH, GLYCOGEN
 STRUCTURAL (INDIGESTIBLE) POLYSACCHARIDES
- CELLULOSE, CHITIN
 STARCH
- storage form of carbohydrates in plants
- Antidote for Iodine poisoning
- composed of:
 AMYLASE/AMYLOSE
- linear, water soluble
 AMYLOPECTIN
-branched, insoluble in water
 GLYCOGEN
- storage form of glucose in the body
- stored in the liver and muscles
- GLYCOGENESIS, GLYCOGENOLYSIS
 DEXTRAN
- Complex branched glucan derived from wine discovered by Luis Pasteur
- Plasma Expander
ACIDIC POLYSACCHARIDES
- polysaccharide with a disaccharide repeating unit
 HYALURONIC ACID
- Highly viscous solution serves as the lubricant in the fluid of joints
- Associated with jelly like consistency of vitreous humor of the eye.
 HEPARIN
- blood anticoagulant
 CARBOHYDRATES
 GLYCOLIPIDS
- lipids that has one or more carbohydrates
- Ex. Cerebrosides, Gangliosides
 GLYCOPROTEINS
- proteins that has one or more carbohydrates
- Ex. Immunoglobulins are key components of the body’s immune system

DIETARY CONSIDERATIONS
 SIMPLE CARBOHYDRATE
- dietary monosaccharide or disaccharide
- usually, sweet
 Natural Sugar
- naturally present in foods (ex. Milk and fresh fruits)
 Refined Sugar
- sugars that have been separated from its plant source (ex. Sugar beets and sugar canes)
 COMPLEX CARBOHYDRATE
- dietary polysaccharide
- starch and cellulose
- not generally sweet

LIPIDS

- an organic compound found in living organisms that is insoluble in water but soluble in polar
nonpolar organic solvents

- has lipid bilayer, polar head (hydrophilic), and nonpolar tails (hydrophobic)

PROPERTIES OF LIPIDS

- oily or greasy nonpolar molecules

- heterogeneous group of compounds composed of hydrocarbon chain

- energy-rich organic molecules

- class of compounds

- significant in biological systems

LIPID STRUCTURE

a. Saturated

- single bonds only

b. Unsaturated

- one or more double bonds

 Based on Biochemical Functions

 ENERGY STORAGE LIPIDS (ex. Triacylglycerols)

 MEMBRANE LIPIDS (ex. Phospholipids, Sphingolipids, Cholesterol)
 EMULSIFICATION LIPIDS (ex. Bile Acids)
 MESSENGER LIPIDS (steroid hormones, eicosanoids)
 PROTECTIVE-COATING LIPIDS (ex. Biological wax)
BASED ON SAPONIFICATION
 SAPONIFIABLE LIPIDS
- Triacylglycerols, phospholipids, sphingolipids, biological waxes
 NONSAPONIFIABLE LIPIDS
- Cholesterol, steroid hormone, bile acids, eicosanoids

FATTY ACIDS

- Naturally occurring monocarboxylic acid

- Characterized as:

 Short Chain (4-6 C)

 Medium Chain (8-10 C)
 Long Chain (12-26 C)

- Saturated Fatty Acids

 Palmitic Acid
 IUPAC NAME: hexadecenoic acid
 Monosaturated Fatty Acids
- Ocleic Acid
- IUPAC NAME: cis-9-octadecanoic acid

- Unsaturated Fatty Acids

POLYUNSATURATED FATTY ACID

 LINOLEIC ACID

- IUPAC NAME: cis, cis-9,12-octadecadienoic acid

- OMEGA 6

 LINOLENIC ACID
- IUPAC NAME: cis, cis-9,12,15-octaadecatrienoic acid
- OMEGA 3
 ARACHIDONIC ACID
- 20 carbons, 4 double bonds, and omega 6
 EPA (eicosapentaenoic acid)
- 20 carbons, 5 double bonds, and omega 3
 DHA (docosahexaenoic acid)
- 22 carbons, 6 double bonds, and omega 3
 SATURATED FATTY ACID

 Lauric acid
- 12 carbons, no double bond
 Myristic acid
- 14 carbons, no double bond
 Palmitic Acid
- 16 carbons, no double bond
 Stearic acid
- 18 carbons, no double bond
 Arachidic acid
- 20 carbons, no double bond
MONOSATURATED FATTY ACIDS
 Palmitoleic acid
- 16 carbons, 1 double bond, and omega 7
 Oleic acid
- 18 carbons, 1 double bond, and omega 9

ENERGY STORAGE LIPIDS - TRIACYLGLYCEROLS

- Primary storage of fats in humans/animals

- Triesters, ester linkage
- Fatty Acids = triacylglycerol formation

ESTERIFICATION

- Glycerol added by three fatty acids formed a triester of glycerol (triacylglycerol) and
three water molecules.

FATS OILS
Solid/semi-solid at room temperature Liquid at room temperature
Unsaturated Fatty Acid Mono and Polyunsaturated Fatty Acid
From animals From Plants
Colorless, odorless, tasteless Colorless, odorless, tasteless
ESSENTIAL FATTY ACID

 OMEGA – 3 FATTY ACIDS (LINOLENIC ACID)

 OMEGA – 6 FATTY ACIDS (LINOLEIC ACID)
LINOLEIC ACID ARACHIDONIC ACID
LINOLENIC ACID  EPA  DHA

HYDROLYSIS

• Reverse of the esterification reaction

• When carried out in a laboratory setting it requires a presence of an acid or base
• Acidic condition = glycerols and fatty acids
• Basic condition = glycerols and fatty acid salts
• In the human body, hydrolysis of TAG happens during digestion

Partial hydrolysis (during digestion) of a triacyiglycerol produces a monoacylglycerol and

two fatty acid molecules.

Complete hydrolysis of a triacylglycerol produces glycerol and three fatty acid molecules.
 SAPONIFICATION

• Hydrolysis reaction that happens in an alkaline (basic solution)

• Fats and oils = glycerol & fatty acid salts

• Soap is made through the saponification of animal fat

• Soapmaking involved heating lard (fat) with lye (ashes of wood, impure form of KOH)

CLEANSING ACTION OF SOAP & DETERGENTS

MICELLE - a spherical cluster of molecules in which the polar portions of the molecules are
on the surface and the nonpolar portions are located in the interior

HYDROGENATION

• A chemical reaction that involves hydrogen addition across carbon- carbon multiple
bonds that increases saturation by converting it to single bonds

• Therefore, there is an increase in melting point of the substance

TRANS FAT

Fats that contain fatty acids with trans double bonds

• Raises LDL but not HDL

• "zero grams trans-fat per serving”

6 Worst Trans Fat Foods

 Fried Foods
 Desserts
 Pastas
 Salty Snacks
 Breads
 Breakfast Pastries

Different Kind of Fatty acids

 UNSATURATED FATS
 SATURATED FATS
 TRANS FATS

MEMBRANE LIPIDS - PHOSPHOLIPIDS

• Most abundant type

• A lipid that contains one or more FA's, a phosphate group, a platform molecule to which
the FA's and the phosphate group are attached and an alcohol that attached to the phosphate
group
 GLYCEROPHOSPHOLIPIDS

• A lipid that contains 2 FA's and a phosphate group esterified to a glycerol molecule and
an alcohol esterified to the phosphate group

PHOSPHORIC ACID

• Parent source for the minus one charged phosphate group used in the formation of
glycerophospholipids

• Only considered when ester of organic acids was considered

ALCOHOLS ATTACHED TO THE PHOSPHATE GROUP

• CHOLINE (phosphatidylcholines)

• ETHANOLAMINE (phosphatidylethanolamines)

• SERINE (phosphatidylserines)

PHOSPHATIDYLCHOLINES

• Also known as "LECITHINS"

• Hydrolyzed by the enzyme "lecithinase"

• waxy solids that form colloidal susp in water

• Egg yolk and soybeans are good sources of PC

• Uses: help boost cognitive function (Alzheimer's disease), in food industry used as
emulsifiers to promote the mixing of otherwise immiscible materials (mayonnaise, ice cream,
custards)

PHOSPHATIDYLETHANOLAMINES & PHOSPHATIDYLSERINES

• Also known as "CEPHALINS"

• compounds found in heart and liver tissue and high in concentration in the brain

• Important in blood clotting

 • Primary phospholipid in bacteria

SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPIDS

• A lipid that contains one FA and one phosphate group attached to a sphingosine
molecule and an alcohol attached to the phosphate group

SPHINGOPHOSPHOLIPIDS

• SPHINGOMYELIN

• Sphingophospholipids in which the alcohol esterified

to the phosphate group is choline

• Found in all cell membrane

• Important component in the myelin sheath

• Hydrolyzed by the enzyme "Sphingomyelinase"

• Deficiency: Niemann-Pick Disease

NIEMANN-PICK DISEASE

• progressive development of enlargement of the liver and spleen (hepatosplenomegaly),

"swollen glands" (lymphadenopathy), anemia and mental and physical deterioration

MEMBRANE LIPIDS - SPHINGOGLYCOLIPIDS

• A lipid that contains both a FA and a carbohydrate component attached to a sphingosine

molecule

CEREBROSIDES

• Simplest sphingoglycolipid

• Contain a single monosaccharide unit either glucose or galactose

• Occur primarily on the brain
Membrane Lipids: Cholesterol
- The third of the 3 major types of membrane Lipids
- specific compound rather than a family of compounds like phospholipids and
sphingoglycolipids.
- Structure is different due to:
There are no fatty acids residues present
Neither glycerol nor sphingosine is present as the platform molecule.

Cholesterol is a steroid

Steroid- Lipid whose structure is based on fused-ring system that involves three 6-
membered rings and one 5 membered rings
Steroid Nucleus- Steroid fused-ring system

Cholesterol

 Most abundant steroid in the body

 -ol=alcohol functional group is present in the molecule (carbon 3)
 Methyl groups attached at carbon 10 and 13
 8 carbon branched side chain at carbon 17

Lipoprotein

 Cholesterol-protein combination responsible for the distribution of cholesterol

throughout the body (protein carrier system)
 LDLs (low density lipoprotein) – carry cholesterol from the liver to various tissue
 HDLs (high-density lipoprotein) – carry excess cholesterol from tissues back to the
liver

Cell membrane:
 A lipid-based structure that separates a cells aqueous-based interior from the aqueous
environment surrounding the cell.
 Controls the movement of substance into and out of the cell.

Lipid Bilayer

 Two-layer thick structure of phospholipids and glycolipids in which the nonpolar tails of
the lipids are on the middle and the polar heads are in the outside surface.
 Exterior polar head
 Interior polar head
 Central nonpolar heads

2 general types of Membrane Protein

 Integral membrane Protein – membrane protein that penetrates the cell membrane
 Peripheral membrane protein – Nonpenetrating membrane protein located pf the surface
of the cell membrane
Transport across cell membranes

Passive Transport - a substance move across the cell membrane by diffusion of higher
concentration to s lower concentration without the expenditure of energy (osmosis)

Facilitated transport – substance move across a cell membrane with the aid of membrane
protein from higher conc. To lower conc. Without the expenditure of energy.

Active Transport – substance moves across a cell membrane with the aid of membrane
proteins against a concentration gradient t with the expenditure of energy.

Pumps – protein involved in active transport

Messenger Lipids: Steroid Hormones
Hormone – Biochemical; substance produced by a ductless gland, serves as a means f
communication between various tissues.
Steroid Hormones – A cholesterol Derivative

 2 major classifications
 Sex Hormones – reproduction & secondary sex characteristics
 Adrenocorticoid Hormones – regulates numerous biochemical process

Sex Hormones

ESTROGENS - female sex hormone, synthesized in the ovaries

and adrenal cortex, puberty, menstrual cycle, stimulate the development of the mammary glands
during pregnancy.

• ANDROGENS - male sex hormone, synthesized in the testes and adrenal cortex, male secondary
sex characteristics, muscle growth.

• PROGESTINS - pregnancy hormones, synthesized in the ovaries and placenta, prepare the lining
of the uterus for implantation of the fertilized ovum, suppress ovulation.

ORAL CONTRACEPTIVES - used to suppress ovulation as a method of birth control, mixture of

synthetic estrogen and synthetic progestin

• morning after pill

ANABOLIC STEROIDS - include the illegal steroid drugs used by some athletes to build up muscle
strength and enhance endurance.

ADRENOCORTICOID HORMONES

• MINERALOCORTICOIDS - control the balance of Na and K ions in cells and body fluids

•ALDOSTERONE
• GLUCOCORTICOIDS-controls glucose metabolism and counteract inflammation

 CORTISOL (hydrocortisone)

Messenger Lipids: Eicosanoids

EICOSANOID - oxygenated c20-fatty acid derivative that functions as a messenger lipid,
arachidonic acid is its precursor

PHYSIOLOGICAL EFFECTS

•Inflammatory response

• Production of pain and fever

•Regulation of blood pressure

• Induction of blood clotting

• Control of reproductive functions, induction of labor

• Regulation of the sleep/wake cycle

Three principal types of eicosanoids: prostaglandin, thromboxane, leukotriene

PROSTAGLANDINS - a messenger lipid that is a c20 fatty-acid derivative that contains a

cyclopentane ring and oxygen containing functional groups, named after the prostate gland.
Regulatory functions - raising body temp, inhibiting the secretion of gastric juices, increasing the
secretion of protective mucus layer into the stomach, relaxing & contracting smooth muscle,
directing water & electrolyte balance, intensifying pain and enhancing inflammation responses

• ASPIRIN

Thromboxane - a messenger lipid that is C20- Fatty acid derivative that contains a cyclic either ring
and oxygen- containing functional groups.

Leukotriene – a messenger lipid that is a C20-fatty-acid derivative that contains three conjugated
double bond and hydroxy groups.

PROTECTIVE-COATING -BIOLOGICAL WAXES

BIOLOGICAL WAX - a lipid that is a monoester of a long chain fatty acid and a long chain alcohol

• Water-insoluble, water-repellant
Saponifiable and Nonsaponifiable Lipids
Saponifiable Lipid – is a lipid that undergoes hydrolysis in basic solution to yield two or more
smaller product molecules.

Nonsaponifiable Lipid – does not undergo hydrolysis in basic solution

Proteins:
PROTEIN - naturally occurring unbranched polymer in which the monomer units are amino acids.

AMINO ACIDS - building blocks for proteins, contains both an amino group and a carboxyl group.

Alpha-amino acid - an amino acid in which the amino group and the carboxy group are attached to
the alpha-carbon

STANDARD AMINO ACIDS-20 alpha-amino acids normally found in proteins.

NONPOLAR AMINO ACID-amino acid that contains 1 amino group and a nonpolar side chain,
hydrophobic

POLAR NEUTRAL AMINO ACID-amino acid that contains 1 amino group, 1 carboxyl group and a
side chain that is polar but neutral

POLAR ACIDIC AMINO ACID - amino acid that contains 1 amino group and 2 carboxy groups, the
2nd carboxyl grp being part of the side chain.
POLAR BASIC AMINO ACID - amino acid that contains 2 amino grp and 1 carboxyl grp, the 2nd
amino grp being part of the side chain
Essential Amino Acid

A standard amino acids needed for protein synthesis that must be obtained from dietary

sources

COMPLETE DIETARY PROTEIN - a protein that contains all the essential AA in the same relative

amounts in which the body needs

INCOMPLETE DIETARY PROTEIN - a protein that does not contain adequate amounts, relative to

the body's needs

LIMITING AMINO ACID - essential AA that is missing, or present but in inadequate amount

• COMPLEMENTARY DIETARY PROTEINS - 2 or more incomplete dietary proteins that when

combined provide an adequate amount of all essential AA relative to the body's needs.
ZWITTERION - a molecule that has a positive charge on one atom and a negative charge on
another atom but has zero net charge.

ISOELECTRIC POINTS - is the pH t which an amino exists primarily in its zwitterion form

CYSTEINE

• The only standard amino acid that has a side chain that contains sulfhydryl group (-SH)

• In the presence of mild oxidizing agent, it readily dimerizes or react with another cysteine to
form a cystine molecule

PEPTIDES

An unbranched chain of amino acids

Dipeptide - 2 AA

Tripeptide - 3 AA
Oligopeptide - 10-20 AA

Polypeptide - longer unbranched

SMALL PEPTIDE HORMONES

OXYTOCIN

 Regulates uterine contractions and lactation

VASOPRESSIN

 Regulates the excretion of water by the kidneys

 Affects blood pressure
 Antidiuretic hormone
 (ADH)

SMALL PEPTIDE neurotransmitters

ENKEPHALINS

Pentapeptide neurotransmitters produced by the brain itself that bind at receptor sites in the
brain to reduce pain

• Morphine and codeine

MET-ENKEPHALINS

Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Met

•LEU-ENKEPHALINS - Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe-Leu
SMALL PEPTIDE ANTIOXIDANT

• GLUTHATIONE

 Glu-Cys-Gly
 Regulator of oxidation-reduction reactions
 Antioxidant, protecting cellular contents from oxidizing agents
 Produced by the liver

General Structure Characteristics

Protein - a peptide in which at least 40 amino acid residues are present

MONOMERIC PROTEIN - protein in which 1 peptide chain is present

MULTIMERIC PROTEIN - protein in which more than 1 peptide chain is present

PROTEIN SUBUNITS - peptide chains present in a multimeric protein

Based on Chemical Composition

SIMPLE PROTEIN

• A protein in which only amino acid residues are

present

CONJUGATED PROTEIN

-A protein that has one or more non-amino acid entities present in its structure in addition to one
or more peptide chain

• Lipoproteins (lipid prosthetic group)

• Glycoproteins (carbohydrates)

• Metalloproteins (specific metal ions)

Prosthetic Group

-A non-amino acid group present in conjugated proteins

PRIMARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE

- The order in which AA are linked together in a protein

 INSULIN - first to be discovered about sequencing, hormone that regulates blood-glucose

levels
 MYOGLOBIN - protein involved in oxygen storage in muscles

• THE PRIMARY STRUCTURE OF A SPECIFIC PROTEIN IS ALWAYS THE SAME REGARDLESS OF WHERE
IT IS FOUND WITHIN AN ORGANISM

SECONDARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE

- The arrangement in space adopted by the backbone

 ALPHA HELIX - in which a single protein chain adopts a shape that resembles a coiled
spring (helix) with the coil configuration maintained by the hydrogen bonds
 BETA PLEATED SHEET - in which two fully extended protein chain segments in the same or
different molecules are held together by hydrogen bonds (U-turn structure)

TERTIARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE

- Overall three-dimensional shape of a protein that results from the interactions

between amino acid side chains (R groups) that are widely separated from each
other within a peptide

• INTERACTIONS RESPONISIBLE FOR TERTIARY STRUCTURE

• Covalent disulfide bonds - strongest (-SH)

• Electrostatic attractions (salt bridges) - acidic and basic side chain interaction
• Hydrogen bonds - polar R groups
• Hydrophobic attractions-two nonpolar side

QUATERNARY PROTEIN STRUCTURE

- Highest level of protein organization

- Found only in multimeric proteins

• INTERACTIONS

• Electrostatic interactions
• Hydrogen bonds
• Hydrophobic interactions
• Ex. Of protein with QPS is
• HEMOGLOBIN
PROTEIN HYDROLYSIS

• COMPLETE HYDROLYSIS - all peptides’ bonds are broken freeing up all AA and is only the product

• PARTIAL HYDROLYSIS-some but not all peptide bonds are broken therefore having a product of
both free AA and small peptides

PROTEIN DENATURATION

- Partial or complete disorganization of a protein's characteristic three-dimensional

shape, disruption of its primary, secondary, tertiary and quaternary structural
interactions
• RENATURATION - reverse process, "refolded"
• COAGULATION - precipitation out of biochemical solution of a denatured protein
Ex. Egg white poured into a hot surface
• CAUTERIZATION - a process in surgery where heat is used to seal small blood
vessels
FIBROUS PROTEIN

ALPHA-KERATIN

- Major protein in hair and nails in humans

COLLAGEN

- •Most abundant of all proteins in humans

- •30% total body protein
• Major structural material in tendons,
- ligaments, blood vessels and skin
- Organic component in bones and teeth.

GLOBULAR PROTEIN

HEMOGLOBIN

• Transports oxygen from lungs to tissues

• Tetramer

MYOGLOBIN

• Oxygen-storage molecule in muscles

• Monomer
• •Higher affinity for O compared to hemoglobin
GLYCOPROTEINS

Collagen

- When boiled in water under basic conditions it is converted to the water-soluble

protein "gelatin"

Immunoglobin

• Protective response
• Antibody-biochemical molecule that counteracts a specific antigen
• Cyclosporine (antirejection drug)
• Antigen-foreign substance such as virus or bacteria that invades the human body

LIPOPROTEINS

Plasma Lipoprotein

4 MAJOR CLASSES

• CHYLOMICRONS - transport TAGs from the intestine to the liver and adipose
tissues
• VERY-LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (VLDLS) - transport TAGS synthesized in the
liver to adipose tissues
• LOW-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (LDLs)
• HIGH-DENSITY LIPOPROTEINS (HDLs)