International Journal of Advanced Robotic Systems

ARTICLE

Recent Advances in the Control

of Piezoelectric Actuators
Review Paper

Ziqiang Chi1 and Qingsong Xu1,*

1 Department of Electromechanical Engineering, Faculty of Science and Technology, University of Macau, Taipa, Macau, China
* Corresponding author E-mail: [email protected]

Received 28 Feb 2014; Accepted 02 Sep 2014

DOI: 10.5772/59099

© 2014 The Author(s). Licensee InTech. This is an open access article distributed under the terms of the Creative
Commons Attribution License (http://creativecommons.org/licenses/by/3.0), which permits unrestricted use,
distribution, and reproduction in any medium, provided the original work is properly cited.

Abstract The micro/nano positioning field has made great 1. Introduction

progress towards enabling the advance of micro/nano
technology. Micro/nano positioning stages actuated by In the 1980s, the invention of STM (Scanning Tunnelling
piezoelectric actuators are the key devices in micro/nano Microscopy) [1] and AFM (Atomic Force Microscope) [2]
manipulation. The control of piezoelectric actuators has made it possible to observe and operate atoms at the
emerged as a hot topic in recent years. Piezoelectric micro/nano level, and led people into the micro/nano
materials have inherent hysteresis and creep nonlinearity, world. Micro/nano positioning platforms play an
which can reduce the accuracy of the manipulation, even increasingly important role in the domains of mechanics,
causing the instability of the whole system. Remarkable biology, materials, physics and chemistry. Typical
efforts have been made to compensate for the applications touch lithography, scanning probe
nonlinearity of piezoelectric actuation through the microscopy, space flexible manipulators, ultra-precision
mathematical modelling and control approaches. This machine tools and so on [3-6]. Piezoelectric actuators
paper provides a review of recent advances on the control (PEAs) are widely applied in micro/nano positioning
of piezoelectric actuators. After a brief introduction of platforms, because of their high hardness, fast response
basic components of typical piezoelectric micro/nano and other outstanding features. Extensive research on the
positioning platforms, the working principle and control of PEAs has been conducted, making gratifying
modelling of piezoelectric actuators are outlined in this achievements in recent years.
paper. This is followed with the major control method
and recent progress is presented in detail. Finally, some Unlike the general electromagnetic drives which have
open issues and future work on the control of obvious drawbacks, such as power consumption, heating
piezoelectric actuators are extensively discussed. and large noise, a PEA is a form of micro-control
electromechanical system. It relies on the piezoelectric
Keywords Piezoelectric Actuator, Micro/Nano effect with some crystals such that, when an electrical
Positioning Stage, Hysteresis Nonlinearity, Control field is applied to the crystal, it creates mechanical stress
Algorithm, Dynamic Modelling in its structural lattice, which can be translated into
movement at a micrometre or nanometre scale. Generally,

Int J Adv
Ziqiang Chi and Qingsong Xu: Recent Robot Syst,
Advances 2014,
in the 11:182
Control | doi: 10.5772/59099
of Piezoelectric Actuators 1
 PEAs exhibit six main advantages [7-8]: (1) no need for a The motion detector basically includes a displacement
rotating mechanism, (2) ultrahigh precision positioning sensor and hardware circuit. It can measure the output
(to subnanometre level), (3) instant response (to displacement and feed it back to the control system for
microsecond scale), (4) very large output force (typically close loop control. It is also a very important component
about several KN), (5) low power dissipation, and (6) because the performance of the detector will influence the
small size, solid body and convenient for design. system’s accuracy directly.
However, the drawbacks of PEAs are also obvious. There
are three major issues: hysteresis, creep and vibration. As The control system is the command centre. It can control
a result of the hysteresis characteristic, the piezoelectric the stage via the control algorithm so as to make the stage
actuator will produce a 10-15% error of the full range work in a desired way.
under an open-loop control system [7]. With the increase
of the input signal frequency, the error will even reach Owing to the advantages of the flexure mechanism,
35% [9]. Creep can be ignored in most cases where short micro/nano positioning systems which use a flexure
lasting durations are involved. In addition, vibration hinge as the transmission mechanism and piezoelectric
problems can be reduced as much as possible through the actuator as the actuating unit has been widely applied in
design of the mechanical structure or damping controller. recent years. Here is a brief introduction of this type of
Hence, the creep and vibration are not discussed in this micro/nano positioning stage in terms of the degree of
work. As a dominant issue, hysteresis is the main focus of freedom (DOF).
this article.
2.1 1-DOF four-bar linkage micro/nano positioning stage
In the remaining parts of the paper, Section 2 gives a brief
introduction about the piezoelectric micro/nano operation A four-bar linkage mechanism for single-DOF positioning
platform. Section 3 mainly presents underlining is shown in Figure 2. Part I and part II are connected
principles and mathematical modelling of piezoelectric together though the flexure hinges A, B, C, and D. Part I
actuators. Section 4 provides a detailed review of popular and II can move relatively via the deformation of flexures
control algorithms. Finally, a summary of discussion and A, B, C, and D. This stage is simple, while the cross-
future works are provided in Section 5. coupling influences the system’s accuracy.

2. PEA-actuated micro/nano positioning stage

As shown in Figure 1, generally, a micro/nano

positioning stage system is composed of three main parts:
micro positioning mechanism, detector and control
system [9].

The micro positioning mechanism is the centre of the

system. It includes an actuation element and motion Figure 2. Four-bar linkage mechanism
transmission element. The actuation element can
transform electric energy or other forms of energy into 2.2 2-DOF four-bar linkage micro/nano positioning stage
the corresponding displacement and force. The
transmission element then amplifies, shrinks or changes To eliminate the cross-coupling of two working axes,
the direction of these displacements and forces. researchers designed the 2-DOF four-bar linkage
mechanism. Gao [10] has designed a large displacement
and high resolution stage (see Figure 3) by using the
principles of two-stage amplification and double four-
bar linkage mechanisms. Li and Xu [11] have created a
new decoupled parallel micro/nano positioning stage
using different kinds of flexure hinge mechanism. Xu
[12] invented a large-stroke parallel-kinematic by
proposing a new design of multistage compound
parallelogram flexure. However, the increasing of
internal stress on the flexure hinges will reduce the
performance of the system.

Figure 1. Block diagram of micro/nano positioning system

2 Int J Adv Robot Syst, 2014, 11:182 | doi: 10.5772/59099

2.3 3-DOF micro/nano positioning stage In addition, Ryu designed a 3-DOF parallel x-y-Θ
micro/nano positioning stage [14]. This stage is actuated
In order to improve the platform positioning ability and by three PEAs, which are located 120° from each other.
mobility, Hwang et al. [13] have designed a stage which Controlled by these three PEAs, the system can realize
combines a translational motion part and rotational three DOF movements. Sugihara [15] uses it in a
motion part as decoupled serial kinematics on the same subnanometre laser engraving system. Figure 5 shows the
plane. As shown in Figure 4, the XY stage supports the work principle of this mechanism.
centred Θ rotate stage.
2.4 6-DOF parallel-kinematic micro/nano positioning stage

A parallel mechanism employs the parallel connection of

several branches of flexure hinge chains between the
movement platform and fixed platform. A 6-DOF
platform’s principle is shown in Figure 6. This stage can
realize six DOF positioning. It is controlled in any
combination by six motors, each having a ground
abutment. However, the structure is too complicated to
control accurately.

Figure 3. Double lines of four-bar linkage [10]

Figure 6. Six degree-of-freedom parallel mechanism [66]

3. Fundamental and modelling of piezoelectric actuator

3.1 Fundamental and background

The piezoelectric effect is a fundamental process

involving electro-mechanical interactions and represents
the conversion of energy. It relates the electric field to the
Figure 4. A 3-DOF positioning stage with translational motion
mechanical compression/elongation in a piezoelectric
and rotational motion [13]
material. This fundamental property of piezoelectricity
has, therefore, led to the utilization of such materials in
the fabrication of various piezoelectric devices, such as
actuators, sensors and transducers [16-17].

Generally, piezoelectric actuators are fabricated by

piezoelectric ceramic materials, which includes the lead
pb(Zr,Ti)O3 crystal, commonly called PZT [18]. Figure 7
shows the polarization process for a piezoelectric
actuator. In Figure 7(a), the electric dipoles of ceramic
materials are oriented randomly. This does not have the
function of piezoelectricity in the absence of an applied
electric field. Otherwise, the electric dipoles will align
themselves in a direction close to the applied electric
field, and also the crystals will expand in a direction close
to that of the applied electric field. The process is called
polarization and is shown in Figure 7(b). When the
Figure 5. Three degree-of-freedom parallel flexure mechanism [15] electric field is removed, the electric dipoles will not

Ziqiang Chi and Qingsong Xu: Recent Advances in the Control of Piezoelectric Actuators 3
 return to the original position. This is called remnant
polarization. When the electric field is applied again, the
ceramic material elongates, thereby elongating the
actuator (see Figure 7(c)) [19].

(b) Hysteresis curve

Figure 8. Hysteresis effect of the piezoelectric actuator [20-22]
Figure 7. Polarization process for a piezoelectric actuator [19]

Piezoelectric ceramic actuators achieve the purpose of

mechanical movement y using the inverse piezoelectric
properties of piezoelectric materials, which will generate
shape change with the input of voltage or current. The
micro/nano level movement is what we need. However,
piezoelectric actuators have a complicated hysteresis
nonlinearity relationship between the input signal and
the output displacement [20-22]. The hysteresis effect is
shown in Figure 8.

As compared with traditional nonlinear characteristics,

hysteresis nonlinearity has some special features. First,
the multi-valued mapping, which means given the same Figure 9. Rate-dependent hysteresis loops of the piezoelectric
input signal, the output will be different if there is no actuator [23-24]
system history output state as a reference. In order to
determine the output of the system, we should consider Hysteresis nonlinearity will cause conspicuous error.
both the input signal and the history state of system, it Hence, it significantly influences the application of the
has memorability. Besides, when the direction of the micro/nano positioning platform [25]. In general
input change rate transforms, the output signal shows conditions, PEAs produce 10-15% hysteresis error with
non -differentiable characteristics. So, we cannot expound respect to the full measurement range. When the rate of
hysteresis nonlinearity characteristics in a traditional the input signal is increased, the error will even reach up
analysis way. Extra study shows that the output signal is to 35%. Moreover, hysteresis nonlinearity is the inherent
also dependent on the frequency of the input signal [23- attribute of PEAs, and it is a kind of hard nonlinearity.
24]. In addition, the hysteresis curve will broaden when Some common linear control methods cannot solve the
the input signal rate is increased (see Figure 9). control problem of a hysteresis nonlinearity system
effectively. Therefore, the modelling and compensation of
the hysteresis nonlinearity of PEAs is always a
challenging program in control design.

(a) Input voltage

Figure 10. Schematic representation of Madelung rules [26]

4 Int J Adv Robot Syst, 2014, 11:182 | doi: 10.5772/59099

To this end, in order to improve the control precision of a Traditionally, the modelling of hysteresis nonlinearity
PEA system and to meet the requirements of micro/nano characteristics is a difficult problem, and there is no
manipulation, all we need is the control theory and unique model. Researchers have developed a lot of
method for hysteresis compensation of the hysteretic models for describing the hysteresis nonlinearity
nonlinear system. The following discussions provide a characteristic so far, which can be separated into two
review of the current popular modelling and control main types: physics-based models and phenomenological
method, and summarize some new progress in recent models. Figure 12 shows the classification diagram.
years.

3.2 Modelling method

“HYSTERESIS” comes from Greek, and means a kind of

‘come from behind’ phenomena, Scottish physicist Alfred
Ewing defined it as “when there are two quantities M and
N, such that cyclic variation of M, then if the changes of
M lag behind N, we may say that there is hysteresis in the
relation of M an N” [26]. Madelung summarized the
hysteresis nonlinearity characteristic, and created the
famous “Madelung rules”, which is shown in Figure 10.

Madelung gave three rules as follows [27].

• Any curve C1 emanating from a turning point A of Figure 12. Classification of different hysteresis models
the input-output graph is uniquely determined by
the coordinates of A. Based on describing the basic physical principle of
• If any point B on the curve C1 becomes a new materials, physics-based models try to establish the
turning point, then the curve C2 originating at B hysteresis model through the relationship of energy,
leads back to the point A. displacement and so on [28-30]. It is difficult to build
• If the curve C2 is continued beyond the point A, physics-based models in that the physical features of a
then it coincides with the continuation of the curve hysteresis system are always very complicated. On the
C, which led to the point A before the C1-C2-cycle other hand, the physics-based model of one hysteretic
was traced. system usually cannot be applied in another system. So,
the physics-based model lacks generality.
The above rules are referred to as Madelung’s rules.
Starting from the characteristics of the hysteresis curve,
In order to describe this complicated hysteresis nonlinear phenomenological models try to describe the hysteresis
characteristic clearly, Mayergoys presented a general curve by using the effective mathematical model directly.
definition. He explained hysteresis nonlinearity as a There is no need to pay attention to the physical meaning,
hysteresis transducer, which can show the relationship while developing a new chapter of the compensation and
between input and output. As shown in Figure 10, x(t) is modelling. Based on the different mathematical
the system input, f is the hysteresis transducer, and y(t) is explanation type, phenomenological models can be
the output. Specifically, f must satisfy the following classified as differential-equation-based hysteresis models
relations: and operator-based hysteresis models. A lot of references
have explained them insightfully [31-38]. So, the details
f: M[0,T] x n0 →M[0,T] are not discussed in this paper.

where M[0,T] is the continuous monotonic function 4. Control methods of piezoelectric actuators
space, n0 is the original state.
4.1 Hysteresis compensation control theory and method

The excellent properties of piezoelectric ceramic micro-

drive greatly improve the performance of traditional
driving mechanisms. However, the inherent hysteresis
nonlinearity of piezoelectric ceramic actuators degrades
the precision accuracy of the system, causing system
shock or even leading to instability of the control system.
Figure 11. A hysteresis system
Although charge-controlled modulation has proven to be

Ziqiang Chi and Qingsong Xu: Recent Advances in the Control of Piezoelectric Actuators 5
 a better way to suppress the hysteresis nonlinear effect of P-I model in order to describe asymmetry hysteresis
piezoelectric ceramic actuators, the design complexity nonlinearity by eliminating the influence of asymmetry
and high cost of charge amplifiers restrict their wide on the system. Based on this controller, Shen [47]
application. The voltage control method is still the most designed a new synovial controller to further improve the
popular method for the application of piezoelectric accuracy. Using different kinds of envelop function, Al
ceramic actuators. The purpose of motion control of Janaideh [48] derived the general form of the P-I inverse
piezoelectric ceramic driven micro/nano positioning model.
platforms is to find a way to eliminate the hysteresis
nonlinearity's impact on system performance. Both the Preisach model and the P-I model are
mathematically complicated, so they have many complex
4.1.1 Control method based on inverse hysteresis model problems in the process of calculation and identification
when they are applied in inverse control. Tao and
One intuitive and effective way of hysteresis suppression Kokotovic [49] tried to overcome the hysteresis
is to establish an inverse hysteresis model, cascade it with nonlinearity by establishing segmented and linearized self-
the controlled plant to carry out feed-forward adaptation control, then creating a self-adaptation control
compensation [39-41], as shown in Figure 13. Thus, by for the whole serial system. Rakotondrabe [50] designed a
passing through a cascading combination of an inverse kind of inverse hysteresis compensation controller based
model and a piezoelectric actuator, the system can be on the observer technique. Xu [51] established an inverse
considered as a linear one. In order to achieve this goal, hysteresis model, which uses the support vector machine
scholars all over the world have conducted a lot of model for compensating the hysteresis nonlinearity of
studies and they have built various hysteresis models or piezoelectric actuators, subsequently proving that it is
inverse hysteresis models for the compensation. Ge and more effective than the Bouc-Wen model and the P-I model
Jouanch [7] provided a numerical inverse based on the via experimental studies.
Preisach model to linearize hysteresis nonlinearity, and a
PID closed-loop control was added to improve tracking Relatively, it is hard to obtain the inverse model. In
accuracy. Based on the same train of thought, Song et al. addition, the control method based on the inverse
[42] adopted the traditional Preisach model and lag-lead hysteresis model is simple and intuitive, but it has many
controller to compensate for the major-circle and minor- drawbacks, such as heavy computation and complicated
circle hysteresis nonlinearity simultaneously. Based on system structure. So, the calculation burden is the main
the Preisach model, Croft et al. [39] provided the best issue in this type of control method.
feed-forward compensation control strategy and they
added a PD control to improve the scanning accuracy of 4.1.2 Control method without the inverse hysteresis model
the piezoelectric actuator in the follow-up use of atomic
force microscopy. Leang et al. [43] adopted an iterative Researchers have tried to design a closed-loop controller
learning control strategy to solve the Preisach model's for compensating hysteresis nonlinearity directly, so as to
inverse compensation control issue. Hu and Mrad [44] replace the inverse hysteresis compensation control
provided the feed-forward compensation control based approach. The PID control is widely used because of its
on an inverse recursive form of the Preisach model. Tan simple construction [52]. Tan [53] proposed a learning
and Baras [45] employed the adaptive method to establish type of PID controller, and tried to enhance the
an inverse Preisach model. robustness of the system.

On the other hand, one can consider the hysteresis item

as a bounded disturbance, and reduce the hysteresis
nonlinearity influence in the system by designing a
Figure 13. Block diagram of inverse hysteresis compensation nonlinear tracking controller based on the principle of
sliding-mode control [54], etc. From the insightful
Generally, it is difficult to setup the analytical inverse research on the Backlash-like model, Su et al. [55] solved
Preisach model, although this model is widely used to the robust control problem of backlash-like hysteretic
establish the inverse model for compensating hysteresis nonlinear systems creatively, and then proposed a robust
nonlinearity. The Prandtl-Ishlinskii (P-I) model has the adaptive control scheme for the whole system’s
advantages of being a distinct inverse model, so it is stabilization by using the P-I model. However, this kind
increasingly popular in inverse hysteresis control. Krejci of control method has a big disadvantage in that it relies
and Kuhnen [45] expressed the inverse analytical on the requirements of the model too much. Currently,
expression of the traditional P-I model, which reduced only part of the model can use this method. How to
the tracking error by one order of magnitude. Kuhnen broaden the application of this type of control method is
[46] inserted an operator dead zone into the traditional an emerging topic.

6 Int J Adv Robot Syst, 2014, 11:182 | doi: 10.5772/59099

4.2 Control of PEAs The indispensable problem of this kind of closed-loop
control system is that they have low gain margins, which
Researchers have conducted a lot of research on the is largely due to the quick phase loss near the first
control of PEAs using both classical control theory and resonant peak in the frequency response of PEA [60].
modern control theory [56]. Essentially, there are several
popular kinds of control methods as follows. 4.2.3 Feedback with feedforward control

The use of feed-forward can lead to improved output-

tracking performance in SPM [61]. Such feed-forward is
usually augmented with the feedback controller (see
Figure 16) to achieve perfect tracking of the desired
output.
Figure 14. Schematic of the piezoelectric actuator model. For an
input V, the output is given by g[H(v)]. The structural vibrations Another control scheme which involves feedback and
and some of the apparent rate-dependence in the hysteresis
inverse model-based feedforward is shown in Figure 17.
effect are captured in a linear model g and the hysteresis
This feedback controller can be designed to reduce the
nonlinearity H is captured, using, e.g., a rate-independent
Preisach hysteresis model [57]. uncertainty in the closed-loop system [62].

4.2.1 Open-loop control of PEAs

Open-loop control schemes are usually employed in

applications in which position feedback is difficult to
implement due to mechanical constraints [57]. As shown
in Figure 14, this control method has a simple structure, Figure 16. Combination of feedback with feedforward control [1]
and it is convenient to implement. However, its
disadvantages are very obvious, such as its low precision
and weak anti-disturbance ability. What is more serious is
that this control method cannot reflect and solve
hysteresis nonlinearity. The best solution to this problem
includes introducing feedback into the control schemes,
which is discussed in the following sections. Figure 17. A feedback controller is used for nonlinear
suppression whist a feedforward controller is the inverse model
4.2.2 Feedback control of PEAs of the closed loop system for cancelling out the dynamic of the
closed-loop system, which can be treated as linear [1]
Feedback control is a typical type of closed-loop control
(see Figure 15). The hysteresis and creep nonlinearities of
PEAs are open-loop characteristics, so their influences can
be effectively eliminated using the closed-loop method.
Nowadays, the commonly used closed-loop controls are
PID control and Intelligent PID control. The feedback
control changes the eigenvalue and eigenvector of the
system, drives the pole moving into the correct locations
that we need, and then improves the system’s dynamic
and static performance [58-59]. This leads to great
suppression of the unknown effects including model
errors, external loads and changes in the dynamics of the
PEA, as well as significant improvement in position
control performance. Hence, they are widely used.

Figure 15. Feedback control scheme, using the positioner Figure 18. Comparison of open-loop and feedforward tracking of
dynamics modelled in Figure 14 a sine wave up to 10 000 cycles at a signal frequency of 20 Hz [7]

Ziqiang Chi and Qingsong Xu: Recent Advances in the Control of Piezoelectric Actuators 7
 stability of the overall system in the presence of
parameter uncertainty and high-frequency vibration
modes. Therefore, advanced control techniques have been
applied to improve the precision and bandwidth of
piezoelectric actuators used in micro/nano positioning
applications [63].

4.4.4 Adaptive control and intelligent control

The modelling error, parameter uncertainty and the

changes to the system’s environment will result in
differences between the desired and real situations. An
effective way to solve this problem is to use model
reference adaptive control. This kind of control does not
need to know the order number and the pole of the
system, as it enhances the robustness and adaptability of
the controller in order to improve the control
performance of the system [64].
Figure 19. Comparison of a regular PID controller and a PID
controller with a feedforward loop for tracking a sine wave up to Essentially, two main types of intelligent control have
10,000 cycles at a signal frequency of 20 Hz [7] been widely used, i.e., fuzzy logic control and neural
network control. Researchers have encountered
In previous work, Ge [7] compared the different control significant challenges in active vibration suppression
methods through experimental studies under the using the traditional control method. Therefore,
sinusoidal input signal. The results are shown in Figures intelligent control attracts great attention. The
18 and 19. It is found that the feedforward tracking characteristics of fuzzy control are that it can use
control is more accurate than open-loop control, and a subjective experience and intuition. It provides a new
PID controller with feedforward loop is significantly idea in solving complicated system control problems. In
better than other approaches. addition, the neural network can approximate the
continuous function in arbitrary precision. It has learning
and adaptive ability. It is able to conduct a large number
of operations quickly. So, the neural network control has
a great potential in the identification and control of
nonlinear and uncertain systems, especially in active
vibration control [65].

5. Conclusion and outlook

This article provides a general review on the control of

the piezoelectric actuator over the past decades. The main
focus is to introduce the progress of PEA control that has
been made in recent years in academia. Through the
overview, it is found that although great progress in the
development of PEA control has been made, there are
Figure 20. Comparison of open-loop, feedforward and PID still a lot of shortcomings that need to be overcome,
control with feedforward compensation at a step signal which are outlined as follows.
• How to simplify the mathematical model, optimize
When the input signal is a step signal, the different the control structure and reduce the error to improve
responses of the open-loop control (line 1), feedforward stability is always the main problem in control
control (line 2) and PID controller with a feedforward design. Particularly, in recent years, the emerging
loop (line 3) are shown in Figure 20. Obviously, a PID intelligent adaptive control in combination with
control with a feedforward loop can provide a more powerful computer processing ability is an
accurate response than the other two methods. encouraging way to improve control performance.
• The generality and applicability of hysteresis
The main challenge in feedback control design lies in models. A model, which is applicable to one system,
performance improvement while maintaining the usually cannot be applied to other systems. This

8 Int J Adv Robot Syst, 2014, 11:182 | doi: 10.5772/59099

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