Unit # 01 “Physical Quantities And Measurement”

Q1: Define Physics and write the names of its branches?

Ans: Physics:
Physics is the branch of science which deals with the composition, properties of
matter and energy along with the interaction between them.
Or
Physics is the branch of science which observes the nature, represent it
mathematically and conclude with experiment
Branches of Physics
i.Plasma physics ii. Atomic physics iii. Geo physics iv. Mechanics
v. Electricity vi. Magnetism vii. Particle physics viii. Nuclear physics
ix. Astrophysics x.Thermodynamics xi.Optics xii. Sound

Q2: Define the following branches of Physics?

Definition of Main branches of physics:
Plasma Physics: It is concerned with properties of highly ionized atoms forming a mixture of bare
nuclei (nuclei without electrons) and electrons.
Atomic Physics: It is concerned with structure, composition and properties of atoms as
determined by the electrons outside the nucleus.
Thermodynamics: It deals with heat and temperature and their relation to energy and work.
Mechanics: It is mainly concerned with the laws of motion and gravitation
Electricity: It is the study of properties of electric charges in rest and motion.
Magnetism: It is the study of magnetic properties of material
Particle physics: It is concerned with the elementary constituents of matter and radiation and
interaction between them
Nuclear Physics: It is concerned with constituents, structure, behavior and interaction of atomic
nuclei
Astrophysics: It is the study of celestial objects with the help of laws of physics
Geo physics: The study of internal structure of earth is known as Geo physics
Optics: It is the study of physical aspects of light and its properties with the help of optical
instruments
Sound: It is the study of production, properties and application of sound waves.
Q.3.Write down importance of physics in modern world.
Ans: Physics is the essential of daily life and technology as:
• Radar, artificial satellites, hydraulic system, Nuclear reactor, Diesel engine and computer
etc all Type equation here.belong to our daily life.
• Laser technology is being used for treatment in medical field and defense.
• Nuclear physics is used to produce electric power on a large scale.
• Radar technology works on the principle of propagation and reflection
• Automobile technology works on the base of thermodynamic physics

Q4: Define physical quantity and its types?

Ans:Physical Quantity:It is a quantity which has magnitude and a particular unit.
Types of physical Quantities
• Base or Fundamental quantities

• Derived quantities

Q5: What are fundamental units?

Fundamental units:
The international system of units is based on seven independent or basic
units called Fundamental or base units.

No Fundamental /base Quantities Fundamental Units

1 Length M
• Mass Kg
• Time S
• Temperature K
• Electric current A
• Luminous Intensity Cd
• Amount of substance Mol
Q6: What are derived units?
Derived units:
Units of those physical quantities which are derived from fundamental units are
called “Derived units”

No Derived quantities Formula Derived unit

• Weight W = mg N
• Acceleration a= m/s2
• Work W = F.S cos J
• Volume V = I x b x h or l3 m3
• Pressure P= N/m2
• Velocity m/s
• Momentum P = mv Kg-m/s
• Force F= ma N

Q7:Define the following

Ans: Measurement: Comparison of an unknown quantity with the standard to see how many
times it is big or small as compared to standard
Length: I t is the distance between two marks engraved on an platinum Iridium alloy bar kept at
international bureau of weights and Measures near Paris.
Unit of length is meter
Meter: “It is the length of the path travelled by light in vacuum during the time interval of of a
second”
Kilogram: one kilogram is the mass of platinum Iridium alloy cylinder which is kept at the
international bureau of Weights and Measures in Sevres, near Paris.
Second: It is the unit of time in all system .It is the duration of 9192631778 cycles of radiation
corresponding to the transition between two levels of ground state of the cesium atom.
Density:It is the mass per unit volume of a substance.It is the characteristic property of a pure
substance
It is denoted by a Greek letter (rho).Its SI unit is m/ s3
Formula: Density or
Relative Density/Specific Gravity: The density of a substance can also be calculated with the
help of water as a reference known as specific gravity or relative density
Q 8: Define the following:
• Meter Rule
A meter rule is a device which is used to measure length of different objects.

• The Vernier Caliper

The Vernier Caliper is a precision instrument that can be used to measure internal and
external distance extremely accurate.

• Micrometer Screw Gauge

Micrometer screw gauge is used for measuring extremely small dimensions.
• Physical Balance
The Physical balance is an instrument used for measurement of mass.
• The Electronic Balance
The digital mass meter is an electronic instrument configured with integrated circuits and
it works on the principal of balancing the forces.
• Stop Watch
A stopwatch is used to measure the time interval between two events.

• Mechanical / Analogue Stopwatch

A mechanical stop watch can measure a time interval up to 0.1 second.

• Digital Stopwatch
A digital stop watch can measure a time interval up to 0.01 second.

• Measuring Cylinder
Measuring cylinder is a glass or plastic cylinder with a scale-graduated in cubic centimeters or
milliliters (ml)(fig1.24). It is used to find the volume of liquids.

Q 9. What is meant by prefixes?

PREFIXES
A unit prefix is a specifier. It indicates multiples or fractions of the units.

Factor Prefix Symbol Factor Prefix Symbol

1018 Exa E 10-1 Deci D
 1015 Peta P 10-2 Centi C
1012 Tera T 10-3 Milli M
109 Giga G 10-6 Micro
106 Mega M 10-9 Nano n
103 Kilo K 10-12 Pico p
102 Hecto H 10-15 Femto f
101 Deka Da 10-18 Atto A

Q10. What is meant by scientific notation?

SCIENTIFIC NOTATION
Scientific notation or the standard form is a simple method of writing very large numbers or
very small numbers. In this method numbers are written as powers of ten. Thus calculation of
very large or very small numbers becomes easy.
Q11. What is significant figure? Write down the rules of significant figures.
SIGNIFICANT FIGURES
The numbers of reliably known digits in a value are known as significant figures.
Rules for determining significant figures
Rule
1. All non-zeroes are significant
e.g. 2.25 (3 significant figures)
2. Leading zeroes are NOT significant
e.g. 0.00000034 (2 significant figures)
3. Trailing zeroes are significant ONLY if an explicit decimal point is present
e.g. 200 (1 significant figure)
200. (3 significant figures)
2.00 (3 significant figures)
4. Trapped zeroes are significant
e.g. 0.00509 (3 significant figures)
2045 (4 significant figures)
Unit #2
“KINEMATICS ”

Q:1. Define the following?

Kinematics: The branch of physics which deals with the description of motion of objects
without any reference to the force or agent causing the motion is called Kinematics.

Rest:

If anybody is not changing its position with respect to its surrounding then it is said to be in
state of rest.

Example:

A book lying on a table

A passenger siting in a moving bus:

Motion:

If anybody is changing its position with respect to its surrounding then itis said to be in state of
motion.

Example:

A car moving on a road

A moving train

Scalar Quantities:

Those physical quantities which are completely specified by their magnitudes in suitable units
in any direction are called “Scalar quantities”.

Examples:

Temperature, Mass, Length, Time, Volume, Speed, Distance etc

Vector Quantities:

Those physical quantities which require not only magnitude in suitable units but also
direction for their complete description are called “Vector Quantities”.
Examples:

Weight, Displacement, Torque, Force, Velocity, Acceleration etc.

Distance:The movement of body or a particle between any two points in any direction is known
as distance.

It is denoted by symbol “d”. Its SI unit is meter (m).It is a scalar quantity.

Displacement:

It is defined as:

“The Distance measured in straight line in a particular direction.”

It is also defined as:

“The shortest distance covered between the initial and final positions of a body.”

It is vector quantity; its S.I unit is meter (m).

Speed:

The distance covered by a body in a unit time in any direction is called speed of the body.

It is scalar quantity, it is denoted by “V”, and its S.I unit is meter per second (m/s).

Formula:
𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑆
Speed = or V=𝑡
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒

Velocity:

It may be defined as:

“The rate of change of displacement in a specified direction.”

It is vector quantity and its S.I unit is meter per second. (m/s)
𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝐷𝑖𝑠𝑝𝑙𝑎𝑐𝑒𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡 ∆𝑑
Velocity = or V=
𝑇𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡

Variable speed:

It can be defined as:

“If a body does not cover same distance in equal intervals of time in any direction, the body is
said to be moving with uniform speed.”

Uniform speed:

It can be defined as:

“If a body covers same distance in equal interval of time in any direction, the body is said to be
moving with uniform speed.”

Variable Velocity:

It can be defined as:

“If a body does not cover same distance in equal intervals of time in a particular direction, the
body is said to be moving with uniform velocity.”

Uniform Velocity:

It can be defined as:

“If a body covers same distance in equal interval of time in a particular direction, the body is said
to be moving with uniform velocity.”

Acceleration:

It may be defined as:

“The rate of change of velocity”

If the acceleration produced is due to increase in velocity then it is called positive acceleration

It is vector quantity and its S.I unit is meter per Second Square (m/s2)
𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∆𝑉
Acceleration = =
𝑇𝐼𝑚𝑒 𝑡

Retardation:

The rate of change of velocity is called acceleration and if the change in velocity is due to the
decrease in velocity, then this acceleration is called retardation or deceleration or Negative
acceleration.

Uniform Acceleration: Acceleration due to constant rate of change of velocity is called uniform
acceleration.

Q.2.How many types of motion are there?

 Ans: There are three types of motion

i. Transla tory motion

ii. Rotatory motion
iii. Vibratory motion

Translatory : In this type of motion every particle in the object is being displaced by the same
amount along the same straight line
Example:
•Motion of a car on flat road
(a)Linear Motion: Motion of a body along a straight line is called linear motion.
e.g:Motion of bus in a straight line on road
(b)Circular Motion: Motion of a body along a circular path is called circular motion.
e.g: Motion of satellite around the earth
(c)Random Motion: Irregular motion of an object is called random motion. It is also called
irregular motion
e.g: Motion of house fly, motion of dust particles, insects, Birds etc
Rotatory motion:In this type of motion a body spins or rotates about a fixed point or axis.

Examples:
•Spin of earth about its axis
•motion of blades of fan around its axis
•Motion of Wheel about its axis
Vibratory motion: To and fro motion of any object about its mean position is known as
vibratory /oscillatory motion

Example:

•Motion of Pendulum of a pendulum clock

•Motion of a swing

Q2: Derive 1st equations of motion. (Vf = Vi + at)

Ans:Derivation of 1st equations of motion. (Vf = Vi + at)

Consider a body moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration “a”. Let the initial velocity
be “Vi” and final velocity be “Vf” after time “t” then acceleration “a” is given by:

𝑐ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦 ∆𝑉
Acceleration = =
𝑇𝐼𝑚𝑒 𝑡
 𝑉𝑓−𝑉𝑖
a= 𝑡

or 𝑎𝑡 = 𝑉𝑓 − 𝑉𝑖

or 𝑉𝑓 = 𝑉𝑖 + 𝑎𝑡

𝟏
Q3: Derive 2nd equations of motion. (S = Vit + 𝟐 at2)
𝟏
Ans:Derivation of 2ndequations of motion. (S = Vit + 𝟐 at2)
Consider a body moving in a straight line with uniform acceleration “a”. Let the initial
velocity be “Vi” and final velocity is “Vf”. If it travels a distance “S” in time “t”, then the
average velocity can be given by:
𝑆
Vavg = 𝑡

𝑉𝑓+𝑉𝑖
But, Vavg = 2

𝑉𝑓+𝑉𝑖 𝑆
Therefore, =𝑡
2

𝑉𝑓+𝑉𝑖
Or S= ( ) ˟ t -----------(1)
2

From 1st equation of motion, we have

Vf = Vi + at

By putting the value of “Vf” in eq:1 we get

(𝑣𝑖+𝑎𝑡+𝑣𝑖) t
S= 2

(2𝑉𝑖 +𝑎𝑡 )𝑡
S= 2

(2𝑉𝑖𝑡+𝑎𝑡 2 )
S= 2
 2 𝑉𝑖𝑡 𝑎𝑡 2
S= +
2 2

𝟏
S = Vit + 𝟐 at2 proved

Q4: With the help of Vf2, Vi2 and S derive 3rd equation of motion. Or

Derive equation 2as = Vf2 -- Vi2

Ans:Derivation of 3rdequations of motion. (2𝑎𝑆 = 𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2 )

Consider a body moving straight line with uniform acceleration “a”. Let the initial velocity be
“Vi” and final velocity becomes “Vf” in time “t”. It travels a distance “S”, then average velocity
can be given by
𝑆
Vavg = 𝑡

𝑉𝑓+𝑉𝑖
But, Vavg = 2

𝑉𝑓+𝑉𝑖 𝑆
Therefore, =𝑡
2

𝑉𝑓+𝑉𝑖
Or S= ( ) ˟ t -----------(1)
2

From 1st equation of motion, we have

Vf = Vi + at

𝑉𝑓−𝑣𝑖
or𝑡 = 𝑎

By putting this value of “t” in equation (1) we get

𝑉𝑓+ 𝑉𝑖 𝑉𝑓−𝑉𝑖
S= x 𝑆=
2 𝑎

(𝑉𝑓 –𝑉𝑖)( 𝑉𝑓+𝑉𝑖)

2𝑎

2
 𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2
S= 2𝑎

2𝑎𝑆 = 𝑣𝑓 2 − 𝑣𝑖 2

Q4: Write down three differences between speed and velocity and scalars and vectors?

S# Speed Velocity
The distance covered per unit time is The displacement covered per unit time is
i.
called speed. called velocity.
ii. It is a scalar quantity. It is vector quantity.
Speed can be changed by its Velocity can be changed by its magnitude or
iii.
magnitude only. direction.
S# Scalars Vectors
Scalars are completely specified by Vectors are specified by their magnitude as
i.
their magnitude. well as direction.
Scalars can be added by ordinary Vectors can be added by graphical methods as
ii.
methods. well as analytical methods.
Examples: Length, mass, volume, Examples: weight, displacement, force,
iii.
speed etc. velocity etc.
S# Distance Displacement
Movement of anybody between two
Least distance between two points in particular
i. points in any direction is called
direction is known as displacement
distance

It is scalar quantity It is a vector quantity

Ii

Q 5: Define acceleration due to gravity:

Ans:ACCELERATION DUE TO GRAVITY (g)

When a body is dropped from a certain height, it moves toward the ground and its velocity
increases continuously till it strikes the ground then it gets some acceleration which is called
acceleration due to gravity.
Acceleration due to gravity is denoted by letter”g”.Its value is found to be 9.8 m/sec2

The value of “g” is taken positive when body is falling down

The value of “g“is taken negative when the body is thrown upward

Unit #3
“DYNAMICS”

Q1: State Newton’s first law of motion?

Newton’s first law of motion:

This law states that:

“Every object continues its state of rest or of uniform motion in a straight line, unless it is
acted upon by an external force which changes its state of rest or of uniform motion.”

Q2: Define Inertia with example?

Inertia:

Inertia is the tendency of an object to resist a change in its state of rest or motion,
Hence, Newton’s first law of motion is also called “law of inertia”

Examples:

1) When we stop a moving car by the application of brakes, the car moves through some
distance before coming rest.
2) A man jumping out of moving train falls on the ground.
3) If a horse starts off suddenly, the rider, if sitting loosely, fall backwards.
Q3: State Newton’s second law of motion and derive F = ma?

Newton’s second law of motion:

This law state that:

“When force acts on an object, it produces acceleration in the object in its own direction
which is directly proportional to the magnitude of the applied force and inversely
proportional to the mass of the object.”

Mathematically (derivation of F =ma):

(i) a ∝ f (for a constant mass)

1
(ii) a ∝ 𝑚 (for a constant force)

Combining (i) and (ii)

𝐹
a∝ 𝑚

𝐹
a = K.𝑚

Where, K is a constant.

Now, if K = 1
𝐹
a = 1.𝑚

Or F = ma proved

Q4: State the Newton’s third law of motion?

Newton’s third law of motion:

This law states that:

“To every action, there is always an equal and opposite reaction.”

Examples:

1. Walking is the most common example.

2. Pulling a car by a horse.
3. Firing a bullet from a gun.
4. Throwing a shell from a canon.
5. A book lying on a table
6.
Q5: Define the following?

Force: Force is an agent which produces or tends to produce a change in the state of rest or of
uniform motion of an object, In S.I units of force is Newton (N).

Newton (unit):

Newton is the S.I unit of force, Force acting on a body is said to be of one Newton if it produces
an acceleration of m/s2 in the body of mass 1 kg, in the direction of the applied force.

Momentum:

The momentum may be defined as the total quantity of motion contained in a body.
Mathematically, momentum can be defined as the product of mass and velocity of an object. It is
denoted by the letter “P”. It is vector quantity.

Momentum = Mass x Velocity

P = mV

In S.I units, the unit of momentum is Kg-m/s (Kilogram meter per second) or N-s (Newton
Second).

Q6: What is friction? Write two advantages and two disadvantages of Friction.

Friction:

The force that resists the relative motion between two surfaces is called friction.

Frictional forces are always parallel to the plane of contact between two surfaces and opposite to
the direction of applied force

Advantages of friction

1. Walking is possible because of friction.

2. If there had been no friction, bodies would have never come to rest.
3. We stop a moving car by the application of brakes because of friction.
4. We can tie a knot because of friction.
5. Without sufficient friction, wheels may slide instead of rolling.
6. It is difficult to walk on the ice glaciers due to less friction.
7. A nail stays in the wood because of friction.
8. Nut and bolt can hold a body due to friction.
Disadvantages of friction:

1. Friction is a great nuisance. Friction produces heat in various parts of the machine and
as such useful energy is wasted as heat energy.
2. Cars, buses and trucks lose a part of their energy in overcoming friction.
3. Failure of oil supply increases the friction.
4. It often increases the temperature of the engine and causes the piston to seize. Thus, keeping
in view, both the advantages and disadvantages, we can easily say that “Friction is a
necessary devil”.

Q7: Write down three methods of reducing friction?

Methods of reducing friction:

1. Use of lubricants: The various parts of the machines which move over one another
must be properly lubricated to reduce friction.
2. Use of ball or roller-bearing: In machines, the sliding of various parts is usually
replaced by rolling by using ball bearings since rolling friction is less than the sliding friction.
3. Use of grease :
4. Where sliding is unavoidable, a thick layer of greasing material is used.
5. To make front of the moving objects oblong
The front of the moving objects such as cars and aero planes are made oblong to
minimize air friction.

Q8: What are the factors on which friction depends?

Factors on which friction depends
Friction depends upon following two factors
1-Normal reaction
2-Nature of surfaces
i-Normal reaction: Force of friction is directly proportional to the normal reaction”R” which
acts in upward direction against the weight of the body sliding on a surface i.e
Fs∝ R
Fs= 𝜇R
ii-Nature of surfaces: Force of friction also depends upon nature of two surfaces in contact with
each other. It is constant for various pairs of surfaces and its value is called coefficient of
friction.

Q9: Define the following:

Coefficient of friction:

Coefficient of friction may be defined as the ratio of the limiting frictional force to the normal
reaction between the two surfaces in contact.

It is denoted by the letter 𝜇(mu).

𝐹𝑠
𝜇= 𝑅

As it is ratio of two forces, so it has no unit.

Static or Limiting friction

The maximum forces of friction which just stops the body from sliding or moving is called
limiting friction.

Contact/Sliding friction:

If surface of an object slides over another surface friction so produced is known as sliding or
contact friction.

Example:A wooden block slides over the surface of table

Rolling friction: If an object rolls over another surface then friction so produced is known as
rolling friction.

Example:A rolling football on a surface of ground

Kinetic Friction:It is the force that resists the motion of a moving object.In all situations static
friction is greater than kinetic friction

Q9: Give reason why rolling friction is always less than sliding or contact friction.

Ans: As area of contact surface of sliding body is much more than rolling body that is why
sliding/contact friction is more than rolling friction

Q10: Write statement and give mathematical proof of law of conservation of momentum?

The law of conservation of Momentum:

This law states that:

“The momentum of an isolated system always remains constant”.

Mathematically:

Consider an isolated system, in which two balls A and B of masses

m1 and m2 are moving in the same direction with velocities

u1 and u2 respectively such that u1 is greater than u2. Now let

these balls on collision with each other move with the velocities

of v1 and v2 respectively.

Now, the total momentum of the system before collision = m1u1 + m2u2

And, the total momentum of the system after collision = m1v1 + m2v2

Thus, according to the law of conservation of momentum:

m1u1 + m2u2 = m1v1 + m2v2

Q11: Write down three differences between of the following.

S# Mass Weight
It is quantity of matter contained in a It is the force with which earth
1.
body. attracts a body towards its center.
The weight of a body is not constant
The mass of a body remains constant
2. but its value is different at different
everywhere.
places.
It is vector quantity and is always
3. It is scalar quantity. directed towards the center of the
earth.
It can be measured with physical It can be measured with spring
4
balance balance
5 Its S.I unit is Kilogram. Its S.I unit is Newton.
S# Force Energy
The rate of change of momentum is
1. The ability of doing work is energy.
called force.
1
2. Formula of force is F = ma. Formula of energy is K.E = 2 mv2
3. It is vector quantity. It is scalar quantity.
4. Its unit is Newton (N). Its unit is Joule (J).

Q12: Define momentum in terms of force and also derive its formula.
Ans:Momentum in Terms of Force:Momentum is also the product of force and the time
through which the force is applied.

Consider a body of mass “m” moving with initial velocity “vi” after a time “t” its final velocity
becomes”vf”.Thus acceleration “a” is produced by the application of force “F” .As mass of
object is kept constant therefore

Initial momentum = Pi = mvi

Final momentum = Pf = mvf

𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑚𝑣𝑓 – 𝑚𝑣𝑖

𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 – 𝑣𝑖)

By dividing whole equation by “t” we get

𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 𝑚(𝑣𝑓 – 𝑣𝑖)
=
𝑡 𝑡
𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖
= 𝑚𝑎 − − − − − −[𝑠𝑖𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝑚𝑎 = 𝐹]
𝑡
𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖
=𝐹
𝑡

∴ 𝑝𝑓 − 𝑝𝑖 = 𝐹

∴ 𝐶ℎ𝑎𝑛𝑔𝑒 𝑖𝑛 𝑚𝑜𝑚𝑒𝑛𝑡𝑢𝑚 = ∆𝑝 = 𝐹𝑡

Q13: Define the following with their application in daily life

Uniform Circular Motion:

When a body moves in a circular path and moves with a constant speed, it is said
to be in a uniform circular motion.

Examples:

1. When a bucket of water is whirled.

2. Driving a motor cycle in a death well.
3. Rotation of earth and other planets around the sun.
Centripetal Force:

The force which acts towards the center along the radius of a circular path on
which the body is moving with a uniform velocity and keeps the body moving in the circle is
called centripetal force. It is denoted by the letter Fc.

Mathematically:
𝑚𝑣²
Fc = 𝑟

Centrifugal Force:

The force fleeing away from the center of circular path is called “Centrifugal Force”. OR

The force which opposes the centripetal force is called “Centrifugal Force”.

The magnitude of the centrifugal force is equal to the magnitude of the centripetal force when the
object is moving on a circular path but the direction is opposite.

Examples:

1. Centrifuge appliances are used to separate heavier particles from lighter particles in liquid
2. Banking of tracks.
3. Cream separator.
4. Ultra centrifuge is used for separating small particles from large molecules.
5. In washing machines dryer is available on same principle
Q14: What are the factors on which centripetal force depends?

Ans:Factors affecting centripetal force:

The centripetal force is directly proportional to the mass of the object, to the square of its
linear speed and inversely proportional to the radius of the circular path.

Q15: Derive the formula of centripetal force.

𝒎𝒗²
Ans: Derivation 2of formula of centripetal force (Fc = )
𝒓

Consider an object of mass “m” moving in a circle of radius “r” with constant speed “v”. And ac
is the centripetal acceleration then

According to the Newton’s second law of Motion:

F= mac
 𝑣²
B ut ac = 𝑟

𝑣2
Fc = m x 𝑟

𝑚𝑣 2
Fc = 𝑟

Unit#4
TURNING EFFECT OF FORCES

Q.1.Define the following

Like parallel forces:The forces that act along the same direction are called like parallel forces
e.g: More than one persons pushing a car in same direction
Unlike parallel forces:The forces that act along opposite direction are called unlike parallel
forces
e.g: A ceiling fan suspended in a hook through supporting rod
Addition of force:Force is a vector quantity. Vectors quantities have magnitude as well as
direction. Therefore, considering the direction, forces cannot be added with the help of ordinary
algebra. Special methods for addition of forces are used.
• Head to tail rule & parallelogram law (graphical method)
• By splitting vectors into its components and then adding x- components and y-
components separately (analytical method)
Resultant Force:
The combined effect of two or more force vectors can be represented by a
single vector called the “Resultant force”. Thus, if we have two force vectors A and B, then their
resultant vector R can be represented as under
R = A + B

• R=A+ B B
Principal of Moment:
If a number of forces acting on a body and the body is in equilibrium then, “the sum of
the clockwise torques is equal to the sum of the anticlockwise torques.”
A
Head to Tail Rule:

The graphical method for the addition of two or more

vectors is called “Head to tail rule”. In order to get the resultant vector
of two or more vectors, we draw these representative lines of the given
vectors in such a way that the head of one coincides with the tail of
other and so on. The resultant vector is directed from the tail of the
first vector to the head of the last vector.
Couple:
Two equal but opposite parallel forces which act at different points on the body make
together a couple.
To form couple two forces must be
• Equal in magnitude

• Parallel but opposite in direction

• Separated by a distance

Q2: Define resolution of vector and write down two formulae of its rectangular
components.
OR
Define resolution of vector and resolved a vector into its components.
Resolution of Vector.
“The process of splitting up a single vector into its components is called “Resolution of vectors.”
Generally, a single vector is resolved into two components at right angles to each other. These
two components are called rectangular components.
The components along the x-axis are called horizontal components.
Fx = FCos
The components along the y-axis are called vertical components.
Fy = F Sin
Q3: With the help of trigonometric ratios, derive formula for magnitude of horizontal and
vertical components of a vector.
Ans:The magnitude of horizontal and vertical components of a vector in trigonometric
ratios:

In the figure, OB represents the vector F which makes an

angle with the x-axis. From B, we draw a perpendicular AB on the axis.Suppose OA represent
the vector Fx and AB represents the vector Fy.
When Fx and Fy are added by head to tail rule, the resultant vector F is obtained. Therefore Fx
and Fy are the rectangular components of vector F.

To find Fx (Horizontal components)

In right angle triangle OAB

= Cos

= Cos

Fx= F Cos

To find Fy (vertical components)

Again in the same right triangle OAB,

= Sin
 = Sin

Fy = F Sin

Q4. Derive formula for magnitude and direction of resultant vector obtained by adding two
rectangular components.

Ans:Addition of rectangular components: It is the process of adding two vectors which are not
collinear,

Consider two perpendicular vectors AB and denoted by Fx and Fy respectively. They can be
joined together by head to tail rule giving resultant vector F. In right angle triangle ABC
according to Pythagorous theorem.

(Hyp)2 = (perp)2 + (Base)2

(AC)2 = (BC)2 + (AB)2

(F)2 = (Fx)2 + (Fy)2

F=

The above formula gives the magnitude of resultant vector”F”

The direction can be calculated by using following trigonometric ratios

Tan =

Tan=

=Tan-1

Q.5. Define Torque. Write down its unit and formula.

Moment of Force or Torque:
The turning effect of a force is called the moment of force or torque.
Torque or the moment of a force may rotate an object in clockwise or anti clockwise direction.
It is vector quantity.

Unit of Torque:
In S.I units, the unit of torque is Newton meter (N-m), It is denoted by the letter “” (tau).
 Torque = Force x Moment Arm
=Fxd
Where, moment arm is the perpendicular distance between the axis of rotation of the body and
the line of action of force.
Example:
Every time when a door is opened the force is applied, which rotates the door about the hinges.
Factors on which Torque depends:
The torque or moment of force depends upon the following factors:
• Magnitude of the applied force
• The moment arm.
Torque produced in an object s directly proportional to magnitude of applied force and length of
the moment arm
Q.6. Define center of gravity. Also write down the center of gravities of different shaped
objects.
Center of Gravity:
The center of gravity of a body may be defined as the point at which the whole weight of
the body appears to act.
Shapes of objects and their center of gravities
S:no Shapes of objects Center of gravity

1 Uniform rod Centre of rod

2 Uniform circular ring Centre of ring
3 Square Point Intersection of diagonals
4 Rectangular plate Point of Intersection of diagonals
5 Parallelogram Point of Intersection of diagonals
6 Triangular plate Point of Intersection of medians
7 Sphere Centre of sphere
8 Cylinder Midpoint of axis

Q.7. Define equilibrium and its kinds? Also define the states of equilibrium. Give one
example of each.
Equilibrium:
A body is said to be in equilibrium if it remains at rest or moves with uniform
velocity i.e. it has zero acceleration.
When a body is in equilibrium, then all the forces acting on the body cancel each other’s effects
and the resultant force acting on the body is zero.
Kinds of Equilibrium:
There are two kinds of equilibrium:
• Static equilibrium
• Dynamic equilibrium.
• Static Equilibrium:
If a body is at rest, then it is said to be in static equilibrium. A ring being pulled
by two equal and opposite forces is the example of static equilibrium.
• Dynamic Equilibrium:
If a body moves with uniform velocity then it is said to be in dynamic
equilibrium. A car moving on a straight road with uniform velocity is the example of dynamic
equilibrium.
States of Equilibrium:
There are the following three states of equilibrium:
• Stable equilibrium
• Unstable equilibrium

• Neutral equilibrium
1-Stable Equilibrium:
The body is said to be in stable equilibrium if it comes back to its original position
when it is slightly disturbed. In stable equilibrium center of gravity of the body rises when it is
tilted .In this case center of gravity is at lowest position
Examples:

Book, Table, Chair or a body lying on the floor etc.

2-Unstable Equilibrium:
 The body is said to be in unstable equilibrium if it does not come back to its original
position when it is slightly disturbed. In stable equilibrium center of gravity of the body is
lowered when it is tilted. In this case center of gravity is at highest position

Examples:
A pencil placed in a vertical position, a metal rod balanced on a pointed stand.

3-Neutral Equilibrium:
If the center of gravity of the body lies at the point of suspension or support, then the
body is said to be in neutral equilibrium. If this body is slightly disturbed, the center of gravity
does not shift .Its center of gravity always remains above the point of contact
Examples:
Cylinder, Ball, Funnel etc.

Q.8. Write down the conditions of equilibrium and the relative formulae.
Conditions of Equilibrium:
A body must satisfy two conditions to be in equilibrium.
• First condition of Equilibrium:
“A body will be in equilibrium if the sun of x-components of all the forces and the sum of the y-
components of the forces is zero”
Mathematically:
=0
=0
• Second condition of Equilibrium:
A body may satisfy first condition but may not be in equilibrium if it may rotate. Therefore, to
keep the body itself in equilibrium it may satisfy the second condition also which states that”
“The sum of the clockwise torques must be equal to the sum of the antilock wise torques”
Mathematically: =0
Unit#5
FORCES AND MATTER
Q.1. Define the following.
Force: Force is an agent which produces or tends to produce a change in the state
of rest or of uniform motion of an object, In S.I units of force is Newton (N).
Effects of force
Force is needed to move a car
Force causes the spring to stretch
Force is needed to bend or change the shape of a strip
Newton: It is the unit of force. If one kg mass is accelerated by 1m/s2 then
force applied would be 1N.
Pressure: It may be defined as perpendicular force acting per unit area on the
surface.
𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Pressure =
𝑎𝑟𝑒𝑎
2
Its S.I Unit is Pascal (Pa) or N/m .
One Pascal: If a force of 1N act on a body of area 1m2 then pressure is Pascal.
Elasticity:
The phenomenon of returning of a body to its original length, volume or
shape after the applied force is removed is called elasticity.
Q.2.What are the factors on which pressure depends?
Ans: Factors affecting pressure
Pressure of liquid is directly proportional to depth and density of material. i.e
greater the depth and density of material greater would be the pressure of liquid
and vice versa
Q3: Explain Hook’s law applied to helical spring?
Let a helical spring be suspended vertically from a fixed support. A block is
attached at its lower end. Due to force of gravity the block is displaced downward.
As a result, the spring is stretched. After a little while the block comes to rest and
attains equilibrium. Under this condition the block is under the action of two
forces.
• The force of gravity acting downward.
• The tension in the spring in upward direction.
In equilibrium the two forces are equal and opposite.
According to Hook’s law:
“Within elastic limit the displacement produced in the spring is directly
proportional to force applied”
If “F” stands for force applied and “x” for the displacement in the spring, the

𝐹∝𝑥
𝐹 = 𝑘𝑥
Where “k” is a constant of proportionality and is known as the spring constant
(stiffness of spring). Its unit is N/m.
Q4: What is fluid pressure? Write the factors on which fluid pressure
depends.
FLUID PRESSURE
Both liquid and gases are fluids. The pressure exerted by fluids is known as fluid
pressure. It acts in all directions. This is because the molecules of fluids move
around in all directions causing pressure on every surface they collide with
FACTORS AFFECTING PRESSURE IN FLUIDS
Pressure is directly proportional to the
 Depth of object inside the fluid
 Density of fluid
 Acceleration due to gravity
Mathematically
Pressure= density x acceleration due to gravity x depth
P = 𝜌gd
Q5: What is Pascal’s Principal? Write the name of devices constructed on this
principle
Pascal’s Principal:
This law was put forward by Pascal. This principal state that
“When a pressure is applied to a liquid, it is transmitted undiminished equally
in all directions.”
Uses:
• Hydraulic brake system.
• Hydraulic lift.
• Hydraulic Press (Brahma’s Press)

Q6: What is Hydraulic Press (write its uses), with construction and working?

1-Hydraulic Press:
Hydraulic press is also called Brahma’s press. It is used to compress
the material.
Principal:
It works on principal which states that:
“When a pressure is applied to a liquid, it is transmitted undiminished equally
in all directions.”
Uses:
It is used for:
• Compressing the soft material.
• Compressing powdered material into compact solids.
Construction:
It consists of a narrow cylinder, which is connected with a wider
cylinder. They are fitted with air tight pistons. It is filled with some incompressible
Working
A force of magnitude F1 is applied to a small piston of surface area A1.The
pressure is transmitted p1 through a incompressible liquid to a larger piston of area
A2.Because the pressure must be the same on both sides
𝐹1 𝐹2
𝑃= =
𝐴2 𝐴2
 𝐴2
Therefore the force F2 is greater than the force F1 by a factor
𝐴1

By designing a hydraulic press with appropriate areas A1 and A2 a large output

force can be applied by means of a small input force

Unit # 06
“Gravitation”
Q.1: Define the following terms:
a) Gravitation Force:
The natural force which pulls every two objects in the universe
towards each other is known as gravitational force or gravity. It is denoted by F G.
b) Characteristics of Gravitational Force:
i. It is present between every two objects because of their masses.
ii. It exists everywhere in the universe.
iii. It forms an action-reaction pair.
iv. It is independent of the medium between the objects.
v. It is directly proportional to the product of masses of the objects.
vi. It is inversely proportional to the square of distance between the centers of
the objects.
c) Gravitational Field:
A region in which a mass experiences a force due to gravitational
attraction is known as gravitational field.
d)Gravitational Field Strength
Gravitational field strength “g” is the gravitational force acting per
unit mass
Weight:
The weight of an object is the measurement of gravitational force acting
on the object. It is denoted by W. where W= mg
e) Satellites:
An object that revolves around a planet is called a satellite. Satellites
are of two types:
i. Natural Satellites
ii. Artificial Satellites
f)Orbital Velocity:
The velocity required to keep the satellite into its orbit is called
orbital velocity.
g)Critical Velocity:
The constant horizontal velocity required to put the satellite into a
stable orbit around the earth is called critical velocity.
Formula:
𝑣𝑐 = √𝑔𝑅
Where 𝑣𝑐 = 𝐶𝑟𝑖𝑡𝑖𝑐𝑎𝑙 𝑣𝑒𝑙𝑜𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑦
g = acceleration due to gravity
R = radius of earth
𝐦₁𝐦₂
Q2: State Newton’s Law of Gravitation & derive F = G
𝐫²

Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation:

According to the Newton’s Law of Universal Gravitation:
Everybody in the universe attracts every other body with a
force which is directly proportional to the product of their
masses and inversely proportional to the square of the
distance between their centers.
Mathematically:
Consider two spherical bodies A and B of masses m1 and m2 respectively that are
placed such that their centers are at a distance of “r” from each other.
F ∝ m1m2
1
F∝
𝑟2

By combining the both equations we get

m₁m₂
F∝
r²
m₁m₂
F=G
r²

Where, “G” is the constant of proportionality and is called the Gravitational constant.
unit of g: In s.i units, the unit of G is N-m2/kg2 and its value is 6.67 x 10-11 N-m2/kg2
Q3: What is mass of earth?
Ans: Mass of the Earth:

The mass of the earth can be determined with the help of

Newton’s Law of Gravitation. Let a body of mass “m” be placed on the
surface of the earth. If “Me” be the mass of the earth and “Re” its
radius then according to the law of gravitation:
𝑚₁𝑚₂
F=G
𝑟²

But here the formula is:

𝑀𝑒𝑚
F=G
𝑅𝑒²

But we know that the force with which anybody is attracted towards the earth is actual
the weight of the body.
F=W
But W = mg
Therefore, F = mg
𝐺𝑀𝑒𝑚
mg =
𝑅𝑒²

GMe = gRe2

𝑔 𝑅𝑒²
Me =
𝐺

Now, put the value of g, G and Re

9.8(6.4 𝑥 10⁶)²
Me =
6.67 𝑥 10¹¹

Me = 6 x 1024 Kg
Q4: What are satellites? How many types of satellites are there? Write their differences.
Satellites:
An object that revolves around a planet is called a satellite.
Satellites are of two types:
i. Natural Satellites
ii. Artificial Satellites

Natural Satellites Artificial Satellites

The planets which revolve around another The objects which are sent into space by
planet, naturally is called natural satellite. scientists to revolve around the earth or
other planets are called artificial satellites.
e.g. Moon is a natural satellite e.g. Sputnik-I and Explorer-I are artificial
satellites

Q5: Write three differences between g and G?

S# “g” “G”

1. “g” is called acceleration due to gravity. “G” is called the Gravitational constant.

2. Its value is 9.8 m/sec2 Its value is 6.67x10-11 Nm2/Kg2

3. It changes with altitude It remains constant in the universe

Q6: Give some uses of artificial satellites. Also explain different types of orbits.

Artificial satellites are used for different purposes like:

 For communication.
 For making star maps.
 For making maps of planetary surfaces.
 For collecting information about weather.
 For taking pictures of planets, etc.
 Artificial satellites carry instruments, passengers or both to perform
different experiments in space.
An orbit is a path in which an object (or satellite) revolve around a fixed point.
Artificial satellites have been launched into different orbits around the earth.
There are different types of orbits on the basis of different parameters like their distance
from the Earth, their time period around the Earth etc. Some types of the orbits are:
 Low-Earth orbit
 Medium-Earth orbit
 Geostationary orbit
 Elliptic orbit
An artificial satellite which completes its one revolution around the earth in 24 hours is
used for communication purpose (known as communication satellite). As Earth also
complete its one rotation about its axis in 24 hours, therefore the above satellite appears
to be stationary and its orbit is therefore called “Geostationary orbit”.

Q7: Derive an expression for the velocity and time period of a satellite moving
around the Earth.

Let us consider the motion of a satellite which is revolving around the earth, where;
m = mass of satellite
M = mass of Earth
R = radius of Earth
h = height (altitude) of satellite from the surface of Earth
r = R + h = radius of orbit
As,
Centripetal force = Gravitational force
Or Fc = FG
𝑚𝑣 2
where, Fc =
𝑟
 𝐺𝑚𝑀
and FG =
𝑟2

Substituting the values of Fc and FG:

𝑚𝑣 2 𝐺𝑚𝑀
=
𝑟 𝑟2

𝐺𝑀
v2 =
𝑅+ℎ

𝐺𝑀
v = √
𝑅+ℎ

This shows that, the speed of the satellite is independent of its mass. Hence every
satellite has the same speed in the same orbit.
Time period of satellite
The time period for a satellite to complete one revolution around the Earth in its orbit is
called its Time period “T”. The time period can be calculated as:
2𝜋𝑟
T =
𝑣

By substituting the value of velocity of satellite (v); we get:

2𝜋𝑟
T =
𝐺𝑀
√
𝑅+ℎ

𝑟
T = 2πr √ ------ [r = R + h]
𝐺𝑀

𝒓𝟑
T = 2π √
𝑮𝑴

Q8: What is Orbital Velocity? Derive an expression for the orbital velocity of a
satellite moving around the Earth.

Orbital Velocity: The velocity required to keep the satellite into its orbit is called
orbital velocity.
The gravitational pull of Earth on the satellite provides the centripetal force needed for
orbital motion. Since this force is equal to the weight of satellite, Ws = mg, therefore
Fc = Ws
And, Ws = mgh
Where,
M = Mass of satellite.
gh = acceleration due to gravity at height ‘h’ from the surface of earth.
The centripetal for ‘Fc’ on the satellite is:
𝑚𝑣 2
Fc =
𝑟

Substituting the values of ‘Fc’ and ‘Ws’:

𝑚𝑣 2
= mgh
𝑟

v2 = ghr
v = √𝑔ℎ 𝑟 ----------- [r=R+h]

or v = √𝑔ℎ (𝑅 + ℎ)

If satellite is orbiting very close to the surface of Earth then: h<<R

In this case orbital radius may be considered equal to the radius of Earth.
Therefore, R+h=R
Also gh = g
And v = vc
Where,
vc = Critical velocity
g = Acceleration due to gravity on the surface of Earth.
In terms of these factors the equation becomes:
vc = √𝑔𝑅
This is known as “Critical velocity”
 vc =√𝑔𝑅 = √10 𝑚𝑠 −2 х 6.38 х 106 𝑚
vc = 7.99 x 103 𝑚𝑠-1 = 8 kms-1
It should be noted that as the satellite get closer to the Earth, the gravitational pull of the Earth
on it gets stronger. So, the satellite in order to stay in an orbit closer to Earth needs to travel
faster as compare to those satellites in the farther orbits.
REASONS:

i-What will be the effect on gravitational pull between two objects if medium
between them is changed?
Ans: Gravitational force does not depends on the medium between two concerned
bodies.so there will be no effect of changing medium.
ii- Which force causes the moon to move in orbit around earth?
Ans?:”The earth gravity is the force which keeps the moon revolve in an orbit
around the earth
iii- Moon is attracted by earth but it does not fall on the earth why?
Moon orbits around earth, centripetal force is provided by the gravitational force of
earth on the moon .Hence moon revolve around the earth and does not fall on earth
iv-Why weight of object is different at different planets?
Ans: As we know that weight is the force i.e W=mg, therefore as the value of
gravitational strength (g) of the planet is different at different planets that is why same
body weigh different at different planets
v-: if you go on a diet and lose weight will you also lose mass? Explain
Ans: Go on diet means less intake of calories which means that you are going to lose
fats of your body which lose your mass as well as weight
Vi-Why two satellites of different masses have same speed in the same orbit?
Ans: Orbital velocity of satellites is given by

Ans: 𝐺𝑀
𝑉 = √𝑅
Tis equation shows that the speed of satellite is independent of its mass .Hence every
satellite whether massive (large) or very light (small) has the same speed on the

same orbit.

Vii-What is geostationary orbit?

Ans: Geostationary orbit, a circular orbit 35,785km above earth. Equator in which a

satellite orbital period is equal to earth’s rotation period of 23 hours and 56 minutes.

A space craft appears in this orbit appears to an observer on earth to be stationary in

the sky.

viii-Why we not feel the gravitational force of attraction from the object around
us?

Ans:
Gravitational force is a weak force unless large mases are involved.The masseof
objects around us are quite small.and thus te magnitude of gravitational force is also
very small and igligibleas conmpared to to that shown by earth.

Unit # 07
“PROPERTIES OF MATTER”
Q.1 Define Matter. How many states of matter are there? Define each of them

Matter:
Anything that has mass and it occupies a certain volume is known as matter.
 States of Matter:
Matter is found in three states: Solid state, Liquid state, and Gaseous state.

Solid State:

The state of matter that has fixed shape, fixed volume, high density and incompressible nature is called
solid. e.g. Ice, Wood, plastic, paper, etc.

Liquid State:

The state of matter that has no definite shape and volume but has high density and incompressible nature is
called liquid. e.g. Water, Milk, honey etc.

Gaseous State:

The state of matter that has no fixed shape or volume but has low density and compressible nature is called a
gas. e.g. Steam, CO2 gas, N2 gas etc.

Q.2 Define the following:

Melting:

The process in which a solid is heated up to a certain temperature, where it gets converted into a
liquid is called melting.

Boiling:

The process in which a liquid is heated up to a certain temperature, where it gets converted into
a gas is called boiling.

Condensation:

The process, by which a gas is converted into a liquid, by cooling to a specific temperature
(liquefaction point), is called condensation.

Freezing:

The process, by which a liquid is converted into a solid by cooling to a specific temperature
(freezing point), is called condensation.

Evaporation:

The process in which a liquid changes its state into gaseous phase without heating to a specific
temperature, is called evaporation.

Sublimation:
 The process, in which a solid converts directly into a gas on heating, without changing into
liquid phase, is called sublimation.

Brownian motion:

The random zig-zag motion of molecules in a liquid, is called Brownian motion.

Q.3 State Kinetic Molecular Model for gases.

KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL FOR GASES

Following are the features of gases according to Kinetic Molecular Model:

1. The gases are made up of tiny particles called atoms, or group of atoms called molecules.
2. These molecules are always in continuous random motion.
3. The molecules are very far apart.
4. The molecules are arranged randomly and are free to move with very high speeds.
5. There is small number of particles per unit volume.
6. The forces of attraction between particles are negligible.
7. The particles occupy any available space.

Q.4 State Kinetic Molecular Model for liquids.

KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL FOR LIQUIDS

Following are the features of liquids according to Kinetic Molecular Model:

1. The liquids are made up of tiny particles called atoms, or group of atoms called molecules.
2. These molecules are always in continuous random motion.
3. The molecules are slightly further apart compared to that of solids.
4. The molecules occur in clusters.
5. There is slightly less number of particles per unit volume compared to solids.
6. Liquids have relatively high densities.
7. The forces of attraction between particles are strong.
8. The particles are free to move about within the liquid.

Q.5 State Kinetic Molecular Model for solids.

KINETIC MOLECULAR MODEL FOR SOLIDS

Following are the features of solids according to Kinetic Molecular Model:

1. The solids are made up of tiny particles called atoms, or group of atoms called molecules.
2. These molecules are always in continuous random motion.
3. The molecules are closely packed together and occupy minimum space.
4. The molecules are arranged in a regular pattern called lattice.
5. There is a large number of particles per unit volume. That is why solids have the highest densities.
6. The forces of attraction between particles are very strong.
7. The particles are not able to change positions.
8. The particles vibrate about fixed positions thus are not entirely stationary.

Q.6. what is the difference between evaporation and boiling?

Ans: Boiling is a process in which a liquid is heated up to a certain temperature, where it gets converted
into a gas. While during evaporation, a liquid changes its state into gaseous phase without heating to a
specific temperature. The liquids that evaporate at ordinary conditions are called volatile liquids.
Q.7. Explain the forces of attraction between the molecules according to the kinetic molecular theory.

FORCES AND KINETIC THEORY

Forces in Gases: According to Kinetic theory, the molecules of gases have large kinetic energy and there is
no force of attraction between them. Therefore, the molecules of gases can move freely and move further
apart. This is why, the gases have large volume and they can be compressed easily. Gases have low boiling
and melting points.

Forces in Liquids: According to Kinetic theory, the molecules of liquids have less kinetic energy
compared to that of gases; therefore their molecules have intermolecular forces of attraction. The molecules
of liquids are close to each other but still free to move. Liquids do not have fixed shape but they have fixed
volume. The melting and boiling points of liquids are also high as compared to gases.

Forces in Solids: According to Kinetic theory, the molecules of solids have extremely low kinetic energies;
therefore they have very strong intermolecular forces of attraction between their molecules. The molecules
of solids cannot move freely but only have small vibrations about mean position. The solids have fixed
shape and volume. The melting points, boiling points and densities of solids are very high.

Q.8. Describe the behavior of gases.

BEHAVIOUR OF GASES

 The molecules of gases have large distance between them.

 These molecules move very quickly in straight line.
 The direction of these molecules changes when they collide with each other or with the walls of
container.
 The motion of molecules is constant and random.

Pressure:
The pressure is the force applied per unit area. The gases exert pressure on the walls of container due
to the collision of molecules. The pressure applied by gases increases with the increase in the number of
collision with the walls of container. Pressure may also increase by compressing the size of the container.
This will cause the increase in the number of collisions.
Volume:
The space occupied by a substance is called volume. Gases don’t have specific volume. The molecules
can move freely and assume the volume of container. The volume of gases can be increase by increase in
the temperature of the gas, which increases the kinetic energy of molecules. The volume of gas can also be
increased by reducing the pressure.
Temperature:
The temperature of gas is the average kinetic energy of its molecules. When a gas is heated; the kinetic
energies of its molecules increases. Whereas, when a gas is cooled, the average kinetic energies of the
molecules also decrease.

Q.9. State and explain Boyle’s law.

BOYLE'S LAW:
Introduction:
Boyle’s law is a quantitative relationship between volume and pressure of a gas at constant temperature. According
to Boyle's law:

Statement: The volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional

to pressure, if temperature remains constant."
Mathematical representation of Boyle’s law:
𝟏
V α
𝑷
V = (constant) (1/P)

PV = constant

At P1 pressure

P1V1 = constant ---------------------------------(1)

At P2 pressure

P2V2 = constant ---------------------------------(2)

By Comparing (1) & (2)

P1V1 = P2V2.

Graphical representation of Boyle’s law

Results:
1. If pressure of gas is doubled, its volume becomes half.
2. The graph between “P” an “V” shows that if pressure increase, then volume decreases and vice versa.
1
3. The graph between “V” and “ ” shows a straight line passing through origin.
𝑃
4. At constant temperature, the product of pressure and volume is constant. i.e. PV = constant
5. Initial Pressure x Initial Volume = Final Pressure x Final Volume ( P 1V1 = P2V2 )
UNIT # 08
“ENERGY SOUCES AND TRANSFER OF ENERGY”
Q1: Define the following:
Ans: Work:

Work is said to be done when a force acts on a body and moves it through some distance.
or
Product of force vector and displacement vector is called work.
or
The work is done when the force produces displacement in a body.
W = F.d
W = F d Cos𝜽
Unit of Work: In S.I units, the unit of work is Joule or Newton-meter (N-m)
Examples:
• An engine pulling a train does work.
• A crane does work while raising a load.
• A man carrying bricks up the ladder also performs work.
• Any moving body possesses K.E

Power: Power may be defined as the rate of doing work.

OR
Work done by a body in unit time is called power. It is denoted by the letter “P”
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛
Unit of Power: In S.I units, the unit of power is Watt or Joule per second. It is scalar quantity.

Q2: Write down some larger Units of Power.

LARGER UNITS OF POWER:

Kilo watt = kW = 1000 W = 103 Watt

Mega Watt = MW = 1000000 W = 106 W

Horse power = 1 hp = 746 Watts
Q3: Define kinetic energy and write the factors on which energy depends:
Ans: Energy
Energy may be defined as the capacity or ability of doing work. It is a scalar quantity.
Unit of energy: In S.I units, the unit of energy is Joule.
FACTORS ON WHICH ENERGY DEPENDS
Energy is directly proportional to mass and speed of the body
Q4: Define two kinds of energy and write down two points of difference between them.
Kinds of Energy:
The two kinds of energy are:
• Kinetic Energy (K.E)
• Potential Energy (P.E)
Kinetic Energy:
The energy possessed by a body by virtue of its motion is called kinetic energy represented by
the formula is

𝟏 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒓
Examples:
• A bullet from a gun possesses kinetic energy.
• A waterfall possesses kinetic energy.

Potential Energy:
The energy possesses by a body by virtue of its position or specific configuration is called
potential energy. It is represented by the formula,
P.E = mgh
Examples:
• The brick on the top of the roof possesses potential energy.
• We can store the potential energy in a clock, by winding it.
Q5: Define Potential Energy or gravitational potential energy and derive the relation P.E =
mgh
Ans: Potential Energy or Gravitational Potential Energy:
The energy which is produced in a body by virtue of its position (height) is called potential
energy or gravitational potential energy

Example:
  A stone lying on the roof,
 A book lying on a table,
 A man on the first floor of a building.

Mathematical Derivation:

Consider a body of mass “m” is placed on the surface of the earth. Now force “F” is
applied on the body in the upward direction against the force of gravity and body attain
height “h”. The work done on the body is given by

W = F.S ___________ (1)

Since F=weight = mg and S=h

Therefore equation (1) become

W = mgh ___________ (2)

Since work done = potential energy

Therefore we have
P.E = mgh
Q6: Define Elastic Potential Energy.
Ans: Elastic Potential Energy:
If a spring is stretched or compressed, work is done in stretching or compressing it against the
elastic force of spring. This work is stored in the spring as potential energy. Such potential
energy under the influence of elasticity is called elastic potential energy.
Q7: Define Gravitational Potential Energy
Ans: Gravitational Potential Energy:
The potential energy possessed by a body in the gravitational field is called gravitational
potential energy.
e.g. A body raised to a height “h” above the ground has gravitational potential energy
Q8: Define kinetic Energy
Ans: Kinetic Energy: Energy possessed by an object due to its motion is known as Kinetic
energy
Its SI unit is joule. It is a scalar quantity
𝟏 𝒎𝒗𝟐
Its formula is 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒓
Q9: What are the factors on which K.E depends?
Ans: FACTORS ON WHICH K.E DEPENDS
K.E depends upon mass and speed of object. It is directly proportional to mass and square of
velocity of object
 𝟏 𝒎𝒗𝟐
Q10: Derive the equation 𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒓
Let us calculate the kinetic energy of a body of mass “m” moving with the velocity “V”.
Suppose the body is at rest on a frictionless surface. A force “F” acts on the body and moves it
through a distance “S” in its own direction, such that the final velocity of the body becomes “V”.
We know that
Work done = F.S……. (i)
But according to Newton’s second law of motion, when a force acts on a body, it produces an
acceleration in the direction of force.
F = ma
Substituting the value of “F” in Eq. (i)
W = ma x S……. (ii)
Let us find the distance “S”
2aS = Vf2 – Vi2
Vi = 0
Vf = V
S =?
Now by putting these values in above eq we get
2aS = V2 – (0)2
Or 2aS = V2
𝑣2
Or 𝑆= 2𝑎
Substituting he value of “S” in Eq. (ii)
𝑣2
W = ma x 2𝑎
Since K.E = work done =W
Since this work is done by the force upon the body, therefore the body possesses the same kinetic
energy, Hence above equation becomes

𝟏 𝒎𝒗𝟐
𝑲. 𝑬 = 𝟐 𝒓

Q11: Derive formula for positive or maximum work, Zero work or minimum work and
negative work

Ans: i-positive or maximum work: If force applied and displacement are in same direction and
parallel to each other i.e angle between them is 0ᵒ then work done is said to be positive or
maximum i.e
Work done = F d Cos𝜃
 Work done = F d Cos0°
Work done = F d × 1 ……………[ Cos0° = 1]
Work done = F d

ii-Zero work or minimum work: If force applied on a body and displacement are perpendicular
to each other i.e angle between them is 90ᵒ then work done is said to be zero.i.e
Work done = F d Cos𝜃
Work done = F d Cos90ᵒ
Work done = F d× 0Type equation here. ……………[ Cos90° = 0]
Work done = 0

iii-Negative work: If force applied and displacement are opposite in direction i.e angle between
them is 180ᵒ then work done is said to be negative.i.e
Work done = F d Cos 𝜃
Work done = F d Cos180ᵒ
Work done = F d × −1 ……………[ Cos180° = −1]
Work done = - F d

Q12: Write two differences between Kinetic Energy and Potential Energy?
S.No Kinetic Energy Potential Energy
It is defined as energy possessed by a It is defined as energy possessed by a body
i
body due to its motion. by virtue of its position.
ii Its formula is K.E = mv2 Its formula is P.E = mgh
It increases with the increase in It increases with the increase in altitude
iii
velocity when mass is kept constant (height) keeping mass constant.
It is directly proportional to the mass It is directly proportional to the mass,
iv
and square of velocity. height and gravitational acceleration “g”.
Q13: Write statement of law of conservation of energy
Ans: law of conservation of energy
Statement: “Energy can neither be created nor it can be destroyed but it can be converted from
one form to another form
Q.14. Write a note on different forms of energy.

Fossil Fuel Energy: Fossil fuel energy is obtained from decayed plants and animals in the form of crude oil,
coal, petroleum, natural gas obtained by exposure of heat and pressure in the Earth’s crust over hundreds of
millions of years. Fossil fuels have stored chemical energy which is converted, through burning, in the form of
heat and light energy.
Hydroelectric Energy: Hydroelectricity is generated by using gravitational force of falling or flowing water.
Hydroelectric power plants use a dam on a river in a reservoir which flows through a turbine, spinning it to run a
generator to produce electricity.
Solar Energy: The energy radiated from sun is known as solar energy. This is the most available source of
energy. The solar energy can be used to produce electrical energy by using solar panels and to convert into heat
energy to heat water tanks and indoor spaces.
Nuclear Energy: The energy released during a nuclear reaction such as fission or fusion reaction is called
nuclear energy. Nuclear energy is stored in all radioactive materials such as Uranium & Radium etc. It is
released in the form of heat and light which can be converted in the form of electrical energy.
Geothermal Energy: Geothermal energy is stored in the Earth as its natural heat. This energy can be utilized to
form electrical energy by means of a geothermal power plant.
Wind Energy: The energy obtained from wind is called wind energy. It is generated by wind mills. When wind
rotates the turbine, kinetic energy is produced which causes mechanical power. This mechanical power is
converted into electricity. Wind energy can also be used for: sailing ships in sea, to pump water by wind mills,
and to grind grains.
Biomass Energy: Biomass is the organic material that comes from plants and animals. Biomass consists of
stored energy from sun, garbage, wastes, sugarcane etc. These can be directly burned to produce heat. Biomass
can also be converted into gas called biogas and liquid biofuels such as ethanol and biodiesel.
Tidal Energy: The hydropower that converts the energy from tides into electricity is called tidal energy. The
Earth uses gravitational force from Sun and Moon to move vast quantity of water in oceans and seas producing
tides.
Q15: Define
Ans: i-Renewable energy source: Renewable source can be consumed and used again and
again. Such as Solar, wind, tidal and geothermal energies are renewable sources
Ii-Non-renewable energy source: Non-renewable energy sources are limited and will finished
once used. Such as Coal, petroleum and natural gases are Non-Renewable sources
Input: work done on the machine is called input
Output: Work done by the machine is called output
Q.16. what is efficiency?

EFFICIENCY: The ratio between the useful works done by the machine (output) to the
work done on the machine (input) is called efficiency of the machine. Efficiency is usually
expressed in percentage.
 𝑈𝑠𝑒𝑓𝑢𝑙 𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑏𝑦 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒
Efficiency = 𝑊𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒 𝑜𝑛 𝑡ℎ𝑒 𝑚𝑎𝑐ℎ𝑖𝑛𝑒

𝑂𝑢𝑡𝑝𝑢𝑡
Efficiency = x 100
𝐼𝑛𝑝𝑢𝑡

The ratio of output to the input is called efficiency.

Q16: Write differences between Renewable and no nonrenewable sources

S# Renewable Sources Non-Renewable sources
i These sources can be consumed and used These sources are limited and will
again and again finished once used
ii Renewable sources cannot be depleted over Non-Renewable sourced deplete over
time time
iii Lower environmental impact as they have Greater environmental impact as they
lower carbon emission have higher carbon emission
iv Solar, wind ,tidal and geothermal energies Coal, petroleum and natural gases are
are renewable sources Non-Renewable sources

REASONS:
1-Acording to the definition of work, Urwa did not perform any work if she made an
assignment on her laptop, in three hours why?
Answer is defined as the product displacement and force in the direction of displacement. Since
Urwa did not displace while working on laptop, so the displacement is zero. That is why work
done is zero.
2-At what angle between force and displacement the work done by a body would be
maximum?
Ans: work is defined as the product of force and displacement in the direction of displacement.so
for maximum work, force and displacement should be in the same direction. i.e. angle between
them is zero degree then work done would be maximum.
3-why power is a scalar quantity?
Ans: Power is defined as work done per unit time.
𝑤𝑜𝑟𝑘 𝑑𝑜𝑛𝑒
𝑃𝑜𝑤𝑒𝑟 =
𝑡𝑖𝑚𝑒 𝑡𝑎𝑘𝑒𝑛

Since neither time nor work (energy) is considered to be vector quantities because both have no
direction, and power is ratio of both of them. That is why power has a unit but no direction.
Therefore power is considered as scalar quantity.
4-Why fossil fuel is called non-renewable energy source?
 Ans:As nonrenewable resources are natural resources that cannot be remade or regrown at a
scale comparable to its consumption. Fossil fuel energy sources including oil, coal and natural
gas are nonrenewable sources. Fossil fuels were created as the remain of marine creature
decayed millions of years ago under huge amount of pressure and heat

UNIT # 9
“THERMAL PROPERTIES OF MATTER”
Q1: Define the following
i-Heat: It is the form of energy which transfer from hot body to cold body because of difference of
temperature between them.
Or
The total kinetic energy of molecule of any substance is called heat. Its SI unit is joule
ii-Temperature:
The temperature of a body represents the degree of hotness or coldness of a body. The
temperature may be defined as the average kinetic energy of the molecules of a body. Its SI unit is
“Kelvin”.
iii-Heat capacity: Heat Capacity is the amount heat energy required to raise the temperature of
substance by1k (1℃).
Its SI unit is J/K or J/℃.Bsides its mass the heat capacity also depends upon its material. For instance
two different substances of same mass one need more and other less heat to rise the temperature by
1k (1℃).
∆𝑄
𝐶=
𝑚∆𝑇
iv-Specific Heat capacity:
It may be define as:
“The amount of heat required to change the temperature of one KG mass of a substance
through 1K”
It is denoted by letter C. Its unit is J/Kg-k
∆𝑄
𝑐= 𝑚∆𝑇

Q2: Define latent Heat and its types also?

Latent heat:
 The amount of heat required changing the state of material i.e. from solid to liquid or
liquid to gas is called latent heat. There are two types of latent heat:
• Latent heat of fusion.
• Latent heat of vaporization.
i-Latent heat of fusion of ice:
It may be define as:
“The amount of heat energy needed to melt 1 kg of ice at 0℃ completely to 1 kg of water at the
same temperature”.
Its unit is J/Kg and its value is 3.36x105 J/Kg

ii-Latent Heat of vaporization:

It may be define as:
The amount of heat energy required to convert 1kg of water at its boiling point (𝟏𝟎𝟎℃) to
steam at the same temperature.”
Its value is 2.26x106 J/Kg.
Q3: Define evaporation and factors on which rate of evaporation depends?
Evaporation:
The phenomenon of changing of liquids into vapors without boiling is called evaporation. It
takes place at all temperatures.
Factors on which rate of evaporation depend:
Following are the factors on which rate of evaporation depends:
• Wind Speed: Higher the speed of wind, greater is the rate of evaporation.
• Air pressure on the surface of liquid: If the pressure on the surface of the liquid is lowered,
its rate of evaporation shoots up.
• Surface area of the surface of liquid: If the surface area of the liquid is increased,
evaporation rate will increase.
• Temperature of the liquid: If the surface temperature is high, rate of evaporation increases.
• Nature of liquid: The liquids which have strong intermolecular attraction will have slower rate
of evaporation and vice versa.
• Dryness of air: Drier the air, quicker will be the rate of evaporation and vice versa.
Q4: Define thermal expansion. Also give molecular view of thermal expansion.
Thermal Expansion: The expansion of substance on heating is called thermal expansion
Examples:
I-Expansion in railway track in summer
Ii-Expansion of electric wires in summer
Iii-Expansion in bridges in summer
Molecular view of thermal Expansion
When temperature is increased, molecule of a substance vibrates with a greater amplitude. This
increases the average distance between the molecules and object expands consequently
Q5: Define thermal expansion in liquid and its types.
Thermal expansion of liquids: The volume of liquid expands on heating .this expansion on heating
is known as thermal expansion of liquids
Types of expansion in liquids:
There are two types of expansion in liquids
i-Apparent expansion
The expansion of liquid in a container observed without considering the expansion of container is
called the apparent expansion
ii-Real Expansion: The expansion of liquid in a container observed with considering the expansion
of container is called the real expansion
Real Expansion = Apparent expansion + Expansion of container

Q6: Define linear expansion and its mathematical form with coefficient of linear expansion?
Linear Expansion:
“Expansion along the length solid body on heating is called linear
Expansion.”
It is one dimensional expansion as it occurs only along the length of object
Mathematical Form:
Consider
L1 = initial length of a uniform rod
L2 = final length after heating
∆𝑇= change in temperature
It is experimentally found that the change of length is directly proportional to the original length and
the change in temperature of the solid.
∆𝐿 ∝ 𝐿1

∆𝐿 ∝ ∆𝑇
By combining both equations we get
∆𝐿 ∝ 𝐿1 . ∆𝑇

∆𝐿 =∝ 𝐿1 . ∆𝑇
Where" ∝” is called the coefficient of linear expansion. Substitute ∆𝐿 = 𝐿2 − 𝐿1 in above equation
𝐿2 − 𝐿1 =∝ 𝐿1 . ∆𝑇

𝐿2 = 𝐿1 + ∝ 𝐿1 . ∆𝑇

𝐿2 = 𝐿1 (1 + ∝ ∆𝑇)

Coefficient of Linear Expansion:

It may be defined as the change in length per unit length per degree rise in the
temperature.
It is denoted by the letter alpha (∝), and is given as
∆𝐿
∝=
𝐿1 ∆𝑇
Q7: Define volumetric expansion and coefficient of volumetric expansion?
Volumetric Expansion:
“Expansion in volume of solid, liquid and gas is called volume expansion”.
Mathematical Expression:
Consider
V1 = initial volume of a body
V2 = final volume after heating
∆𝑇 = change in temperature
It is experimentally found that the change of length is directly proportional to the original length and
the change in temperature of the solid.
∆𝑉 ∝ 𝑉1

∆𝑉 ∝ ∆𝑇
By combining both equations we get

∆𝑉 ∝ 𝑉1 . ∆𝑇

∆𝑉 = 𝛽. 𝑉1 . ∆𝑇
Where"𝜷” is called the coefficient of linear expansion. Substitute ∆𝑉 = 𝑉2 − 𝑉1 in above equation
𝑉2 − 𝑉1 = 𝜷. ∆𝑇
 𝑉2 = 𝑉1 + 𝜷𝑉1 . ∆𝑇

𝑉2 = 𝑉1 (1 + 𝜷∆𝑇)

Coefficient of volumetric expansion:

It may be defined as the change in volume per unit volume per degree rise in temperature. It is
denoted by letter beta (𝛽) and is given
∆𝑉
𝛽=
𝑉1 ∆𝑇
Q8: What is the relation between ∝ and𝜷?

Relation between ∝ and𝜷:

The relation between ∝ 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝛽 is given by:
𝛽 = 3∝
This shows that the coefficient of volume expansion is three times the coefficient of linear expansion.

Q9: What are bimetallic strip, bimetallic thermometer and fire alarm?
Bimetallic strip:
When two metallic strips of different linear thermal expansions are welded together, a
bimetallic strip is formed.

E.g: bimetallic strip of bass and iron.

Bimetallic Thermometer:
This thermometer consists of a bimetallic strip in the form of long spiral. Its one end is fixed and
the other is firmly joined to a pointer which moves over a scale which is calibrated to measure
temperature. This type of thermometer is usually used for the ordinary air thermometer, oven
thermometer and in automobiles for automobile choke.
Fire Alarm:
A very useful application of a bimetallic strip in a fire alarm. One end of a bimetallic strip is
firmly fixed while the other end is free. A 6 volt battery is connected between a metallic contact and
fixed end of bimetallic strip through an electric bulb or electric bell. When fire takes place,
temperature rises. The bimetallic strip bends and touches the metallic contact. As a result, current
begins to flow in the circuit due to which the bulb grows or the bell begins to ring giving an alarming
signal for fire.
Q.10: What is thermometer? What are the scales of temperature?
Ans: THERMOMETER: Thermometer is a device, used to measure temperature. A clinical
thermometer is used to measure the temperature of human body. It works on the principle of
thermal expansion.
SCALES OF TEMPERATURE:
There are three scales of temperature:

1. Celsius Scale (ᵒC)

2. Fahrenheit Scale (ᵒF)
3. Kelvin Scale (K)

These three scales are inter-convertible:

1. K = ᵒC + 273
2. ᵒF = ( 1.8 x ᵒC ) + 32
ᵒ𝐹−32
3. ᵒC = 1.8

Q11: Write the differences between evaporation and boiling?

Evaporation Boiling
i It does not require any external heat source It require external heat source
ii It occurs at any temperature below boiling It occurs at certain temperature
point
iii It causes cooling It does not cause cooling
iv It is relatively slow It is relatively fast
 v It takes place only at liquid surface It takes place throughout the liquid
vi No formation of bubbles Bubbles are formed
Q12: Write the differences between heat and temperature?
S.No Heat Temperature
The total kinetic energy of a molecule of The average kinetic energy of a molecule
i
a substance is called its heat. of a substance is called its temperature.
ii It can be measured by calorimeter. It can be measured by thermometer.
iii Its S.I unit is ‘Joule’ Its S.I unit is ‘Kelvin’

REASONS
i-Why cannot we tell temperature of a body by touching it?
Ans: Sense of touch is not reliable technique to measure hotness or coldness because if you take
your hand from cold water to normal water, it appears warm. On the other hand if you take your
hand from warm water to normal water it appears cold. Thus same water may give you different
feelings
ii-why does the temperature not increases when ice is heated 0℃?
Ans: When we heat ice at 0℃, the ice melts and convert into liquid. During the melting process the
temperature remains constant at 0℃ .while melting any energy added breaks the hydrogen bond
between ice (water) molecules. Thus temperature remains the same
iii- why does the temperature not increases when water is heated at 100℃?Explain
Ans: Because at 100℃ water getting converted into gaseous state so no change in temperature
occurs sereve is called expansion in solids
iv-What is the reason for expansion of solids on heating?
Ans: The atoms of solid vibrates at their mean position with certain amplitude. When solids are
heated the kinetic energy of atoms increases which increases the amplitude of vibration of atoms.
Heat results in increase in space between them so the effect we observe is called expansion in
solids.
v- Why dos heat flow from hot body to cold body?
Ans: Atoms of hot body have higher kinetic energy as compare to cold body, due to this higher
kinetic energy atoms of hot body collide with the atoms of cold body and transfer energy to the cold
body
vi-How would you find the specific heat of a solid?
Ans: Specific heat capacity of a solid can be determined by using calorimeter
vii-why solids increases in size on heating? Explain
Ans: When solids are heated its atoms began to vibrate vigorously due to this large vibration the
relative size of solid increases. This property of solid is called thermal expansion
viii-Why small gaps are left at the joints of railway tracks? Explain
Ans: Metal railway tracks have small gaps so that when the sun heats them, the track expand into
these gaps and don’t buckle this phenomenon is called thermal expansion
Ix-More heat is required to raise the temperature of 1Kg of water than 1 Kg iron through 1℃
why?
Ans: The specific heat of water is greater (i.e nine times greater) than iron so that water need more
heat to raise its temperature through 1℃