Physical layer

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Overview
 Physical layer is responsible for transmission
of a stream of bits
 Put bits from a machine to a medium
 Pick bits from the medium give to receiver
 Some issues
 Medium
 Line Encoding: representing the digital logic
levels using the physical attributes associated
with the media.
 Multiplexing 2
From signal to packet
Analog Signal

“Digital” Signal

Bit Stream 0 0 1 0 1 1 1 0 0 0 1
0100010101011100101010101011101110000001111010101110101010101101011010111001
Packets
Header/Body Header/Body Header/Body

Packet
Transmission Sender Receiver
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Model of data transmission
system

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Data Communication networks

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Media
 Wired
 Twisted Pair
 Coaxial Cable
 Fiber Optics
 Wireless
 Radio
 Infra red
 Light
 …
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Twisted pair

(a) Category 3 UTP.

(b) Category 5 UTP.
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Evaluation
 Cheap, simple  Need amplification after
 Widely used each 5km in analog
 Weak resistance to noice transmission
 Short Transmission  In digital transmission
distance  Need repeater after each 2
km
 Limited speed (100MHz)
 Noise

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II. Coaxial

Category Impedance Use

RG-59 75 W Cable TV
RG-58 50 W Thin Ethernet
RG-11 50 W Thick Ethernet

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Application
 Using in TV transmission  For digital transmission
 For transmission of  Repeater should be
telephone signal used after each 1km
 10,000 calls in the same  More repeater is needed
time for high speed
 Is being replaced by fiber transmission
optics
 Linking the computers of
the short distance
 LAN 10BaseT, 100BaseT,
…

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Optical fiber

(a) Single core

(b) Cable with 3 cores
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Optical fiber transmission
mode

Jacket

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Optical fiber

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Application of optical fiber
 Used for long distance  Advantage in
transmission comparison with other
 Used for cables
communication in  Large data rate
metropolitan networks  Small and light cable
 Used for connecting  Low attenuation
routers of ISP  Better isolation from
electromagnetic
 Used in backbone part environment
of a LAN  Large distance between
repeaters (10km)
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Wireless media
 Data transmission on different frequency
band of electromagnetic waves
 No physical lines
 Broadcast, half-duplex: only send or
receive at a time
 Being impact by environment
 Reflection
 Noise/interfering
 Scattering caused by obstacles

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Wireless media
 Radio wave:
 Wavelengths: 1mm – 100.000km
 Frequencies: 3 Hz – 300 GHz
 Ex: Bluetooth, WIFI
 Microwave:
 Wavelengths: 1mm-1 m
 Frequencies: 300 MHz-300 GHz
 Terrestrial microwave : metro connection, cellular
communication
 Satelite microwave: TV, long distance telephone
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Wireless media
 Infra red:
 Wavelengths: 700 nm- 1 mm
 frequency: 300 GHz-430 THz
 Small scope, no wall penetration
 Ex: use in remote controls
 Free Space Optics
 Wavelengths: 850nm, 1300nm, 1550 nm

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Frequency range of transmission
chanels

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Transmission type
 Simplex: Data is trasmitted in one direction
 Full Duplex: Data can be transmitted in both
directions in the same time
 Half duplex: Data can be transmitted in both
directions but one direction at a time.

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Transmission format
 Sequent transmission: Transmit 1 bit at a moment (over a signal
line)
 Parallel transmission: Trasmit multiple bits in the same time (over
multiple signal lines)
1

0
1010 A B
A B 1

0
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Topology
 Point-to-point
 Star
 Ring
 Mesh
 Point-to-multipoint
 Bus
 Ring
 Star

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Point -to-Point

1 2 3 4 5 N-2 N-1 N

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Point-to-multipoint

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Medium interface
 Data terminal equipment (DTE)
 Have data to transmit but has no feature for transmission
 Need an additional device for accessing the media
 Data circuit terminating equipment (DCE)
 Transmit bits on the media
 Transmit data and control information with DCE through
connection the media
 Need a clear interface standard between DTE, DCE

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DTE-DCE

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Media interface
 Mechanism
 Define the form of the interface, number of pins for assuring the
interfaces match together
 Electrics
 Define the level of voltage to be used
 Define the length of pulse (frequency)
 Define enconding method
 Functionalities
 Functionality of each pins
 There are 4 groups of pins: data, control, synchronization,
ground
 Procedure
 Lists of events to perform for transmitting data

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Example: EIA-232-E/RS-232
 Define for serial communication
 Mechanism: ISO 2110
 Electrics: V. 28
 Functionality: V. 24
 Procedure: V. 24

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Example: V.24 /EIA-232-E
 Mechanic:
 25 or 15 pins
 Transmission distance 15m
 Electrics
 Digital data
 1=-3v, 0=+3v (NRZ-L)
 Data rate 20kbps
 Transmission distance<
15m

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 Data Encoding
Introduction
Encoding digital data to digital signal
Encoding digital data to analogical signal
Encoding analogical data to digital signal
Encoding analogical data to digital signal

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 Fundamental concepts
 Objective
 Transform the data into some signals that is suitable for
transmission media

4 forms of encoding
digital data to digital signal
digital data to analogical signal
analogical data to digital signal
analogical data to digital signal

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Data encoding
 Use different discrete signal, different voltage level
for representing bit 0 and 1.
 Data transmission should be synchronized between
sender and receiver: clock synchronization
 Encoding could be performed by bit or by a group of
bit e.g., 4 or 8 bits.
 There are many way to represent 0 and 1  See
data transmission technique.

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1. Digital data- Digital signal
 Data unit: 1 bit
 Digital data is a digital signal
 Each pulse is considered as a signal unit.

 A signal unit can be considered as 1 bit

 Data encoding: mapping data to signal

 Set of mapping is called Encoding scheme
 Mark:1, Space:0

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Line encoding method

 NRZ  Phase encoding

 NRZ-L,NRZI  Manchester
 Bipolar  Differential Manchester
 Bipolar alternate mark (Manchester vi sai)
inversion
 Pseudoternary

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 NRZ-L Non Return to Zero Level

 During bit time, signal does not go back to 0 level

 Signal level is not changed during bit time.
 NRZ-L Non return to zero level
 Bit 1 signal is in low/high level
 Bit 0 signal is in high/low level

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NRZ-I Non return to zero invert

 Bit 0: signal level is not changed at the begining of bit time

 Bit 1: signal level is changed at the begining of bit time
 A differential encoding method :
 0 and 1 represent by the signal level change, not by the level itself.
 Reliable/ simple.

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Line encoding consideration
 Two aspects should be consider in any encoding
methods:
 Clock recovery on receiver side: If the clock recovery is
not ideal, then the signal to be decoded will not be sampled at
the optimal times. This will increase the probability of error in the
received data.
 DC-component: Directed Current vontage
component.
 DC-component makes recepter mistakenly detect level of
signal
 Encoding should avoid DC-component by having signal mean
altitude to be around 0.

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NRZ
 NRZ Advantage
 Simple, utilise the maximum capacity of the line
 Frequency range from 0 - ½ data speed
 Example: 9600bps -> 4800khz
 NRZ Weakness
 NRZ does not contain element supporting clock synchorization
 Example: when sending a suit of 1 or 0 with many consecutive signals of
the same level  lost synchronization.
 Set of 0 for NRZI and set of 1 for NRZ-L
 Contain DC-component when sending a suit of 1.
 Application
 Encoding data on magnetic storage
 Not popular in data transmission

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Bipolar AMI

 Use more than 2 signal level for 1 bit

 Bipolar alternate mark inversion
 0 : No signal
 1: Presence of signal. Two consequent 1 have two different signal
levels
 pseudoternary
 1 : No signal
 0 : Presence of signal. Two consequent 0 have two different signal
levels

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Bipolar-AMI

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Bipolar AMI
 DC component =0
 Good synchronization when there are many bit 1(0),
lost of synchronization when there are many bit 0(1)
 3 possible signal levels for 1 bit:
 Not optimal in using transmission line.

 Receipter needs to distingush 3 levels of signal

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Biphase: Manchester
 Manchester: Always change signal level in the middle of bit
time
 Bit 1: Signal change from low level to high level
 Bit 0: Signal change from high level to low level
 Level change provide synchonisation mechanism.
 Differential Manchester:
 0: signal level change at the begining of bit
 1: no signal level change at the begining of bit
 Always change signal level in the middle of bit time for
synchronization purpose

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Manchester encoding

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Manchester encoding

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Units in transmitting digital
data in digital transmission

Term Units Definition

Data unit bit A single bit, Value 0 or 1

Data rate bit/s Rate transmitting bit

Part of the signal correspond to
Pulse the smallest duration of a
Signal unit a sinus symbol
Number of
Symbol rate/ Rate symbol/s Number of symbols generated
of modulation (baud) in a unit of time
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 Encoding rate: Baud rate
 Number of symbol changes, waveform changes, or
signaling events across the transmission medium
per unit of time
 Unit: Baud/s = symbol/s

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Line encoding summary

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Exercise 1
 Present the following bit set by encoding
methods
 11000000 00000010 11001101 01010101

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Exercise 2
 Given a Manchester coding signals as
followed
 Determine the timing of each bit
 Determine the original bits

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Solution for exercise 2

Middles of bits Middles of bits Middles of bits

 Original bits: 1110011010

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2. Encoding digital data to
analogical signal
 Example: transfer data through telephone system
 Traditional telephone transfer, and forward data from 300Hz to 3400Hz
 At sources and destination, digital data need to be converted to analog
signals to transfer on telephone lines
 Depend on signals, we have 3 different encoding techniques
 Amplitude shift keying – ASK: Điều chế khóa dịch biên độ
 Frequency shift keying – FSK: Điều chế khóa dịch pha
 Phase shift keying – PSK: Điều chế khóa dịch tần số

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Amplitude shift keying (ASK)

 0 and 1 represent with two

different amplitute, typical level  A cos(2 ft ) cho 1
of one is 0 s(t )  
0 cho 0
 Easily impact by noise
(1200bps for telephone)
 Hard to sync signals
 Used in optical cables (LED or
laser)

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On-Off Keying (OOK)
 Used in optical cables
 A type of ASK
 1: having light during bit period (ON).
 0: no light during bit period (OFF).
 OOK can use different format :
 NRZ: emit light signal in the whole of bit 1
 RZ (return-to-zero): only emit light signal in a
proportion of bit 1.

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On-Off Keying (OOK)

OOK on amplitude view (upper) and light signal (below)

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Frequency shift keying (FSK)

 Two values of 1 bit are

represented as two different
frequencies
 Multiple FSK
 Low error rate
 Used to transfer data in
telephone lines (low
frequencies), or in wireless
network (high frequencies)

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 Phase shift keying (PSK)

 0,1 are represented by two

different phases
 Can be effectively used for
encoding multiple bits
 Can be combined with ASK
 If the speed is 9600 bps,
what is speed of encoding?

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Amplitude and phase-shift keying
(APSK)

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Encoding digital-to-analogue

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3. Encoding analog data to digital data
 Encoding analog data to digital data,
 Convert to digital signals
 Direcly by NRZ-L
 Or other digital-digital encoding
 Convert to analog signals
 Presented digital-analog encoding
 Two main encoding methods
 Pulse Code Modulation
 Delta Modulation

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 Pulse Code Modulation (PCM)
 Pulse Code Modulation
 Shannon sampling theorem
 the sampling rate is be equal to or
greater than twice the highest
frequency in the signal, the
original is intact
 Example: voice has maximum
frequency of 4300Hz, sampling
rate should be minimum at
8600Hz
 Two steps
 Sampling (Pulse-amplitude
modulation)
 Quantization
 Differential pulse-code
modulation
 Only sampling the differences

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Delta Modulation
 Use a staircase function (hàm bậc thang)
 The approximation falls below the signal  1
 The approximation lies above the signa  0
 Increase or decrease the approximation "delta" depending on 1 (increase) or 0
(decrease)
 In general
 1-bit per sampling period based on derivative
 Parameters
 Delta / step-size
 Sampling rate
 Noise/ Error/ Distortion
 Slow-change signal/ small delta: quantization error / granular noise
 Fast-change signal/ large delta: Slope Over load distortion

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Delta Modulation
 Delta modulation requires a sampling rate
much greater than the Nyquist rate
(commonly four or five times the Nyquist rate)
 Close to DPCM

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 Analog data to analog signals

 Combine signal m(t) and carrier

into a single combined signal
around the frequency Fc
 Radio
 Allow to carry signals on a more
suitable frequency
 Allow to multiplex channels by
diferent carrier frequencies
 There are 3 different modulation
methods based on signal
characteristics
 Amplitute modulation
 Frequency modulation
 Phase modulation

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