Bulk Metal Forming

(Extrusion)
 Extrusion
A cylindrical billet is forced through a die (‘push’)

• Extrusion is the process by which a block/billet of metal is reduced in

cross section by forcing it to flow through a die orifice under high
pressure.

q A round billet is placed

in a chamber and forced
through a die opening.
q The die opening may be
round or of various
other shapes.
 Extrusion
• Extrusion is a process used to
create an objects of a fixed
cross-sectional profile. A
material is pushed through a
die of the desired cross-section.
• The two main advantages of
this process over other bulk
deformation processes is:
its ability to create very
complex cross-sections and to
work materials that are brittle,
because the material only • Process is similar to squeezing toothpaste out
encounters compressive and of a toothpaste tube
shear stresses. It also forms • In general, extrusion is used to produce long
parts with an excellent surface parts of uniform cross sections and complex
shape
finish
 Extrusion
q Large deformations can take place without fracture because material is under triaxial
compression
• The reaction of the extrusion billet with the container and die results in
high compressive stresses which are effective in reducing cracking of
materials during primary breakdown from the ingot.

• This helps to increase the utilization of extrusion in the working of metals that
are difficult to form like stainless steels, nickel-based alloys, and other high-
temperature materials.
• However, better surface finish and higher strengths (strain hardened metals) are provided
by cold extrusion.
 Extrusion Process
• The process begins by heating stock material ( for hot or warm
extrusion). It is then loaded into container in the press. A dummy
plate is placed behind it where the ram then presses on the
material to push it out of the die.
• The extrusion ratio is defined as the starting cross-sectional area
divided by the cross-sectional of the final extrusion. One of the
main advantages of extrusion process is that this ratio can be
very large while still producing quality parts
q Commonly extruded materials
include metals, polymers,
ceramics, concrete.
• Materials that can be extruded are
aluminum, copper, steel,
magnesium, and plastic.
Aluminum, copper and plastic are
most suitable for extrusion
 Advantages of Extrusion
qExtrusion results in better
• Better grain structure
• Better accuracy and
• Surface finish of the components.
• Less wastage of material in extrusion is
another attractive feature of extrusion.
 Advantages of Extrusion
qA cross section of
the metal part in
Fig., showing the
grain flow pattern.
 Extrusion
• It can be hot or cold depending on the ductility of the
material.
• Extrusion may be continuous (theoretically producing
long material) or semi-continuous (producing many
pieces because each piece is extruded individually)
• The products of extrusion are generally called
"extrudates".
• Tool costs are generally low.
• Examples: solid and hollow shapes, railings for sliding
doors, window frames, tubing [various, constant,
cross sections], aluminum ladders, gears.
Continuous and semi-continuous
extrusion
 Extrusion products
• Typical parts produced by extrusion are trim parts used in
automotive and construction applications, window frame
members, railings for sliding doors, aircraft structural parts.

Example: Aluminum extrusions are used in

commercial and domestic buildings for window
and door frame systems, prefabricated
houses/building structures, roofing and curtain
walling, shop fronts, etc.
Furthermore, extrusions are also used in
transport for airframes, and in marine
applications.
Classification of extrusion
processes
 Direct Extrusion (Forward)
• Similar to forcing toothpaste through the opening of tube
• In this process the billet slides relative to container wall
• Final cross-sectional shape of extrudate is determined by die
opening shape.
• As ram approaches die opening, a small portion of billet
remains that cannot be forced through the die
• This portion, called the butt, must be separated from the
extrudate by cutting it off just beyond the die exit
 Direct Extrusion (Forward)
q Direct extrusion, also called forward extrusion, is a
process in which is the billet moves along the same
direction as the ram or punch do.
q Sliding of billet is against stationary container wall.
q Friction between the container and billet is high. As a
result, greater forces are required.
q A dummy block of slightly lower diameter than the billet
diameter is used in order to prevent oxidation of the billet
in hot extrusion.
q Hollow sections like tubes can be extruded by direct
method, by using hollow billet and a mandrel attached to
the dummy block.
 Direct Extrusion(Forward)
• The metal billet is placed in a container and driven
through the die by the ram.
• The dummy block or pressure plate, is placed at the end
of the ram in contact with the billet.
• Friction is at the die and container wall requires higher
pressure than indirect extrusion.
 Variation of extrusion force with ram travel
in direct extrusion
q Extrusion force, which is the force
required for extrusion, in direct
extrusion, varies with ram travel
as shown in figure.
q Initially the billet gets compressed
to the size of container, before
getting extruded. Also, initially
static friction exists between billet
and container. As a result the
extrusion pressure or force
increases steeply as shown.
q Once the billet starts getting
extruded, it length inside the
container is reduced. Friction
between billet and container now
starts reducing. Therefore,
extrusion pressure reduces.
 Variation of extrusion force with ram travel
in direct extrusion
q The highest pressure at which
extrusion starts is called
breakthrough pressure. At the end
of the extrusion, the small amount
of material left in the container
gets pulled into the die, the
extrusion pressure rapidly
increases, as the small size billet
present offers higher resistance.
q As the length of the billet is
increased, the corresponding
extrusion pressure is also higher
because of friction between
Ø Direct extrusion can be employed
container and billet
for extruding solid circular or non-
q Therefore, billet lengths beyond 5 circular sections, hollow sections
times the diameter are not such as tubes or cups.
preferred in direct extrusion.
 Direct Extrusion (Forward)
Hollow and Semi-Hollow Shapes
(a) Direct extrusion to produce hollow or semi-hollow cross
sections; (b) hollow and (c) semi-hollow cross sections
 Direct Extrusion (Forward)
qProcess variables in direct extrusion.
Ø The die angle
ØReduction in cross section
Ø Extrusion speed
ØBillet temperature, and
ØLubrication all affect the extrusion pressure.
 Extrusion Force
qForce, F, depends on:
§ Strength of billet material
§ Extrusion Ratio, R, Ao/Af
§ Friction between billet and chamber & die surfaces
§ Process variables: temperature, velocity

qThe Extrusion constant, k, is determined

experimentally, see the next figure
 Extrusion Force

qExtrusion constant k for various metals at different

temperatures.
 Indirect Extrusion (Backward)
qIndirect extrusion (backward extrusion) is a process
in which punch moves opposite to that of the billet.
qHere there is no relative motion between container
and billet. Hence, there is less friction and hence
reduced forces are required for indirect extrusion.
q For extruding solid pieces, hollow punch is required.
qIn hollow extrusion, the material gets forced through
the annular space between the solid punch and the
container.
 Indirect Extrusion(Backward)

q The variation of extrusion

pressure in indirect extrusion
is shown.
q As seen, extrusion pressure
for indirect extrusion is lower
than that for direct extrusion.
q Many components are
manufactured by combining
direct and indirect extrusions.
q Indirect extrusion can not be
used for extruding long
extrudes.
 Indirect Extrusion (Backward)
• The die moves toward the billet and there is no relative
motion at the billet-container interface except the die.
• Friction at the die only (no relative movement at the
container wall) - requires roughly constant pressure.
 Indirect Extrusion (Backward)

Indirect extrusion to produce (a) a solid cross

section and (b) a hollow cross section
 Indirect Extrusion(Backward)

• Limitations of indirect extrusion are imposed by

1. Lower rigidity of hollow ram
2. Difficulty in supporting extruded product
as it exits die
• While friction is a factor in determining the
ram force in direct extrusion, but is not a
factor in indirect extrusion.
Indirect Extrusion(Backward)
 Extrusion
• Types of Extrusion
1. Hot Extrusion
2. Cold Extrusion
 Hot Extrusion
qGenerally done at fairly high temperatures,
approximately at 50 to 75 % of the melting point of the
metal. which means it is done above the
material's recrystallization temperature to keep the
material from work hardening and to make it easier to
push the material through the die.
qHot extrusion can be employed for higher extrusion
ratios.[ Purpose]
qInhomogeneous deformation can occur due to die wall
chilling of the billet.
q Metal may get oxidized. The oxide layer can increase
friction as well as the material flow.
 Hot Extrusion
qUse higher temperatures to improve ductility &
metal flow
qCan cause excessive die wear, result of abrasion
from surface oxides
qCan have nonuniform deformation caused by
cooling surfaces of billet and die
• Improve by preheating die and wall container.
qSurface oxides on product may be undesirable
when good surface finish is important
• Can prevent extrusion of surface oxides by making
the diameter of the dummy block a little smaller
than the container; this keeps a thin shell (“skull”)
of oxides in the container
 Hot Extrusion

qThe high temperatures and pressures has an

adverse effect on the die life as well as other
components so good lubrication is a must. Oil
graphite and glass powder is preferred as
lubricants.
qPressures range from 30 to 700 MPa (4,400
to 101,500 psi), therefore lubrication is
required, which can be oil graphite for lower
temperature extrusions, or glass powder for
higher temperature extrusions
 Extrusion Temperature Ranges for
Various Metals
°C
Lead 200–250
Aluminum and its alloys 375–475
Copper and its alloys 650–975
Steels 875–1300
Refractory alloys 975–2200
q Die material for hot extrusion:
q Die materials for hot extrusion are hot-worked die steels.
q Coatings (such as partially stabilized zirconia) may be applied
to the dies to extend their life.
 Hot Extrusion
• It is carried out at elevated temperature for metals and
alloys that do not have sufficient ductility at room
temperature or in order to reduce the forces required [
Purpose] .
q Problems:
1. Die wear .Billet develops an oxide film because of heating.
Oxide film is abrasive
2. Cooling of the surface of the hot billet in the container
(which is normally not heated) can result in highly
nonuniform deformation during extrusion.
3. Billet develops an oxide film because of heating. Oxide film
is abrasive, can affect the flow pattern of the material, may
result in an extruded product that is unacceptable when a
good surface finish is important.
 Hot Extrusion
• Furthermore, since the billet is heated prior to extrusion, it
is typically covered with an oxide layer, unless heated in an
inert atmosphere.
• The oxide layer affects the frictional properties, can affect
the flow of the material, and can produce an extruded part
that is covered with an oxide layer.

• Lubrication. It is important because it affects on:

1. Material flow during extrusion.
2. Surface finish and integrity.
3. Product quality.
4. Extrusion forces.
 Hot Extrusion lubricants
q For steels, stainless steel, and high temperate materials, glass is a
good excellent lubrication.
1. Glass maintains its viscosity at elevated temperatures.
2. Has good wetting characteristics,
3. And act as a thermal barrier between the billet, the container,
and the die, thus minimizing cooling.
q Glass applied as powder to billet surface, or
q Insert glass pad at die entrance; when heated,melted glass
lubricates die surface
 Hot Extrusion
Effects of temperature on hot extrusion
qDecreased deformation resistance due to
increasing extrusion temperature.
qOxidation of billet and extrusion tools.
qSoftening of dies and tools.
qDifficult to provide adequate lubrication.
 Hot Extrusion
q The top working temperature should be safely below the
melting point. Use minimum temperature to provide metal
with suitable plasticity.
Ø The temperature of the workpiece in metal working depends
on;
q The initial temperature of the tools and the materials
q Heat generated due to plastic deformation
q Heat generated by friction at the die/material interface
(highest)
q Heat transfer between the deforming material and the dies
and surrounding environment.
Note: Working temperature in extrusion is normally higher than used in
forging and rolling due to relatively large compressive stresses in minimizing
cracking.
 Cold Extrusion
• Many ductile metals can be cold extruded into various
configurations, with the billet mostly at room temperature
[Cold extrusion is the process done at room temperature or
near room temperature].
• Examples of the metals that can be extruded are lead, tin,
aluminum alloys, copper, titanium, molybdenum, vanadium.
• Typical product made are automotive components and gear
blanks.
• In automobile sector they have found wide applications in
Injection technology; Engine control; Fuel supply; Automatic
transmissions technology (gear blanks); Safety restraint
systems (SRS).
 Cold Extrusion

Production steps for a cold extruded spark plug

 Cold Extrusion
q Work hardening leads to improved properties, as long as
frictional heat does not cause recrystallization
q Improved surface finish due to lack of oxide film
Advantages vs. Hot Extrusion
• No oxidation takes place.
• Good mechanical properties resulting from strain hardening as long
as the temperatures created (heat generated by plastic deformation
and friction) are below the recrystallization temperature.
• Good surface finish (due to lack of oxide film) with the use of proper
lubricants.
• High production rate and relatively low cost
• Less energy required (no preheating)
• Good dimensional tolerances, thus requiring a minimum of
machining and finishing operations.
 Cold Extrusion
Disadvantage:
q Higher stresses on tooling and dies (Especially with
steel workpieces)
Ø Thus, the design of tooling and selection of appropriate
tool materials are crucial to success in cold extrusion.
Ø The hardness of tooling usually ranges between 60 and 65
HRC for the punch (ram), and 58 to 62 HRC for the dies.
Ø The punches are critical component; they must have
sufficient strength, toughness, and resistance to wear and
fatigue
 Cold Extrusion
qLubrication is important for this process because new
surfaces are generated during deformation, which may
cause seizure between the workpiece and tooling.
qThe most effective lubrication is provided by phosphate
conversion coatings on the workpiece and with soap or
wax as lubrication.
qTemperature rise in cold extrusion is an important
factor, especially at high extrusion ratio. The
temperature may be sufficiently high to initiate and
complete recrystallization process of cold-worked metal,
thus reducing the advantages of cold working
Force in Cold Extrusion
 By equipment Extrusion
qHorizontal Hydraulic Press
• Can control stroke & speed
• Can apply constant force over long stroke
qVertical Hydraulic Press
• Used for cold extrusion
• Lower capacity
 By equipment Extrusion
1) Horizontal presses
• Used for most commercial
extrusion of bars and shapes.
Disadvantages:
• Deformation is non-uniform
due to different
temperatures between top
and bottom parts of the
billet.
• Proper alignment is needed
• Floor space is needed
 By equipment Extrusion

2) Vertical presses
• Chiefly used in the production of thin-wall tubing.
Advantages:
• Easier alignment between the press ram and tools.
• Higher rate of production.
• Require less floor space than horizontal presses.
• Uniform deformation.
 By equipment Extrusion
Vertical extrusion presses
Requirements:
• Need considerable
headroom to make
extrusions of
appreciable length.
• A floor pit is necessary
for providing rigidity for
the machine.
Vertical extrusion machine
 Miscellaneous Extrusion
Operations.
qImpact extrusion
qIs a form of indirect extrusion and is particularly suitable
for hollow shapes. The process – often - included in the
category of cold extrusion (Often a combination of
indirect and cold extrusion).
qIn this operation, the punch descends at a high speed and
strikes the blank and extrude it in the opposite direction.
qA typical example of impact extrusion is the production of
collapsible tubes, such as for toothpaste.
Impact extrusion product
 Impact extrusion product

q Schematic illustration of the impact-extrusion process.

q The extruded parts are stripped by the use of a stripper
plate, because they tend to stick to the punch.
 Impact extrusion product
q It should be noted that the thickness of the extruded tubular cross
section is a function of the clearance between the punch and the die
cavity (Thickness of extruded part depends on clearance between
punch and die).

q The impact-extrusion process typically produces tubular shapes with

wall thicknesses that are small in relation to their diameters, a ratio
that can be as a small as 0.005
 Impact extrusion product

q The concentricity of the punch and blank is important as

otherwise the wall thickness will not be uniform.
§ A variety of nonferrous metals are impact extruded in this
manner
q The equipment
used is typically
vertical presses at
production rate as
high as two parts
per second
(a) Impact extrusion of a collapsible tube.
(b) and (c) Two examples of products made by impact extrusion.
§ These parts also may be made by casting, forging, or machining.
q The choice of process depends on the materials involved, part
dimensions and wall thickness, and the properties desired.
q Economic considerations also are important in final process
selection.
 Miscellaneous Extrusion
Operations - Hydrostatic Extrusion
. for extrusion is
qIn this process, the pressure required
supplied through a fluid medium that surrounds the
billet.
qThus, there is no
container-wall contact
and hence no friction.
qThe high pressure in the
chamber also transmits
some of the fluid to die
surfaces, significantly
reducing friction and
forces.
 Miscellaneous Extrusion
Operations.
Hydrostatic Extrusion
• The pressure in this process is in the order of 1400 Mpa
• Because of the highly pressurized environment and fluid
medium, this operation reduces the defects that may
otherwise develop in the extruded product.
• A variety of metals and polymer have been extruded
successfully, such as tubes, solid shapes, clad profiles and
other hollow shapes.
• Hydrostatic extrusion is usually carried out at room
temperature, typically using vegetable oils as the fluid,
particularly castor oil because its good lubricant and its
viscosity is not influenced significantly by pressure
Miscellaneous Extrusion
Operations.
Clad profiles
 Miscellaneous Extrusion
Operations.
• For elevated temperature hydrostatic extrusion, waxes,
polymers, and glasses are used as the fluid; these materials
also serve as thermal insulators and help maintain the billet
temperature during extrusion
• Hydrostatic extrusion has had limited industries
applications:
qBecause of the somewhat complex nature of tooling
qThe experience required in working with high pressure
qThe design of specialize equipment
qLong cycle times required
qA practical limit on fluid pressure of a round 1.7Gpa.
 Miscellaneous Extrusion
Operations.

Hydrostatic Extrusion

• Advantages
qEliminating of large friction force between billet
and the container wall.
qPossible to use die with very small angle
 Miscellaneous Extrusion
Operations.
Hydrostatic Extrusion

• Brittle materials can be extruded successfully by this method because the

hydrostatic pressure (along with low friction and the use of small die angles and
high extrusion ratios (R = A0/Af) increases the ductility of the material.
• It has limited applications because it is uneconomical
 Extrusion Ratio

• Also called the reduction ratio, it is defined as:

R
• Where:
q R = Extrusion ratio;
q Ao = Cross sectional area of the starting billet
cross sectional area
q Af = Final cross-sectional area of the extruded
section
• Applies to both direct and indirect extrusion
 Extrusion Ratio
• Extrusion ratio, R, is the ratio of the initial cross-sectional area , Ao,
of the billet to the final cross-sectional area , Af, after extrusion.

• Fractional reduction in area, r

• Rewrite the extrusion ratio R

 Pressure in extrusion
• Extrusion pressure = extrusion force
/cross sectional area
• The rapid rise in pressure during initial
ram travel is due to the initial
compression of the billet to fill the
extrusion container.
• For direct extrusion, the metal begins to
flow through the die at the maximum
pressure, the breakthrough pressure.
• As the billet extrudes through the die the
pressure required to maintain flow
progressively decreases with decreasing
length of the billet in the container.
• At the end of the stroke, the pressure
rises up rapidly in an attempt to exit
billet so as to leave a small discard in the
container.
 Force in Hot extrusion

• For indirect
extrusion, extrusion
pressure is ~ constant
and represent the
stress required to
deform the metal
through the die.
Mechanics of Extrusion
 Direct Extrusion: Ideal force, no
friction
• Based on the extrusion ratio, the value of true strain:
Ao Lf
e 1 = ln( ) = ln( ) = ln( R)
Af Lo

• For perfectly plastic material, with a Yield stress Y: the

energy dissipated in plastic deformation per unit volume
u = Ye 1
• The work done on the billet and the work that is supplied
by the ram force, which travels a distance Lo:
Work = ( Ao )( Lo )(u )
Work = FLo = pAo Lo
 Direct Extrusion-Ideal force, no
friction
By equating the work of plastic deformation to the external work
done we have the ideal pressure is:

Ao
p = u = Y ln( ) = (Y )(ln R)
Af
And the ideal force is

F = pAo
Direct Extrusion: ideal force with friction
• For smaller dies angels, It was shown that with friction at
the die-billet interface and ignoring the container-wall
friction. The extrusion pressure is:

tan a µ cota
p = Y (1 + )[ R - 1]
µ
• Because of the dead zone formed, the material flows
along a 45o die angle. So pressure can be estimated as:
2L
p = Y (1.7 ln R + )
Do
Direct Extrusion: ideal force with friction

2L
p = Y (1.7 ln R + )
Do
• Note that as the ram travels
further toward the die, L,
decreases, and thus the
pressure, as shown in the
figure.
• However, in indirect extrusion,
the extrusion pressure is not a
function of billet length
 Direct Extrusion: Actual Forces
• In actual extrusion practices, there are difficulties in
estimating:
1. The coefficient of friction and its variation throughout all
work piece-die contacting surfaces.
2. The flow stress of the material under the actual conditions
of temperature and strain rate
3. And the work involved in inhomogeneous deformation.
• A simple empirical formula has been developed in the form
of:
P=Y( a+ b*lnR)
• a=0.8, and b ranges between 1.2 and 1.5
 Effect of ram speed and temperature on
extrusion pressure
• As expected, the pressure increases
rapidly with ram speed, especially at
elevated temperature due to

Extrusion pressure
increase strain-rate sensitivity.
• However, the heat generated at
higher speed will not dissipated fast
enough. This rise in temperature can Increasing
temperature
lead to incipient melting of the work
Extrusion speed
piece material and possibly causes
defects.
• Also Speed cracking can be occurred
because of the high ram speed.
• These problems can be reduced by
lowering the extrusion speed
 Force in Hot extrusion

• A parameter that is used to estimate the force in hot

extrusion is an experimentally determined extrusion
constant, k, which includes various factors involved in
the process
 Force in Hot extrusion
Extrusion force: A0
F = A0 k ln( )
Af

where k = extrusion constant, an overall factor which accounts

for the flow stress, friction, and inhomogeneous deformation..
A0: is the billet area.
Af: is the extruded product area.
R: extrusion ratio
Extrusion force depends on:
1. Extrusion ratio
2. Strength of the billet
3. Friction between the billet and the chamber and the die
surfaces.
4. The process variables such as temperature of the billet and the
speed of extrusion.
Extrusion Constant k for Various
Metals

Figure 15.6 Extrusion constant

k for various metals at different
temperatures. Source: P.
Loewenstein.
 Example
Calculation of force in hot extrusion

A round billet made of 70 – 30 brass is extruded at a

temperature of 1250 F (675 C). The billet diameter is
5 in. (125mm), and the diameter of the extrusion is 2
in. (50mm). Calculate the extrusion force required.
 Extrusion Die Features
• (a) Definition of die angle; (b) effect of die
angle on ram force
 Optimum die angle
• The die angle has an important
effect on forces in extrusion. Its
effect can be summarized as
follows:
qThe ideal force (with no friction)
is a function of the strain that the
material undergoes, thus a
function of extrusion ratio R.
consequently, it is independent
of die angle, as shown in curve b
 Optimum die angle
qThe force due to friction increases with decreasing die
angle. This is because, the length of contact along the
billet-die interface increases as the die angle
decreases; thus the force required increases as shown
in curve d.
 Optimum die angle

qAn additional force is

required for redundant
work due to the
inhomogeneous
deformation of the
material during extrusion.
This redundant work is
assumed to increase with
the die angle, because the
higher the angle, the more
nonuniform the
deformation becomes, as
shown in curve c
 Optimum die angle
q The total extrusion forces is the sum of these three components.
q Also there is an angle at which this force is a minimum. Because
the force is minimized at this angle, it is called the optimum angle
 Metal flow in extrusion
q Types of metal flow in extruding
(a) Flow pattern obtained at low friction or in indirect extrusion.
(b) Pattern obtained with high friction at the billet–chamber interfaces.
(c) Pattern obtained at high friction or with cooling of the outer regions
of the billet in the chamber. This type of pattern, observed in metals
whose strength increases rapidly with decreasing temperature, leads to
a defect known as pipe (or extrusion) defect.
 Metal flow in extrusion
• A common technique for investigating the flow
pattern is to cut a round billet and mark one face
with a square grid pattern. The two halves are then
placed together in the container (they may also be
fastened together to keep the two halves intact) and
extruded as one piece. They are then taken apart and
observations are made regarding the distortion of
the grid line.
qThe main factors involved in how these different flow
patterns develop are:
1. Friction at billet-container and billet- die interfaces
2. Thermal gradients within the billet.
 Metal flow in extrusion
• The most homogeneous
(uniform) flow pattern is
obtained when there is no
friction at the billet
container-die interfaces
(shown in the figure).
• This type of flow occurs
when the lubricant is very
effective or with indirect
extrusion, where there is
no friction at the billet-
container interface.
 Metal flow in extrusion
qWhen friction along all
interfaces [billet–Wall
interfaces] is high a dead-metal
zone develops (Fig. 3 b).
q Note the high-shear area forms
as the material flows into the
die exit, somewhat like a funnel.
qThis configuration may indicate
that the billet surfaces (with
their oxide layer and lubricant)
could enter this high-shear zone
and be extruded, causing
defects in the extruded product.
 Metal flow in extrusion
• The high-shear zone extends farther into
the billet (shown in the figure).
• This situation can be due to high container-
wall friction (which retards the flow of the
billet on the surface due to heat transfer) or
from materials in which the flow stress
drops rapidly at the billet surface with
increasing heat transfer.
• In hot working, the material near the
container walls cools rapidly and hence
increases in strength. Thus the material in
the central regions flows toward the die
more easily than that at the outer regions.
As a result, a large dead-metal zone forms
and the flow is inhomogeneous. This flow
pattern leads to a defect known as a pipe or
extrusion defect.
 Extrusion defects
q There are three principal defects in extrusion as described below:
1. Surface cracking:
q High extrusion temperature, friction, speed cause high surface
temperatures [surface temperatures rise significantly and can lead to
surface cracking and tearing (Fir-tree cracking or speed cracking)].
q In hot extrusion, this form of cracking usually is intergranular (along
grain boundaries)and is associated with high temperature
q Caused by hot shorting: local cooling of constituents or impurities at
grain boundaries
q This situation can be avoided by using lower temperatures and
speeds.
 Extrusion defects
1. Surface cracking:
q Surface cracking also may occur at lower temperatures
where it has been attributed to periodic sticking of the
extruded product along the die land during extrusion (At
lower temperature, sticking in the die land and the sudden
building up of pressure will cause transverse cracking).

• Caused by sticking of
extrusion along die
land
• Sticking raises
pressure

transverse cracking
 Extrusion defects
2. Extrusion Defects it can be noted that
the type of metal flow as shown will tend
to draw surface oxides and impurities
toward the center of billet.
q This defect is known as extrusion
defect, pipe, tailpipe, or fishtailing,
renders a considerable portion of the
extruded materials useless, by as much
as one-third the length of the extrusion
q The metal flow tends to draw surface
oxides and impurities toward the center
of the billet much likes a funnel.
 Extrusion defects
2. Extrusion Defects
q This defect can be reduced by:
q Modifying the flow pattern to a less
inhomogeneous one to be more uniform, such
as by controlling friction and minimizing
temperature gradients.
q Another method is to machine the surface of
the billet prior to extrusion to eliminate scale
and impurities
q The extrusion defect can also be avoided by
using a dummy block that is smaller in
diameter than the container, thus leaving a
thin shell along the container wall as extrusion
progresses.
 Extrusion defects

3. Internal Cracking
q Cracks variously known as centerburst, center cracking,
arrowhead fracture, or chevron cracking, can develop at
the center of an extruded product
q These cracks are attributed to a state of tensile stresses
at the centerline of the deformation zone in the die. This
situation is similar to the necked region in a uniaxial
tensile-test specimen.
q The major variables affecting this defects are the die
angle [Increases with increasing die angle], extrusion
ratio [Decreases with increasing extrusion ratio the
deformation zones will meet], friction [Decreases with
increasing friction], and the die contact length (the
smaller the die angle, the longer is the contact length).
 Chevron Cracking
(b)
(a)

Figure 15.16 (a) Chevron cracking (central burst) in extruded round steel bars. Unless
the products are inspected, such internal defects may remain undetected, and later cause
failure of the part in service. This defect can also develop in the drawing of rod, of wire,
and of tubes. (b) Schematic illustration of rigid and plastic zones in extrusion. The
tendency toward chevron cracking increases if the two plastic zones do not meet.
Extrusion defects

Fishtailing
 Die design
• Die design is the heart of efficient extrusion
production.
• Dies must withstand considerable amount of
stresses, thermal shock, and oxidation.
Die design consideration
qWall thickness: different wall thicknesses in one
section should be avoided.
qSharp or rounded corners: sharp corners should
be avoided.
qSymmetrical: should be more accurate.
 Die material
qDies are made from highly alloy tools steels or
ceramics or (zirconia)
qHeat treatments such as nitriding are required
(several times) to increase hardness (1000-1100
Hv or 65-70 HRC). This improves die life and
avoiding unscheduled press shutdown.