DATE:

COURSE SUBJECT: GENETICS

STUDENT: BENJAMIN ABELLA INSTRUCTOR: SHARINA FIDEL

TOPIC: THE CHEMICAL BASIS OF HEREDITY

I. THE CONCEPT OF THE GENE acid are the two naturally

The fundamental structural and operational occurring types of nucleic
component of heredity is a gene. DNA is the acids, which are
component of genes. Some genes serve as macromolecules formed
blueprints for the synthesis of proteins. of nucleotides (RNA).
Many genes do not, however, code for DNA is the genetic
proteins. A few hundred DNA bases to more building block of all living
than 2 million bases make up a gene in a things, including
human. multicellular mammals
like you and me as well as
ISOLATING HEREDITARY MATERIAL single-celled bacteria.
• Friedrich Miescher o Nucleotides
From cell nuclei, Friedrich Miescher The monomers known as
separated "nuclein," which is DNA nucleotides make up DNA
with related proteins. He was the and RNA, which are
first person to recognize DNA as a polymers (in the case of
unique molecule. He discovered DNA, frequently very long
and named the two parts he polymers). A
discovered. Acidic portion (nucleic polynucleotide is the
acid) and the Alkaline portion name given to the chain
(proteins). formed when these
• Phoebus Levene monomers join (poly- =
The five-carbon sugar D-ribose "many").
was separated from the ribonucleic A nitrogen-containing
acid (RNA) molecule in 1909 after ring structure known as a
he isolated the nucleotides, the nitrogenous base, a five-
fundamental components of the carbon sugar, and at least
nucleic acid molecule. Twenty one phosphate group
years later, he discovered 2- make up each nucleotide.
deoxyribose, a sugar that is With the base connected
created when an oxygen atom is to one of its carbons and
removed from D-ribose and is a the phosphate group (or
component of the deoxyribonucleic groups) bound to
acid (DNA) molecule. He also another, the sugar
discovered how the parts of nucleic molecule occupies a
acids mix to produce nucleotides central position in the
and how chains of nucleotides nucleotide.
combine. Although the significance
of the nucleic acids was not
understood when he started his
studies, later findings revealed
DNA and RNA to be crucial
components in the upkeep of life.

o Nucleic Acids
Deoxyribonucleic acid
(DNA) and ribonucleic
o Deoxyribonucleic Acid o Types of RNA
Deoxyribonucleic acid, or Messenger RNA
DNA, chains are An intermediary between
frequently found as a protein-coding gene
double helices, which are and its protein-derived
made up of two output is messenger RNA
complimentary (mRNA). The gene for a
(complementary) chains specific protein is
that are bonded together. "switched on" when a cell
The DNA backbone, also needs to produce that
known as the sugar- protein, which causes an
phosphate backbone, is RNA-polymerizing
made up of phosphates enzyme to produce an
and sugars that are RNA copy of the gene's
located on the outside of DNA sequence, or
the double helix. In pairs, transcript. The transcript
the nitrogenous bases contains the same data as
extend into the interior the gene's DNA
like stair steps, and they sequence. However, the
are connected to one base T is changed to the
another by hydrogen base U in the RNA
bonds. Because the two molecule. For instance,
strands of the helix flow in the sequence of the
opposite directions, the 3′ matching RNA will be 5'-
and 5′ ends of one strand AAUUGCGC-3' if the DNA
are joined together at the coding strand bears the
5′ end. (This is known as letters 5'-AATTGCGC-3'.
antiparallel orientation
and is crucial for DNA Ribosomal RNA
replication.)
The primary component
of ribosomes is ribosomal
RNA (rRNA), which aids in
the proper binding of
messenger RNA (mRNA)
so that its sequence
information can be read
out. Some rRNAs also
have the ability to
function as enzymes,
which allows them to
hasten (catalyze)
chemical processes, in
this example, the
production of bonds that
join amino acids to create
o Ribonucleic Acid
proteins. Ribozymes are
DNA is double-stranded,
RNA molecules that
whereas ribonucleic acid
function as enzymes.
(RNA) is often single-
stranded. Ribose, a five-
carbon sugar, one of the Transfer RNA
four nitrogenous bases Transfer RNAs (tRNAs)
(A, U, G, or C), and a work as carriers to
phosphate group are the transport amino acids to
three components of each the ribosome, ensuring
nucleotide in an RNA that the amino acid added
chain. Messenger RNA to the chain matches the
(mRNA), ribosomal RNA one designated by the
(rRNA), transfer RNA mRNA. Transfer RNAs are
(tRNA), and regulatory also involved in protein
RNAs are the four primary synthesis. A single strand
categories of RNA. of RNA makes up transfer
RNAs, however this
 strand contains by British geneticist Frederick Griffith. It took Avery,
complementary segments MacLeod, and McCarty sixteen years to realize that
that bind to one another Griffith's "transforming principle" was DNA.
to form double-stranded
sections. The complex 3D • Frederick Griffith
structure that results Griffith employed the type III-S
from base pairing is and type II-R strains of
crucial to the function of Pneumococcus bacteria for this
the molecule. study. The III-S strain has a
smooth polysaccharide coat that
Regulatory RNA makes it immune system resistant
Non-coding RNAs, or to mice, whereas the II-R strain
RNAs that do not code for lacks this coat and will be
proteins, play a role in destroyed by the host's immune
regulating the expression system. This is the main distinction
of other genes. between these two varieties.
Regulatory RNAs are one Griffith demonstrated that mice
name for these RNAs. injected with III-S perished in the
Small regulatory RNA first stage of the transforming
molecules, such as principle experiment, but mice
microRNAs (miRNAs) and injected with II-R lived and had
small interfering RNAs little symptoms. The following
(siRNAs), are roughly 22 stage revealed that the mice all
nucleotides long. They survived when given injections of
provide a means for the type III-S that had been heated to
cell to lower or fine-tune death, proving that the bacteria
the amounts of specific had been rendered impotent. The
mRNA molecules by final stage of the experiment, in
binding to them (with which mice were injected with a
partially or entirely mixture of heat-killed III-S and live
complementary II-R, produced the most intriguing
sequences) and reducing results. The mice, in an interesting
their stability or turn of events, all perished,
interfering with their suggesting that some kind of
translation. information had been transferred
• Erwin Chargaff from the deceased type III-S to the
DNA's structure and replication living type II-R. A blood sample
mechanism were discovered from the dead mice revealed the
thanks to Erwin Chargaff's presence of both living type III-S
research. It was extremely credible and live type II-R bacteria. He
that DNA was genetic material called the mechanism by which the
given his finding that DNA differs type III-S strain became the type
from species to species. James III-R strain the "transforming
Watson and Francis Crick were principle."
able to understand how the bases
fit into the double helix and how • Oswald Avery, Colin MacLeod,
DNA might function as a template and Maclyn McCarty
for copies of itself thanks to his By demonstrating that DNA, not
discovery of 1:1 ratios in the bases. proteins, can alter a cell's
Chargaff’s Rule: characteristics, Oswald Avery,
These discoveries came to be Colin MacLeod, and Maclyn
known as Chargaff’s Rules: McCarty were able to shed light on
✓ in any species the the chemical makeup of genes.
ratio of A:T is 1:1 and While researching the pneumonia-
G:C is 1:1 causing bacteria Streptococcus
✓ other ratios such as pneumoniae, Avery, MacLeod, and
A:G, for example, McCarty discovered DNA to be the
vary from species to "transforming principle." The
species bacteriologists were curious about
THE TRANSFORMING PRINCIPLE the differences between two
A nonvirulent bacteria could be transformed into strains of Streptococci that
a virulent one thanks to a principle termed the Frederick Griffith had discovered in
"transforming principle," which was identified in 1928 1923: one, the S (smooth) strain,
 has a polysaccharide coat and not protein, was injected
creates colonies on a lab plate that into host cells and served as
are smooth and shiny; the other, the phage's genetic material
the R (rough) strain, lacks the coat as a result of this and
and creates colonies that look related experiments.
rough and irregular. The relatively
benign R strain is deficient in an THE ROLE OF DNA
enzyme required to produce the • STORING
capsule present in the dangerous S The order of the nucleotides in
strain. DNA serves as a data storage
medium. The data is organized into
• Alfred Hershey and Martha genes.
Chase • COPYING
✓ Bacteriophage, or viruses DNA replication guarantees that
that attack bacteria, was a each daughter cell produced at the
topic of study for Hershey conclusion of cell division receives
and Chase. They used an identical quantity of DNA, which
simple DNA and protein is why it is crucial for reproduction.
particles called phages, with Daughter cells won't obtain all
DNA serving as the inner necessary genes if DNA isn't
core and protein serving as duplicated.
the outer structure. Hershey • TRANSMITTING
and Chase made two DNA transmits genetic information
different batches of phage in two different ways. It controls
to determine whether the the synthesis of mRNA and
phage injected DNA or communicates genetic data to the
protein into host bacteria. cell's machinery for synthesizing
The radioactive element proteins. Additionally, DNA carries
that was incorporated into genetic data to the cells that
the macromolecules (DNA follow.
and protein) that made up
the phage during each
II. THE CENTRAL DOGMA OF MOLECULAR
batch's production was
BIOLOGY
specific to that batch. One
sample was created while a
A. DNA REPLICATION
radioactive sulfur isotope
Each strand of the DNA double helix
called 35S was present, and
serves as a template for the synthesis
the other sample was
of a new, complementary strand since
created while a sulfur
DNA replication is semiconservative.
isotope called 32P was
Through this process, we go from a
present. A different culture
single starting molecule to two
of bacteria was infected
"daughter" molecules, each of which
with each batch of phage.
has a new and an old strand.
Each culture was whirled in
a blender to remove any
remaining phage and phage
parts from the bacterial
cells' exterior after infection.
To finally separate the
bacteria from the phage
waste, the cultures were
centrifuged. Hershey and
Chase discovered that a
significant amount of 32P
appeared in the pellet while
almost all of the 35S
appeared in the supernatant
when they measured
radioactivity in the pellet
and supernatant from both
of their experiments.
Hershey and Chase came to
the conclusion that DNA,
• DNA Polymerase It's more difficult to use the other
The enzyme DNA polymerase is new strand, which extends 5' to
one of the essential components in 3' from the fork. Because the DNA
DNA replication. DNA is created by polymerase must separate as the
DNA polymerases, which fork advances and then reattach on
sequentially add nucleotides to the the newly exposed DNA, this
developing DNA chain while only strand is created in fragments. The
integrating those that are lagging strand is the name of this
complementary to the template. difficult, fragmented strand.
The tiny pieces are known as
Okazaki fragments after the
Japanese researcher who first
discovered them. The lagging
strand requires a fresh primer for
each of the brief Okazaki
fragments, but the leading strand
can be expanded with just one
Here are some essential primer.
characteristics of DNA
polymerases:
✓ A template is always
necessary.
✓ The 3' end of a DNA
strand is the only
place they can add
nucleotides.
✓ They need a primer, • Summary of DNA replication
which is a pre- in E. coli
existing chain or
short stretch of
nucleotides, because
they can't begin
creating a DNA chain
from scratch.
✓ They edit their work
by proofreading it to
eliminate the large
majority of "wrong"
nucleotides that
were inadvertently ✓ Helicase opens up the
introduced to the DNA at the replication
chain. fork.
• Leading and Lagging Strands ✓ Single-strand binding
It is difficult to replicate DNA proteins coat the DNA
because DNA polymerases can around the replication
only create it in the 5' to 3' fork to prevent rewinding
orientation. The two strands of a of the DNA.
DNA double helix are always anti- ✓ Topoisomerase works at
parallel, meaning that one strand the region ahead of the
goes from 5' to 3' and the other replication fork to prevent
from 3' to 5'. This necessitates the supercoiling.
slightly different construction of ✓ Primase synthesizes RNA
the two new strands, which are primers complementary
also antiparallel to their templates. to the DNA strand.
The simple new strand is the one ✓ DNA polymerase III
that travels from 5' to 3' in the extends the primers,
direction of the replication fork. adding on to the 3' end,
Because the DNA polymerase is to make the bulk of the
travelling in the same direction as new DNA.
the replication fork, this strand is ✓ RNA primers are removed
produced continually. The leading and replaced with DNA by
strand is the strand that is DNA polymerase I.
continually synthesized.
 ✓ The gaps between DNA
fragments are sealed by ✓ INITIATION
DNA ligase. RNA polymerase binds to
• DNA replication in eukaryotes a portion of a gene's DNA
The basics of DNA replication are known as the promoter to
similar between bacteria and start transcription of the
eukaryotes such as humans, but there gene. The promoter
are also some differences: essentially instructs the
✓ Eukaryotes usually have polymerase where to "sit
multiple linear chromosomes, down" on the DNA and
each with multiple origins of start transcription. RNA
replication. Humans can have polymerases are large
up to 100,100 origins of enzymes with multiple
replication. subunits, even in simple
✓ Most of the E. coli enzymes organisms like bacteria.
have counterparts in Every gene has a unique
eukaryotic DNA replication, promoter. DNA
but a single enzyme in E. coli sequences found in a
may be represented by promoter allow RNA
multiple enzymes in polymerase or its support
eukaryotes. For instance, proteins to bind to the
there are five human DNA DNA. The polymerase can
polymerases with important begin transcription as
roles in replication. soon as the transcription
✓ Most eukaryotic bubble has formed.
chromosomes are linear.
Because of the way the Promoters in Bacteria
lagging strand is made, some The -10 and -35 elements
DNA is lost from the ends of are two significant DNA
linear chromosomes (the sequences found in a
telomeres) in each round of typical bacterial
replication. promoter.
These sequences are
B. PROTEIN SYNTHESIS recognized by RNA
A DNA molecule is more than just a polymerase, which then
monotonous, protracted series of binds to them. The
nucleotides. Genes are the functional sequences ensure that
units that have been divided up in its the polymerase is
place. Each gene contains instructions pointing in the
for producing a functional product, or a appropriate direction and
chemical required for a certain task in is in the proper location to
the cell. A protein is frequently a gene's begin transcription of a
functional output. target gene.

Because they are 35 and

10 nucleotides and +1 in
the DNA, respectively,
before the initiation site,
the -10 and -35 elements
are so named. They are
• TRANSCRIPTION simply before, not after,
The process of transcription the place of initiation, as
involves copying (transcription) the shown by the minus
DNA sequence of a gene to create marks.
an RNA molecule.
 Promoters in Humans RNA polymerase "walks"
Unlike bacterial RNA along one strand of DNA,
polymerase, the primary called the template
RNA polymerase in strand, during elongation
eukaryotes like humans in the 3' to 5' direction.
does not directly connect RNA polymerase modifies
to promoters. Instead, the 3' end of the RNA
basal (generic) strand by adding a
transcription factors, complementary
which are support (matching) RNA
proteins, first connect to nucleotide for each
the promoter, assisting nucleotide in the
your cells' RNA template.
polymerase in
establishing a footing on
the DNA.
TATA boxes are a
common component of
eukaryotic promoters.
The TATA box performs
similar functions to
bacteria's -10 element.
One of the general
transcription factors
recognizes it, which then
makes it possible for
other transcription factors The RNA transcript and
and ultimately RNA the non-template, or
polymerase to bind. coding, strand of DNA are
Additionally, it has a lot of almost similar. The base
As and Ts, which make it uracil (U) is substituted
simple to separate the for thymine (T) in RNA
DNA strands. strands, and the sugar in
the nucleotide is
somewhat different.
Therefore, each T of the
coding strand is replaced
with a U in the RNA
transcript, as seen in the
above diagram.

✓ TERMINATION
Until it receives
instructions to cease, RNA
polymerase will not stop
transcribing. Termination,
which occurs when the
polymerase transcribes a
DNA sequence known as
a terminator, is the
process of ceasing
transcription.
✓ ELONGATION
The subsequent stage of Termination in
transcription, elongation, Bacteria
can start once RNA Bacteria use two main
polymerase has types of termination
positioned itself at the mechanisms: Rho-
promoter. Elongation is dependent and Rho-
the process by which the independent.
RNA strand lengthens as
a result of the insertion of A Rho factor-binding site
additional nucleotides. is present in the RNA
during Rho-dependent • TRANSLATION
termination. In order to A messenger RNA (mRNA) is
reach RNA polymerase, "decoded" during translation in
Rho factor attaches to order to use its information to
this region and begins to create a polypeptide, or chain of
amino acids. Generally speaking, a
polypeptide is just a protein (with
the technical difference being that
some large proteins are made up
of several polypeptide chains).

The Genetic Code

In an mRNA, the instructions for
building a polypeptide come in
groups of three nucleotides called
"climb" the transcript.
codons. Here are some key
Rho pulls the template
features of codons to keep in mind
DNA strand and the RNA
as we move forward:
transcript apart when it
-There are 61 different codons
reaches the polymerase
for amino acids
at the transcription
-Three “stop” codons mark the
bubble, releasing the RNA
polypeptide as finished
molecule and terminating
-One codon, AUG, is a “start”
transcription.
signal to kick off translation (it also
specifies the amino acid
Specific DNA template
methionine)
strand sequences are
These relationships between
required for rho-
mRNA codons and amino acids are
independent
known as the genetic code
termination. A region
with a high concentration
✓ INITIATION
of C and G nucleotides is
The initial step in the
reached by the RNA
process of starting
polymerase as it nears
translation is the
the end of the gene being
attachment of the
transcribed. The
methionine-carrying tRNA
complementary C and G
to the small ribosomal
nucleotides join together
subunit.
as the RNA that comes
from this area folds back
on itself. The outcome is
a steady hairpin that
stops the polymerase.

Transcription is complete
once it has ended. A
messenger RNA is an RNA
transcript that is prepared
to be used in translation
(mRNA). After
transcription in bacteria,
RNA transcripts are
already prepared for
translation.
 Not bad—we now have a
(very little) polypeptide
made up of two amino
Together, they recognise acids! The other amino
the 5' GTP cap on the acid is the polypeptide's
mRNA's 5' end and bind C-terminus, and
to it (added during methionine makes up its
processing in the N-terminus.
nucleus). When they
reach the start codon,
they terminate their
"walk" along the mRNA in
the 3' direction (often, but
not always, the first AUG)

The situation in bacteria

is a little different. In this
instance, the small
ribosomal subunit does
not move from the 5' to
the 3' end of the mRNA.
Instead, it binds directly
to certain mRNA
sequences. These Shine-
Dalgarno sequences
"point out" start codons
to the ribosome by
coming right before them.

✓ ELONGATION
The P site, which is
located in the middle of
the ribosome, is where
methionine-carrying tRNA
initially binds. A new
codon is exposed in a
different slot, known as
the A site, right next to it.
The following tRNA,
whose anticodon is a
perfect (complementary)
match for the exposed
codon, will "land" at the A
site.
It is now time for the Exactly one codon pulls
action, which is the the mRNA through the
production of the peptide ribosome once the
bond that joins one amino peptide bond has been
acid to another, after the created. The E ("exit")
matching tRNA has site of the first, empty
arrived in the A site. In tRNA can now drift away
this phase, the amino acid as a result of this shift.
of the second tRNA's A Additionally, it opens up a
site is joined to the new codon at the A site,
methionine from the first allowing the cycle to
tRNA. continue.
✓ TERMINATION
Termination is the action
that completes
translation. A stop codon
(UAA, UAG, or UGA) in
the mRNA causes
termination when it
enters the A site.
Although they aren't
tRNAs, release factors are
proteins that neatly fit
into the P site and identify
stop codons. The enzyme
that typically creates
peptide bonds is messed
with by release factors,
which cause it to add a
water molecule to the
final amino acid in the
chain. The freshly created
protein is produced as a
result of this process,
which separates the chain
from the tRNA.