1. “Power Plant Technology”, M. M. El-Wakil, McGraw-Hill Inc.

2. “Power Plant System Design”, Kam W. Li, A. Paul Priddy, John

Wiley and Sons Inc.

BY 3. “Nuclear Heat Transport”, M. M. El-Wakil, The American Nuclear

Society.

Steam Generators 1 Steam Generators 2

STEAM GENERATORS
1. Introduction :  Steam generators are a complex of equipment, mainly including :
 Steam generators are mainly used in :  Economizer.
 Evaporation section ( boiler ).
 Fossil fuel electric power plants.
 Combined cycle power plants.  Superheater.
 Nuclear power plants; "PWR", "PHWR", "BWR" and "GCR".  Reheater.
 Air pre-heater.
 Recently, fossil fuel steam generators produce steam at pressures of 160-
to-180 bar and superheat temperatures up to 540-to-580 oC. Moreover,  Steam generators may include also other auxiliaries, such as :
there are super critical steam generators.
 Stokers.
 Heat recovery steam generators applied for combined cycle power plants  Pulverizers.
generate steam at pressure and temperature up to 80 bar and 540oC.  Burners.
 Fans.
 Steam generators used for pressurized water and boiling water nuclear
reactor power plants generate steam at pressures ranging between 60 bar  Stack.
and 70 bar dry and saturated. Steam generators used with gas cooled  Blow down treatment system.
reactor power plants produce superheated steam at pressures and  Emission control equipment.
temperatures up to 170 bar and 560 oC.  Ash handling equipment.
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Steam Generators 3 Steam Generators 4

2. Steam Generators Developments and Classifications :  The early used steam boilers were fire tube types, with low steam
pressures and temperatures and applied for industrial and domestic
 The term "Boiler" is often used to mean that part of the steam generators, applications as well as for low power heat engines.
where saturated liquid is evaporated into saturated vapour, i.e. the steam
drum, down comers, risers, and although it may include the economizer.  With increased steam turbine requirements of flow rates and pressures, fire
tube boilers, which require large diameter high costly shells, were no longer
 Steam generators may be classified into : applied for power generation. Instead, water tube boilers with straight
tubes are included.
 Utility steam generators : These are the steam generators used by
utilities for power generation. Modern utility steam generators are  Water tube boilers early developments include early designs so called non-
essentially of two basic types. explosive straight tube boilers by George Babcock and Stephen Wilcox,
 Subcritical water tube drum type : With generated steam pressures 1867, Fig.(1).
from 140-to-180 bar and steam temperatures from 540-to-580 oC.  The early boilers looked much like the fire tube boiler, except that the high
 Supercritical once-through steam generators : With generated pressure water and steam were put inside the tubes and relatively small
steam pressure up to 240 bar > 221 bar. diameter shells. On the other hand, the combustion gases were on the
outside of the tubes. The steam separation drum may be longitudinal for
 Industrial steam generators : These types are used for both industrial small capacities, as shown in (a) or cross form for large capacities, as
and domestic applications. They may be small water tube boilers and indicated in (b).
fire tube boilers.
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Steam Generators 5 Steam Generators 6

 The second step of developments was the bent-tube boilers. A bent-tube

boiler used bent, rather than straight, tubes between several steam drums
or drums and headers, up to four drums.

 With the steam demands and pressures increase, up to 100 bar and
superheat temperature below 500 oC, the evaporation heat load represents
more than 50% of the total heat load.

 In turn, this required large and condense evaporation section tubing for
single drum designs, which is not applicable for that time and suggested
the inclusion of the four drums types.

 Fig.(2) represents four-drum Stirling boiler. As can be seen, suitable

Low capacity High capacity baffles are used to direct the combustion gases from the boiler furnace to
(a) Longitudinal drum straight tube boiler. (b) Cross drum straight tube boiler.
the first tube bank, connecting the first steam drum with the lower water or
mud drum. The flue gases than flows through the super heater and then
Fig.(1) : Babcock and Wilcox early water tube boiler designs. the second and third tube banks, then to the stack.

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Steam Generators 7 Steam Generators 8

3. Modern Steam Generators :

 The advance of water-cooled furnace walls led to the integration of boiler
furnace, economizer, evaporation section, superheater, reheater and air
preheater into the modern steam generator house. The water walls are
applied for the evaporation section as well as the super heater and
preheater sections.

 The inclusion of water walls allows the increase of temperature either for
the combustion gases or the generated steam. At the same time, the
increase of both steam pressure and temperature leads to decrease in the
evaporation heat load, and hence to small boiler tubing and increased
super heater and reheater tubings. Finally, the inclusion of large number of
feed water heaters in the feed circuit requires smaller economizer and
hence bigger air preheater to consume the heat residual in the flue gases.

 Fig.(3) illustrates a skechmatic flow diagram of a modern steam generator.

Actual steam generator is shown in Fig.(4).
Fig.(2) : Four drum early Stirling boiler.
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Steam Generators 9 Steam Generators 10

 The flow mechanisms and

values are as follows : For
most modern steam
generators, the generated
steam pressure is in the
range 160-to180 bar, and
temperature of 540oC-to-
580oC. The feed water
leaves the feed circuit and
inters the economizer with a
temperature of 230oC-to-
260oC, thus about 90oC-to-
100oC below the boiling
temperature. The feed water
is preheated in the
economizer tubes before fed
to the boiler drum and then
mixed with the saturated
liquid separated in the drum. Fig.(3) : Skechmatic flow diagram of a modern Fig.(4) : Skechmatic flow diagram of a modern steam generator.
2019-2020 steam generator. G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa
Steam Generators 11 Steam Generators 12

 The slightly undercooled mixture goes down the downcomer tubes to the  The steam after expansion in the HP turbine, ultimately down to 32 -to-40
lower water header, then through the riser tubes and receives mainly bar, is redirected to the reheater section in the steam generator, and
radiant heat from the flame and combustion gases. To avoid hot spots reheated to nearly the same superheat temperature, before being fed to
and hence possible burning of riser tubes, only nucleate boiling mechanism the intermediate turbine.
is allowed in the riser tubes, and the dryness fraction at the top of the riser
tubes is in the range 10%-to-14% depending on the load variation.  The flame temperature, due to the radiant heat absorption in both the
evaporation section and radiant super heater, reaches 1650-to1850oC.
 Nearly saturated vapour is separated in the steam generated drum, Then, the combustion gases are cooled to 1150-1250oC before entering the
depending on the separation mechanism, and directed to the super heater, convective super heater.
while the saturated liquid is recirculated to the downcomer.
 The flue gases are cooled in both the convective super heater and reheater
 The saturated vapour is heated in the superheater tubes to the desired to 550-650oC, before entering the economizer, where they are cooled down
temperature before leaving the steam generator to the high pressure to 300-350oC before the air preheater. Finally, the flue gases leave the
turbine stop valve. The steam superheater is divided to two sections; steam generator at 180-220oC, depending on the type of burnet fuel.
radiant and convective super heaters.
 Air is sucked from the atmosphere and heated to 120-140oC in the
preheater before fed to the steam generator burners. Different types of air
preheaters are used, as indicated in Fig.(4) .

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Steam Generators 13 Steam Generators 14

4. Steam Generators Components, Description and Mechanisms :

 Modern steam generators have different components and mechanisms, as
described in the following subsections.

(a) Water tube walls

 Water walls are included in early steam generators to cool the boiler brick
walls and to increase the radiant heat absorption rate in the furnace.

 The water tubes have very complicated form to allow for burner throats and
inspection openings, as shown in Fig.(5). The water tubes fabrication are
made on very special CNC machines for their bending and checking. The
Fig.(5) : Steam generator water
water walls improvements over the years are illustrated in Fig.(6).
tubes formation.
 The membrane design consists of water tubes spaced on centers slightly
wider than their diameters and connected by membrane or bars welded to
the tubes at their center lines. Fig.(6) : Different used water tube walls improvements.

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Steam Generators 15 Steam Generators 16

 The membrane acts as fins to increase the heat transfer rate as well as to  Luminous gases take place with coal and oil fuels, where there are fine
give rigid and pressure tight construction for the boiler furnace. particles carried out with the gases. Luminous combustion gases emit
their radiation with all wave lengths.
 Different membrane water tube walls designs (P/do) are used, according to
the steam generator capacity, such as : 4"/3" , 3.75" / 3" and 3.75"/2.75".  On the other hand, nonluminous
gases take place with clean
(b) Radiant boiler combustion of gaseous fuels.
Heat energy radiation takes
 Heat is transferred in the steam generator boiler from the flame and place from triatomic gases such
combustion gases by both radiation and convection mechanisms. as H2O, CO2, SO2, NH3,….etc.
 On the other hand, the feed water evaporates inside the riser tubes and
 Heat radiation takes place with
only partial nucleate boiling is allowed.
all wavelengths, including visible
 Radiant boilers are built for high steam pressures ( 125-to-180 bar ) and range, which gives the
temperatures (540-to-580oC), as indicated in Fig.(7). combustion gases a green-blue
appearance.
 The combustion gases analysis depends on the type of fuel, combustion
process and air-to-fuel ratio. The combustion gases may be luminous or Fig.(7) : Radiant steam boiler.
nonluminous.
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Steam Generators 17 Steam Generators 18

 The total heat radiation from the different gases depends on the gas (c) Water circulation
temperature, the partial pressure of each gas, the flame size and thickness,
the thickness body of the gases and the water walls shape and  The water circulation mechanism within
temperature. the water tube boiler, is as shown in
Fig.(8). Slightly subcooled liquid flows
 On the other hand, the convection part of the heat addition from the gases from the steam drum via the downcomer
occurs only near the water walls, so it is much smaller than the radiant heat tubes, which are located outside the
part, such that the heat from gases is mainly transferred by radiation. boiler house, to the down or mud header,
up to the riser tubes, where it partially
 The convection heat transfer in the steam boiler depends on the tube walls evaporates back to the steam drum.
surface area, the heat transfer mechanism outside and inside the water The generated steam is separated from
tubes, tube wall material thickness and tube wall and membrane material the liquid in the steam drum, where it is
thermal conductivities. sent to the superheater. The saturated
liquid is then mixed with the feed water
coming from the economizer to form the
subcooled liquid in the downcomer tubes. Fig.(8) : Water tube boiler water
circulation mechanism.
 Full boiling to 100% quality steam in the riser tubes is avoided to prevent
tubes burnout or failure as a result of departure of nucleate boiling "DNB".
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Steam Generators 19 Steam Generators 20

 The dryness fraction of the wet vapour flowing thought the riser tubes at  Water circulation within the steam boilers may take place natural or forced.
any height is given by : Natural circulation depends on the difference in density between the slightly
subcooled liquid in the downcomer tubes and the two phase flow in the
riser tubes, and the height of the steam drum "H" over the bottom header,
as indicated in Fig.(9) .

 In steam generators, the dryness fraction varies from zero at the riser tubes  The natural circulation driving force is expressed by the driving pressure,
bottom to xe ( = ṁs / ṁc ), at the top of the riser tubes ( maximum of 14% ), where :
as shown in Fig.(8).
D Pd = ( rd,c - rm,r ) g H
 Mass balance on the steam generator of Fig.(8) indicates that : where : D Pd = Natural driving pressure, N/m2
ṁc = ṁs + ṁr = ṁw + ṁr rd,c = Density of subcooled liquid in the downcomer, kg/m3
rm,r = Average density of the two phase flow in the riser, kg/m3
 The circulation ratio "Rc" for steam generator is defined as :

Rc = ṁc / ṁs = 1 / xe  Natural circulation mechanism can be used if D Pd > D Ploss , where D Ploss

is the pressure drop in both the downcomer and riser tubes due to the
liquid and two phase flows.
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Steam Generators 21 Steam Generators 22

 Early steam generators (d) Steam drum

include only natural
circulation for low  Steam drums are used in earlier and recent steam generators for several
pressure low flow steam, purposes, among them :
below 140 bar, where  Separation of saturated steam from the wet vapour.
the difference of density  Solid carryovers removal by chemical treatment and blow down.
between the saturated
 Water level control to meet load changes and make-up services.
water and saturated
steam is remarkable.  Prevention of steam bubbles penetration within recirculated water in
downcomer.
P = 1 bar rf / rg = 1623.3
= 10 bar = 172.3
= 60 bar = 24.6 Fig.(9) : Water tube steam genera tor water  Steam separation in boiler drums takes place by various mechanisms. For
= 100 bar = 12.4
= 160 bar = 5.44
circulation mechanisms. low pressure steam generators where the difference in density, between
saturated liquid and saturated vapour, is large, gravity separation is just
 Recently, to include natural water circulation for large modern steam enough to produce saturated steam, as indicated in (a) of Fig.(10).
generators, several techniques, such as twisters, springs, grooves,
corrugations, helical rabbits are applied to break down or retard the  For medium steam pressures, up to 150 bar, mechanical separation using
formation of vapour film on the inside metal surface, thus inhibit or retard directing baffles and screens are used to separate steam bubbles from
the onset of the "DNB". water flow, as shown in Fig.(10) (b).
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Steam Generators 23 Steam Generators 24

 For high pressure and some

subcritical steam generators,
where the difference in
density between the saturated
liquid and saturated vapour
becomes small, centrifugal
steam separators are used
besides steam baffles and
(b) Mechanical baffles and screens screens to separate steam
from water, as illustrated in (c)
(a) Simple gravity separation of Fig.(10).

 In modern high pressure

steam generators, the steam
drum may reaches 45 m in
length and 4 m in diameter,
as it clear in Fig.(11).
(c) Centrifugal steam separators
Fig.(10) : Different used steam separators in steam drum.
2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 Fig.(11) : Actual modern steam generator steam drum. G. M. Mostafa

Steam Generators 25 Steam Generators 26

(e) Superheaters and reheaters  With increasing demand for the steam, both fuel and air mass flow rates
firstly increase, hence the combustion gases. As a result, the convective
 Superheaters and reheaters in utility steam generators are made of 2"-to-3" heat transfer coefficients increase both inside and outside the superheater
OD tubes, depending of the heated steam mass flow rate. Generally, fins tubes. This, in turn, increases the overall heat transfer coefficient faster
are not applied for superheater and reheater tubes outer surface, because than the increase of the required steam mass flow rate. The result is the
they result high thermal stresses and high difficulty for cleaning. increase of the steam temperature with raising its mass flow rate, as
indicated by curve "a" in Fig.(12).
 The tube material is plain carbon steel if the maximum steam temperature
is below 450oC. For modern steam generators, where the superheat and  Practically, convective super heaters are included for low temperature
reheat steam temperatures may reach 580 oC, special high strength steel steam generators, where the evaporation heat percentage is high.
alloys are used

 Steam superheater has two types; convective and radiant super heaters. 2. Radiant superheaters

 For modern steam generators, with the increased need for greater heat
1. Convective superheaters absorption rates from the combustion gases, super heaters and reheaters
 In modern steam generators, the convective super heaters are placed may be placed in places with direct view to the flame.
behind the water walls and don't exposed to the flame, hence the heat
 In this case, the heat is transferred by radiation between the flame and high
transfer between the combustion gases and the superheater tubes is
temperature combustion gases and the tubes outer surface area.
mainly by convection mechanism.
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Steam Generators 27 Steam Generators 28

 In this case, the heat is transferred by radiation between the flame and high  Super heaters and reheaters arrangements may be pendant, inverted or
temperature combustion gases and the tubes outer surface area . horizontal types, as illustrated in Fig.(13). Typical tube bundles used for
super heaters and reheaters are shown in the same figure.
 The flame temperature does not
increase with increasing the fuel and  The pendant type is supported from the above, thus has firm structural
air mass flow rates. Hence, if the strength and applied for both convective and radiant types. This type may
steam mass flow is increased, the suffer from flow blockage after cold shutdown, due to moisture
steam superheat and reheat accumulation.
temperatures drop, as indicated in (b) (b)
 The inverted type has a
of Fig.(12).
below support, hence has low
(a)
rigidity structure than the
 To obtain nearly uniform steam
pendant type. This type of
superheat temperature, combined
superheater and reheater has
convective and radiant super heaters
good drainage of condensed
are used in a series form.
steam after long cold
shutdown. Also, this type
 Combined convective and radiant
may be used for convective
super heaters are used for most high Fig.(12) : Performance chart for different
superheater types. and radiant superheaters.
temperature modern steam generators. Fig.(13) : Different super heaters and
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Steam Generators 29 Steam Generators 30

 The horizontal arrangement is supported in vertical gas passages. This

types has a proper drainage of condensed steam and is used only for
convection superheaters and reheaters.

(f) Economizers

 The economizer “EC” is a heat exchanger used to raise the feed water
temperature, from the highest temperature attained in the feed water
heaters, to below the boiling temperature by 20-to-25oC. Fig.(14) : A layout of steam generator with economizer.
 Consequently this lead to low tube outer surface temperatures, may below
 The economizer, as indicated in Fig.(14), is mainly placed in the
the flue gases dew point temperature. This caused moisture condensation
combustion gases passage after leaving the convective superheater or
on the outer tube surface and resulted in tube corrosion due to the
reheater. Without economizer the combustion gases will leave the steam
presence of SO2 and SO3 in the flue gases. The moisture also aided to
generator at such high discharge temperature, from 370oC-to-540oC, that
tubes fouling, due to the ash collection on the outer surface, which reduced
results low steam generator efficiency.
the heat transfer to the tubes.
 Historically, the economizers were applied for the steam power cycles  Early economizer tubes were made of steel, which suffered both externally
before the feed water heaters, which resulted very low inlet water from corrosion due to moisture collection and formation of sulfate acids,
temperature to the economizers and internally from oxygen attacks in the fed water when it is heated.
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Steam Generators 31 Steam Generators 32

 In modern steam generators, these two problems are solved; where the  Air preheating saves the fuel consumption and / or increases the maximum
feed water is heated in the feed water heaters much above the flue gases gas temperature after combustion.
dew point. At the same time, most of the gases dissolved in the feed
water are rejected in the deaerator above 140oC.  Recently, there are two types of air preheaters in current use for steam
generators :
 Economizer tubes are commonly 1.75"-to-2.75" OD and made of
 Recuperative air preheaters.
successive vertical parallel loops connected between inlet and exit
 Regenerative air preheaters.
headers. Recently, plain carbon steel is used for economizer tubing where
high pressures are applied above 160 bar.  In recuperative air preheaters, heat is transferred from the hot flue gases to
the cold inlet air through the heat exchanger surface area, where both the
(g) Air preheaters air and flue gases flow simultaneously at the same time.

 Air preheaters, like economizers, are used to utilize some of the energy  The recuperative air preheater are commonly tubular heat exchangers, as
available in the flue gases before leaving the steam generator to the shown in (a) of Fig.(15), where the cold air flows inside the internally finned
atmosphere. tubes and the hot gases flows outside the tubes. Generally, the flow
arrangement in most tubular air preheaters is counter cross flow.
 Practically, the gases temperature before the air preheater is in the range
320oC-to-420oC, and are cooled to 140oC-to-220oC before discharged to  Tubular air preheaters are either vertical or horizontal with tube size of 2.0”-
the atmosphere, depending on the used type of fuel. to-2.5” OD in most modern steam generators
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Steam Generators 33 Steam Generators 34

 The most common form of the regenerative type is the will known rotary
Ljungstrom preheater, as indicated in (b) of Fig.(15). This type is
composed of a rotor driven by an electrical motor and rotates at 1-3 rpm
through reduction gears. The rotor has between 12-to-24 radial sectors,
each sector is filled with a heating storage body composed of steel sheets
corrugated as baskets.

 Half of these sectors are exposed to the hot gases and the another half is
exposed to the cold air. Sealing strips are used to prevent air leakage to
the flue gases side.

(a) Tubular internally finned air preheater. (b) Ljungstrom rotary regenerative air preheater. (h) The stack

Fig.(15) : Modern steam generators air preheaters.  Early steam boilers relied solely on stacks natural draft, to meet the total
pressure losses associated with the required gas flow rate across boiler
components.
 Regenerative air preheaters are those types in which the heat is
transferred first from the hot flue gases to an intermediate heat storage  Modern steam generators have both high gas flow requirements and
medium, and then to the clod air. various included heat exchangers in the gas path, that raises the pressure
drop through the gas side.
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Steam Generators 35 Steam Generators 36

 Consequently, use of stacks only may not achieve the required gas flow
rates and circulation fans may be needed.

 Generally, stacks have two main functions, namely :

 Assist the discharging fans to overcome the gas side pressure losses.
 Help disperse the gas effluents into the atmosphere.

1. Driving pressure

 The driving pressure created by the stack, as shown in Fig.(16) is

calculated from :

D Pd = ( ra - rs ) g H

Where : D Pd = Natural driving pressure, N/m2 Fig.(16) : Steam generator stack parameters.
ra = Density of atmospheric air, kg/m3
rs = Average density of stack gas, kg/m3  The stack exit flue gases velocity results in a plume rise “DH” above the
H = Stack height, m actual stack height, hence :
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He = H + DH G. M. Mostafa

Steam Generators 37 Steam Generators 38

 Dealing with the atmospheric air and flue gases as ideal gases, the above 5. Steam Generators Control :
equation reduces to :
 The steam generator, and also the overall power plant, control is a broad
subject that includes full instrumentation, data processing and controls for :
 Fuel combustion.
Where : Ts = ( To + TH ) / 2
 Steam flow, pressure and temperature.
 The flue gases flow inside the stack creates excess pressure drop, over  Drum water level.
that across the steam generator heat exchangers. This over pressure  Burners operation sequence.
equals to the frictional losses created by the stack walls plus the pressure  Fuel handling and control.
head corresponding to the flue gases discharge velocity.  Start-up and shutdown steps and automation.

2. Dispersion (a) Feed water and drum level control :

 The steam drum water level is a direct response to the difference between
 The second important function of the stack is the dispersion of the flue the steam generation rate and the feed water supply rate. The steam flow
gases into the atmospheric air, as illustrated in fig.(16). Dispersion means rate is that consumed by the turbine, otherwise the steam pressure will
the vertical and horizontal movements of the flue gases and their dilution increase. The feed water supply rate is that controlled by the boiler
by the atmospheric air. booster pump and the feed water control valve, as shown in Fig.(17).
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Steam Generators 39 Steam Generators 40

 During normal operation, the steam drum water level is maintained at "half- (b) Steam pressure control :
a-glass" or "half full" level. As indicated in Fig.(17), the drum level sensor
 The steam pressure control, or boiler master system , as indicated in
responds to the error between the actual drum water level and its pre-set
Fig.(18), maintains steam pressure by adjusting fuel and combustion air
point, such as that takes place in the case of high steam consumption
flow rates to obtain the desired pressure. When the pressure drops, the
associated with low feed water supply, and acts on the controller to
fuel and air flow rates are increased.
increase the feed water valve opening to meet the steam demand. This
action may be too slow, and is supplemented by the sensors for feed water
 As shown in this figure, the steam pressure
and steam flow rates.
sensor acts directly on the fuel and air flow
controls, such as the fuel feed pump and air
 The difference between forced draft fan, to affect the desired change.
the signals from these
two sensors anticipates  A trimming signal from the fuel-
the changes in the and-air flow sensors maintains
drum level to actuate the proper air-to-fuel ratio.
the controller and send Because it is often difficult to
a signal to the water obtain accurate fuel flows, a
control valve to re-set steam flow sensor sometimes
to the proper direction. Fig.(17) : Schematic of a three element feed water substitute the fuel flow sensor. Fig.(18) : Schematic of the steam pressure
control system. control system.
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Steam Generators 41 Steam Generators 42

(c) Steam temperature control :  The control of outlet steam temperature from the superheater takes place
by several ways, such as :
 Control of and keeping steam outlet temperature within narrow limits is very
important parameter for power plant operation. Steam temperature  Combined radiant and convective superheaters : In this method, the
fluctuation takes place due to : radiant and convective superheaters are arranged in a series form to
 Accidental change of load on the steam generator. yield a relatively flat final steam temperature over a wide range of load
 Periodic build-up of slag and ash on the heat transfer surfaces. change, as indicated in Fig.(19).

 Any reduction in steam temperature results loss in plant efficiency. On the

other hand, an increase in steam temperature above design values may
cause overheating and failure of superheater and reheater tubes and
steam turbine blades. The temperature of the saturated steam leaving the
drum corresponds to the system pressure, and once the steam pressure is
controlled, this temperature remains constant. Consequently, it is the
superheater-reheater responses to load changes that have to be corrected.

 The control of outlet steam temperature from the superheater takes place
by several ways, such as :
Fig.(19) : Combined radiant-convective superheater outlet temperature.
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Steam Generators 43 Steam Generators 44

 Surface attemperators : Surface attemperation is the reduction of

steam temperature by removing heat from it in a heat exchanger.

 The first from of surface attemperators, called the shell type, is

indicated in Fig.(20). In the shell type, portion of superheated
steam is diverted, from between the primary and secondary
superheaters, by an automatic valve to shell-and-tube- heat
exchanger containing some drum boiling water. The steam is
cooled by the boiled water and remixes again with the primary
steam upon entering the secondary superheater. Steam Fig.(20) : Shell-type surface attemperator.
temperature control is accomplished by controlling the amount of
diverted steam

 The second type of surface attemperators, called the drum-type, is

shown in Fig.(21). In this type, the heat exchanger between the
diverted steam and the boiling water is embedded in the main
steam drum. The steam drum, in this case will be made larger to
contain the attemperator tubes.

2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 Fig.(21) : Drum-type surface attemperator. G. M. Mostafa

Steam Generators 45 Steam Generators 46

 Spray or direct contact attemperators : During this method, the

superheated steam temperature is reduced by spraying low
temperature water from the drum or economizer outlet into the line
between the primary and secondary superheaters, as indicated in
Fig.(22). Superheated steam temperature is controlled by regulating
the amount of spray water to produce flat temperature curve at Tsup ,
as indicated in Fig.(23).

 The attemperator, of either surface or direct types, may be located

before, between or after the superheater. Locating the attemperator
before the superheater causes steam condensation before it enters
the superheater. In the last choice, the steam temperature exceeds
the final desired temperature before attemperation. Locating the
attemperator between the primary and secondary superheaters hence
represents the preferred solution.

Fig.(22) : Spray-type attemperators.

2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa
Steam Generators 47 Steam Generators 48

 Separately fired superheater : Control of final steam temperature may

be affected by using a superheater with its own burner, combustion
chamber, fans, controls,…etc. The rate of fuel firing is adjusted to
yield a flat steam temperature with load change. This system is not
economical for large electric generating systems.

 Other types of steam temperature control are ; gas recirculation from

the economizer exit to the burning zone, selecting burners in working
and others being shutdown to give the desired temperature, using
tiltable burners to shift the flame zone in the furnace specially with
radiant superheaters and by-passing a portion of the hot gases
around the superheater by dampers.

Fig.(23) : Spray attemperator effect with oversized primary

and secondary superheaters

2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa

Steam Generators 49 Steam Generators 50

Solution
5. Steam Generators Components and Performance Analysis :
 Data : Ps = 160 bar C.R. = 8 ṁC = 4500 kg/s
 The steam generator components and performance analysis is described TW = 310 oC H = 16 m di = 60 mm
by the following sophisticated examples. Dploss = 0.65 bar Vw = 2 m/s
ṁS
 Required : xe , ṁS , Qevap. , Nriser and Ẇp ( hp = 0.78)
Example 1 : In a drum type steam generator, operating at 160 bar and 8
 From steam tables : hW = 1393.2 kJ/kg ṁR
circulation ratio, 4500 kg/s of subcooled water goes down the downcomer. ṁW
The feed water leaves the economizer at 310oC. The downcomer and riser hf = 1650.4 kJ/kg
tubes are all 16 m height. The riser tubes inner diameter is 60 mm. The hg = 2584.9 kJ/kg
H
recirculated water velocity at the bottom of the riser tubes is 2 m/s. The vf = 0.00171 m3/kg
pressure loss in the downcomer and riser tubes is 0.65 bar. Determine :
ṁC
 the top dryness fraction.  The top dryness fraction and generated steam
 The generated steam mass flow rate. mass flow rate are found from :
 The heat addition rate in the evaporation section. Since : xe = 1/(C.R.)
 The number of riser tubes.
Then : xe = 12.5 %
 The power needed to drive a forced recirculation pump if its efficiency is
0.78. Since : C.R. = 8 = ṁC / ṁS ṁS = ṁC / 8
Then : ṁS = 562.5 kg/s
2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa
Steam Generators 51 Steam Generators 52

 The heat addition rate in the boiler is calculated from :  The power of the additional circulation pump is calculated from
Since : Qevap = ṁS ( hS - hW ) Since : DPb = ( rdown - rm,R ) g H
Then : Qevap = 562.5 ( 2584.9 - 1393.2 ) Then : DPb = ( 1/0.00171 - 1/0.0024 ) * 9.806 * 16 * 10-5 bar
Or : Qevap = 670.22 MW Then : DPb = 0.2638 bar
Since : ẆP = ( Dploss - DPb ) ( ṁC vf ) / hP
 The number of riser tubes is estimated from :
ẆP = ( 0.65 - 0.2638 )*105*4500*0.00171*10-3 / 0.78
Since : ṁC = rf Vw ( p/4 ) (di )2 Nriser
Then : ẆP = 381 kW
Then : Nriser = 4500 / [ (1/0.00171) * 2.0 * (p/4 ) * ( 0.06 )2
Or : Nriser = 1360.77 tubes = 1361 tubes

 The power of the additional circulation pump is calculated from :

Since : hm,R = 0.5 ( hf + htop ) = 0.5 ( 1650.4 + 1767.2 )

Then : hm,R = 1708.8 kJ/kg
Then : xm,R = 0.0625 or vm,R = 0.0024 m3/kg

2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa

Steam Generators 53 Steam Generators 54

 Example 2 : In a fossil fuel steam generator, of a 685 MW electrical Ambient air temperature = 15 oC
power plant, the following data represent full load conditions : Air temperature from air preheater = 200 oC
Specific steam consumption = 3.20 kg/kW.hr Fuel specific heat = 2.60 kJ/kg.C
Fuel consumption = 38.5 kg/s Air specific heat at constant pressure = 1.003 kJ/kg.C
Fuel calorific value = 44 500 kJ/kg Combustion gases specific heat at constant pressure = 1.15 kJ/kg.C
Actual air-to-fuel ratio by mass = 20
 Draw a neat sketch of the steam generator showing its different
Generated steam conditions = 170 bar & 540oC components and then calculate :
Reheated steam conditions = 40 bar & 540oC
 The stack gas temperature.
( Reheated / total ) steam mass flow rate ratio = 0.80
 The heat load of the different components.
High pressure turbine internal efficiency = 0.88
 The steam generator efficiency.
Inlet feed water temperature to the economizer = 271 oC
 The economizer surface area, number of tubes and tube length.
Outlet feed water temperature from the economizer = 336 oC
Water velocity in economizer tubes = 2 m/s
Economizer overall heat transfer coefficient = 140 W/m2.C
Economizer overall heat transfer correction factor = 0.95
2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa
Steam Generators 55 Steam Generators 56

Solution  The present steam generator

is shown skechmatically in
 Data : Fig.(17).
Power = 685 MW S.S.C = 3.20 kg/kW.hr ṁf = 38.5 kg/s
C.Vf = 44500 kJ/kg A/F = 20 Ps = 170 bar
Ts = 540 oC Preh = 40 bar Treh = 540 oC
ṁreh = 0.8 ṁs hH.P.T = 0.88 Tw,i = 271 oC
Tw,o = 336 oC Vw = 2.0 m/s Uec = 140 W/m2.C
Fec = 0.95 To = 15 oC Ta,i = 200 oC
Cf = 2.60 kJ/kg.C Cp,a = 1.003 kJ/kg.C Cp,g = 1.15 kJ/kg.C

 Required :
a) Stack gas temperature.
b) Heat load of each component.
c) Steam generator efficiency.
d) Design of economizer.
2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 Fig.(17) : Sketch of fossil fuel steam generator. G. M. Mostafa

Steam Generators 57 Steam Generators 58

 1) Cycle Analysis : The different states are found from : And : ṁg = 21 * 38

Since : Pw = 170 bar And Tw,i = 271 oC ṁg = 808.5 kg/s
Then : hw,i = 1187.48 kJ/kg Since : ṁg Cp,g Tg,1 = ṁa Cp,a Ta,i + ṁf ( cf To + C.V.f )
Since : Pw = 170 bar And Tw,o = 336 oC Then : Tg,1 = [ ṁa Cp,a Ta,i + ṁf ( cf To + C.V.f ) ] / ( ṁg Cp,g )
Then : hw,o = 1555.76 kJ/kg = [ 770 * 1.003 * 200 + 38.5 * ( 2.60 * 15 + 44500 ) ]
Since : Ps = 170 bar And Ts = 540 oC / ( 808.5 * 1.15 )
Then : hg = 2551.60 kJ/kg and hs = 3399.10 kJ/kg Tg,1 = 2010.39 oC Adiabatic flame temperature

Since : Preh = 40 bar And ss = sh,s

 The energy balance of the evaporation section gives :
Then : hh,s = 2988 kJ/kg
Since : ṁs = S.S.C * Power = 3.20 * 685*103 / 3600 kg/s
Since : Treh = 540 oC and Preh = 40 bar
Then : ṁs = 608.89 kg/s = ṁw
Then : hr,o = 3535.80 kJ/kg
Since : Qev = ṁw ( hg - hw,o ) = ṁg Cp,g ( Tg,1 – Tg,2 )
 The combustion process with preheated air states that : Then : Tg,2 = Tg,1 - [ ṁw (hg - hw,o) ] / ṁg Cp,g
Since : ṁg = ṁa + ṁf = mf ( 1 + A/F ) = 21 ṁf = 2010.39 - [ 608.89 * ( 2551.60 - 555.76) ] /
Then : ṁa = 20 * 38.5 ( 808.5 * 1.15 )
Tg,2 o
= 1358.24 C
2019-2020 ṁa = 770 kg/s G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa
Steam Generators 59 Steam Generators 60

 The expansion process in the high pressure turbine states that :  The air preheater energy balance states that :
Since : hH.P.T = ( hs - hr,i ) / ( hs - hh,s ) Since : Qair = ṁg Cp,g (Tg,4 –Tg,5) = ṁa Cp,a (Ta,i –To)
Then : 0.88 = ( 3399.10 - hr,i ) / ( 3399.10 - 2988 ) Then : Tg,5 = Tg,4 - [ ṁa Cp,a (Ta,i –To) / ṁg Cp,g ]
And : hr,i = 3037.33 kJ/kg = 300.90 - [ 20 * 1.003 * ( 200 - 15 ) / 21 * 1.15 ]
Tg,5 = 147.23 oC
 The superheater and reheater energy balance states that :
Since : Qsup = ṁg Cp,g (Tg,2 -Tg,3) = ṁs ( hs - hg ) + ṁreh ( hr,o - hr,i )  a) The flue gas stack temperature is :
Then : Tg,3 = Tg,2 - ṁs [ ( hs - hg ) + 0.8*( hr,o - hr,i ) ] / (ṁg Cp,g) Tstack = 147.23 oC
= 1358.24 - 608.89 * [ (3399.1 – 2551.6) + 0.8 *  b) Steam generator components heat load : The heat load of the different
( 3535.8 – 3037.33 ) ] / ( 808.5 * 1.15 ) steam generator components are :
Tg,3 = 542.08 oC Since : QTotal = ṁg * Cp,g ( Tg,1 - To )
 The economizer energy balance states that : Then : QTotal = 808.5 * 1.15 * ( 2010.39 - 15.00 )
Since : Qec = ṁw ( hw,o - hw,i ) = ṁg Cp,g (Tg,3 - Tg,4) QTotal = 1855.26 MW
Then : Tg,4 = Tg,3 - ṁw ( hw,o - hw,i ) / ( ṁg Cp,g ) Since : Qev = ṁw (hg - hw,o)
= 542.08 - 608.89 (1555.76 -1187.48) / (808.5*1.15) Then : Qev = 608.89 ( 2551.60 - 1555.76 ) = 606.357 MW
2019-2020 Tg,4 = 300.90 oC G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 Qev / QTotal = 32.68 % G. M. Mostafa

Steam Generators 61 Steam Generators 62

 c) The steam generator overall efficiency states that :

Since : Qsup = ṁs ( hs - hg )
Since : hsg = [ ṁs ( hs - hw,i ) + ṁreh ( hr,o - hr,i ) ] / [ ṁf * C.Vf ]
Then : Qsup = 608.89 * ( 3399.1 – 2551.6 ) = 516.034 MW
Then : hsg = 608.89*[ (3399.10 - 187.48) + 0.8*(3535.80 - 3037.33) ]
Qsup /QTotal = 27.81 %
/ [ 38.5 * 44500 ]
Since : Qreh = ṁreh ( hr,o - hr,i )
hsg = 92.77 %
Then : Qreh = 0.8 * 608.89 * ( 3535.8 - 3037.33 ) = 242.811 MW
Qreh / QTotal = 13.09 %  d) Design of economizer :

Since : Qec = ṁw ( hw,o - hw,i ) Assume: do = 2.5 inch

Then : Qec = 608.89 * ( 1555.76 – 1187.48 ) = 224.242 MW Then : di = 57.15 mm
Qec /QTotal = 12.09 % Since : ṁw = rw Vw (p /4 di2) N
Since : Qair = ṁa Cp,a (Ta,i –To) Then : N = 608.89 / [ 781.7 * 2.0 * (p /4) (0.05715)2 ]
Then : Qair = 770 * 1.003 * ( 200 - 15 ) = 142.88 MW N = 152 tubes / pass (Number of horizontal tubes)
Qair / QTotal = 7.70 %

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Steam Generators 63 Steam Generators 64

Since : Qec = ṁw ( hw,o - hw,i ) = 224.242 MW

Assume : Ph = 1.6 do = 0.1016 m ( Horizontal tube pitch )
Since : qec = [(Tg,3 - Tw,o) – (Tg,4 – Tw,i)] / ln [(Tg,3 - Tw,o) / (Tg,4 – Tw,i)]
Then : W = N * Ph
Then : qec = [ (536.19 – 336) – (296.77 - 271) ] / ln [ (536.19 - 336) /
W = 15.44 m
(296.77 – 271)]
Assume: Pv = 2.0 do = 0.127 m ( Vertical tube pitch )
qec = 85.08 oC
Then : H = Z * Pv
Since : Qec = Uec Sec qec Fec
H = 7.62 m
Then : Sec = Qec / (Uec qec Fec )
= 224242 / ( 140*10-3 * 85.08 * 0.95 )
Sec = 19817.00 m2
Since : Sec = N * p * do * L
Then : L = 19817.00 / ( 150 * p * 0.0635 ) = 662.25 m
Assume: Z = 60 ( Number of vertical tubes )
Then : l = L/Z
l = 11.04 m / pass ( Length of horizontal tube )
2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa

Steam Generators 65 Steam Generators 66

 In a steam generator employing convective superheater, reheater and economizer

sections, the following information are obtained :  The tube arrangements for the three heat exchangers are staggered with equal
Generated steam pressure = 160 bar horizontal and vertical pitches. Take average specific heat of the combustion gases
equals 1.13 KJ/Kg K. Calculate :
Inlet gases temperature to the superheater = 1250 oC
Inlet steam temperature to the superheater = 450 oC  The generated steam mass flow rate.
Outlet steam temperature from the superheater and reheater = 560 oC  The heat transfer surface area for all heat exchangers.
Inlet steam conditions to the reheater = 36 bar & 340 oC  The full dimensions for the three heat exchangers, including :
Reheated steam / total mass flow ratio = 0.82  Number of tubes per pass.
Inlet water temperature to the economizer = 245 oC  Number of parallel loops.
Outlet water temperature from the economizer = 325 oC  Tubing length, width and height
Outlet gases temperature from economizer = 350oC
Fuel consumption = 62 ton/hr ( Hint : Velocity of water in tubes 1.5-to-2 m/s, velocity of steam in tubes 20-to-30 m/s )
Air-fuel ratio by mass = 17
Overall heat transfer coefficient in the superheater = 85 W/m2.C Due date : 20 / 03 / 2020
Overall heat transfer coefficient in the reheater = 75 W/m2.C
Overall heat transfer coefficient in the economizer = 125 W/m2.C
Superheater and reheater tubing ( P / do ) = 4” / 3”
Economizer tubing ( P / do ) = 3” / 2”
Superheater and reheater temperature correction factor = 0.92
Economizer heat transfer temperature correction factor = 0.95
2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa 2019-2020 G. M. Mostafa