NSW PHYSICS &

Module 7  The Nature Of Light

78
Module 8  From the Universe To the Atom

Brian Shadwick
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Contents

Introductionvi
Words to Watch vi

Module 7 The Nature Of Light

Electromagnetic Spectrum Light: Wave Model
inquiry question inquiry question
What is light? What evidence supports the classical wave model of light
and what predictions can be made using this model?
Investigate Maxwell’s contribution to the
C O NTENT classical theory of electromagnetism,
FOCUS including unification of electricity and C O NTENT Conduct investigations to analyse
magnets, prediction of electromagnetic FOCUS qualitatively the diffraction of light.
waves and prediction of velocity.

1 James Clerk Maxwell 2 8 Diffraction 19

Describe the production and propagation Conduct investigations to analyse

C O NTENT C O NTENT quantitatively the interference of light using
FOCUS of electromagnetic waves and relate these FOCUS double slit apparatus and diffraction gratings:
processes qualitatively to the predictions
made by Maxwell’s electromagnetic theory. d sin θ = mλ.

2 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves 3 9 Young’s Double Slit Experiment 23

10 Diffraction Gratings 27
Conduct investigations of historical and
C O NTENT contemporary methods used to determine
FOCUS the speed of light and its current relationship C O NTENT
Analyse the experimental evidence that
to the measurement of time and distance.
FOCUS supported the models of light that were
proposed by Newton and Huygens.
3 Historical Measurements Of the Speed  6
11 Newton – The Particle Theory Of Light 30
Of Light
12 Huygens – The Wave Theory Of Light 33
4 Measuring the Speed Of Light –  10
Home Experiment 13 The Electromagnetic Wave Theory  37
Of Light
14 The Quantum Theory Of Light –  39
Conduct an investigation to examine a variety
C O NTENT Extension Work
FOCUS of spectra produced by discharge tubes,
reflected sunlight or incandescent filaments. 15 Interference Supports the Dual Wave- 40
Particle Model
5 Comparing Spectra From Lighting Sources 11
Conduct investigations quantitatively using
C O NTENT the relationship of Malus’ law: I = Imax cos2 θ
C O NTENT Investigate how spectroscopy can be used to FOCUS for plane polarisation of light, to evaluate the
FOCUS provide information about the identification of
significance of polarisation in developing a
elements.
model for light.

6 Spectroscopy and Elements 13 16 Polarisation 43

17 Types Of Polarisation 46
Investigate how the spectra of stars 18 Malus’ Law 51
C O NTENT can provide information on their surface
FOCUS temperature, rotational and translational
velocity, density and chemical composition.

7 Spectra Of Stars 16

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Surfing NSW Physics Modules 7 and 8 Module 8  From the Universe To the Atom iii
 Light: Quantum Model Investigate the evidence, from Einstein’s
C O NTENT thought experiments and subsequent
inquiry question FOCUS experimental validation, for time dilation:
What evidence supports the particle model of light to
and what are the implications of this evidence for the t = _________ and length contraction:
 v2 
development of the quantum model of light? 1 − 2 
 c 

 v2 
Analyse the experimental evidence gathered L = Lo 1 − .
C O NTENT about black body radiation, including Wien’s  c2 
FOCUS b
law: λmax = __ related to Planck’s contribution
T 31 Einstein’s First Thought Experiment 79
to a changed model of light. 32 Time Dilation – Einstein’s Second Thought  81
19 Max Planck – The Beginning Of Quantum  53 Experiment
Theory 33 tv Or Not tv? That Is the Question! 84
20 Wien’s Law 56 34 Length Contraction 87
35 Combined Relativity Questions 90
Investigate the evidence from photoelectric 36 Have Spaceship, Can’t Travel 92
C O NTENT
FOCUS effect investigations that demonstrated
inconsistency with the wave model for light. Analyse experimental validation for special
C O NTENT relativity for example observations of cosmic-
21 Albert Einstein and the Photoelectric Effect 57 FOCUS origin muons at the Earth’s surface, atomic
clocks (Hafele-Keating experiment) evidence
from particle accelerators and evidence from
Analyse the photoelectric effect: Ek = hf − Φ
C O NTENT as it occurs in metallic elements by applying
cosmological studies.
FOCUS the law of conservation of energy and the
37 Validation Of Special Relativity 94
photon model of light.
38 More About Muons and Special Relativity 96
22 Analysing the Photoelectric Effect 61
23 Analysing an Experiment 63 Describe the consequences and applications
C O NTENT of relativistic momentum with reference to
FOCUS mv
pv = ________ and the limitation on the
Light and Special Relativity  v2 
1 − 2 
inquiry question  c 
How does the behaviour of light affect concepts of time, maximum velocity of a particle imposed by
special relativity.
space and matter?
39 Relativistic Mass 97
Analyse and evaluate the evidence 40 Relativistic Momentum 98
C O NTENT confirming or denying Einstein’s two
FOCUS postulates: the speed of light in a vacuum is Use Einstein’s mass-energy equivalence
an absolute constant and all inertial frames of C O NTENT relationship: E = mc2 to calculate the
reference are equivalent. FOCUS energy released by processes in which
mass is converted to energy. (Note that the
24 Relativity In the 1600s 64 production of energy in the Sun is covered in
25 The Aether Drag Theories 65 Module 8.)
26 Relativity 1870 To 1895 67
27 From 1895 To Einstein 69
28 Einstein and Beyond 72
29 Frames Of Reference and the Principle  75
Of Relativity
30 Einstein’s Postulates 78

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 Module 8 From the Universe To the Atom

Origins Of the Elements Structure Of the Atom

inquiry question inquiry question
What evidence is there for the origins of the elements? How is it known that atoms are made up of protons,
neutrons and electrons?
Investigate the processes that led to the
C O NTENT transformation of radiation into matter that
FOCUS Investigate, assess and model the
followed the ‘Big Bang’. C O NTENT experimental evidence supporting the
FOCUS existence and properties of the electron,
41 The Big Bang Theory 102 from early experiments examining the
nature of cathode rays.
42 Evidence For the Big Bang 105
56 An Historical Perspective 138
Investigate the evidence that led to the 57 Cathode Rays and Discharge Tubes 140
C O NTENT discovery of the expansion of the Universe
FOCUS by Hubble.
Investigate, assess and model the
C O NTENT experimental evidence supporting the
43 Ideas Leading To the Big Bang Theory 107 FOCUS existence and properties of the electron, from
44 Analysing Experimental Data 112 Thomson’s charge-to-mass experiment.

58 Thomson’s Experiment 143

Analyse and apply Einstein’s description
C O NTENT of the equivalence of energy and mass
FOCUS and relate this to the nuclear reactions Investigate, assess and model the
C O NTENT experimental evidence supporting the
that occur in stars. FOCUS existence and properties of the electron,
45 The Mass-Energy Relationship 113 from Millikan’s oil drop experiment.
46 Energy From the Sun 115 59 Millikan’s Oil Drop Experiment 145

Account for the production of emission and

C O NTENT absorption spectra and compare these with C NTENT
Investigate, assess and model the
FOCUS a continuous black body spectrum.
O
FOCUS experimental evidence supporting
the nuclear model of the atom from
Geiger-Marsden experiment.
47 Atomic Spectra 118
60 The Geiger-Marsden Experiment 147
Investigate the key features of stellar
C O NTENT spectra and describe how these are used Investigate, assess and model the
FOCUS to classify stars. C O NTENT experimental evidence supporting the
FOCUS nuclear model of the atom from
Rutherford’s atomic model.
48 Black Body Radiation and Star Colours 121
49 Wien’s Displacement Law – Revision 123 61 Rutherford’s Model Of the Atom 149

Investigate the Hertzsprung-Russell diagram Assess the limitations of the Rutherford

C O NTENT and how it can be used to determine the C O NTENT
FOCUS following about a star: its characteristics and
FOCUS atomic model.

evolutionary stage, its surface temperature,

its colour and its luminosity.
62 Limitations Of the Rutherford Model Of  151
50 The Hertzsprung-Russell Diagram 124 the Atom
51 Main Sequence Stars 127
52 Non Main Sequence Stars 129 Investigate, assess and model the
C O NTENT experimental evidence supporting
53 The Evolution Of Stars 133 FOCUS the nuclear model of the atom from
Chadwick’s discovery of the neutron.
Investigate the types of nucleosynthesis
C O NTENT reactions involved in main sequence and 63 The Discovery Of the Neutron 152
FOCUS post main sequence stars, including the
proton-proton chain and the CNO
(carbon-nitrogen-oxygen) cycle.

54 The Proton-Proton Chain 135

55 The CNO Cycle 137

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 Quantum Mechanical Nature Of the Atom Analyse relationships that represent
C O NTENT conservation of mass-energy in alpha
inquiry question FOCUS and beta decay.
How is it known that classical physics cannot explain the
properties of the atom? 75 Alpha, Beta and Gamma Decay 179

Investigate the line emission spectra to Examine the model of half-life in radioactive
C O NTENT examine the Balmer series in hydrogen. C O NTENT
FOCUS FOCUS decay and make quantitative predictions
about the activity or amount of a radioactive
sample using the relationships: Nt = N0e−λt
ln (2)
64 The Bohr Atom 155 and λ = ______ where Nt = number of particles
t½
at time t, N0 = number of particles present at
Relate qualitatively and quantitatively the t = 0, λ = decay constant, t½ = time for half the
C O NTENT quantised energy levels of the hydrogen atom
FOCUS and the law of conservation of energy to the
radioactive amount to decay.
line emission spectrum of hydrogen using 76 The Half-Life Of Nuclides 181
hc 1
[
1 1
]
E = hf, E = ___ , and _ = R = __2 − __2 .
λ λ nf ni
77 Analysing a Half-Life Experiment 183

65 The Atomic Spectrum Of Hydrogen 158 Model and explain controlled and
C O NTENT uncontrolled chain reactions.
66 Analysing Spectral Data 162 FOCUS

Assess the limitations of the Bohr atomic 78 Fermi’s Model Of a Chain Reaction 184
C O NTENT model.
FOCUS 79 Controlled and Uncontrolled Chain Reactions 187

67 Limitations Of the Bohr Atom 163 Predict quantitatively the energy released in
C O NTENT nuclear decays or transmutations, including
FOCUS nuclear fission and nuclear fusion, by applying
Investigate de Broglie’s matter waves, and the law of conservation of energy, mass
C O NTENT the experimental evidence that developed defect, binding energy and Einstein’s mass-
FOCUS energy equivalence relationship: E = mc2.
h .
the formula λ = ___
mv
80 Binding Energy 188
68 Bohr and De Broglie 165 81 Nuclear Reactions, Mass Defect and 190
69 Applying De Broglie’s Ideas 167 Binding Energy

Analyse the contribution of Schrödinger to Model and explain the process of nuclear
C O NTENT the current model of the atom. C O NTENT
FOCUS FOCUS fission and nuclear fusion, including the
concepts of controlled and uncontrolled
chain reactions and account for the release
70 Schrödinger and Heisenberg 169 of energy in the process.

82 Nuclear Fission and Fusion Reactions 193

Properties Of the Nucleus 83 Neutron Induced Fission 195
inquiry question 84 The Uranium Decay Series 197
How can the energy of the atomic nucleus be
harnessed? Analyse relationships that represent
C O NTENT conservation of mass-energy in spontaneous
FOCUS and artificial nuclear transmutations,
Analyse the spontaneous decay of unstable including nuclear fission and nuclear fusion.
C O NTENT nuclei, and the properties of the alpha, beta
FOCUS and gamma radiation emitted. 85 Spontaneous and Artificial Transformations 198
86 Nuclear Reactors 200
71 The Strong Nuclear Force 171
72 Nuclear Decay 173
73 Why Some Nuclei Decay 175
74 Properties Of Alpha, Beta and Gamma Rays 178

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Deep Inside the Atom
inquiry question
How is it known that human understanding of matter is
still incomplete?

Analyse the evidence that suggests that

C O NTENT protons and neutrons are not fundamental
FOCUS particles and the existence of subatomic
particles other than protons, neutrons
and electrons.

87 New Particles Discovered 202

88 The Standard Model 208

Investigate the standard model of matter,

C O NTENT including quarks, and the quark composition
FOCUS hadrons, leptons and the fundamental forces.

89 Components Of the Standard Model 209

90 More About Quarks 213
91 More About Leptons 215
92 The Four Fundamental Forces 216
93 More About Bosons 218

Investigate the operation and role of particle

C O NTENT accelerators in obtaining evidence that
FOCUS tests and/or validates aspects of theories,
including the standard model of matter.

94 Uncovering Matter Particles 220

95 Nuclear Accelerators 221
96 The Higgs Boson 224

Topic Test 225

Answers246
Data Sheet 279
Formula Sheet 280
Periodic Table 281
Index282

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 Introduction
This book covers the Physics content specified in the NSW Physics Stage 6 Syllabus. Sample data has been included
for suggested experiments to give you practice to reinforce practical work in class.
Each book in the Surfing series contains a summary, with occasional more detailed sections, of all the mandatory parts
of the syllabus, along with questions and answers.
All types of questions – multiple choice, short response, structured response and free response – are provided.
Questions are written in exam style so that you will become familiar with the concepts of the topic and answering
questions in the required way.
Answers to all questions are included.
A topic test at the end of the book contains an extensive set of summary questions. These cover every aspect of the
topic, and are useful for revision and exam practice.

Words To Watch
account, account for State reasons for, report on, give explain Make something clear or easy to understand.
an account of, narrate a series of events or transactions. extract Choose relevant and/or appropriate details.
analyse Interpret data to reach conclusions. extrapolate Infer from what is known.
annotate Add brief notes to a diagram or graph. hypothesise Suggest an explanation for a group of facts
apply Put to use in a particular situation. or phenomena.
assess Make a judgement about the value of something. identify Recognise and name.
calculate Find a numerical answer. interpret Draw meaning from.
clarify Make clear or plain. investigate Plan, inquire into and draw conclusions
classify Arrange into classes, groups or categories. about.
comment Give a judgement based on a given statement justify Support an argument or conclusion.
or result of a calculation. label Add labels to a diagram.
compare Estimate, measure or note how things are list Give a sequence of names or other brief answers.
similar or different.
measure Find a value for a quantity.
construct Represent or develop in graphical form.
outline Give a brief account or summary.
contrast Show how things are different or opposite.
plan Use strategies to develop a series of steps or
create Originate or bring into existence.
processes.
deduce Reach a conclusion from given information.
predict Give an expected result.
define Give the precise meaning of a word, phrase or
propose Put forward a plan or suggestion for
physical quantity.
consideration or action.
demonstrate Show by example.
recall Present remembered ideas, facts or experiences.
derive Manipulate a mathematical relationship(s) to give
relate Tell or report about happenings, events or
a new equation or relationship.
circumstances.
describe Give a detailed account.
represent Use words, images or symbols to convey
design Produce a plan, simulation or model.
meaning.
determine Find the only possible answer.
select Choose in preference to another or others.
discuss Talk or write about a topic, taking into account
sequence Arrange in order.
different issues or ideas.
show Give the steps in a calculation or derivation.
distinguish Give differences between two or more
different items. sketch Make a quick, rough drawing of something.
draw Represent by means of pencil lines. solve Work out the answer to a problem.
estimate Find an approximate value for an unknown state Give a specific name, value or other brief answer.
quantity. suggest Put forward an idea for consideration.
evaluate Assess the implications and limitations. summarise Give a brief statement of the main points.
examine Inquire into. synthesise Combine various elements to make a whole.
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 NSW PHYSICS &
Module 7
78
The Nature Of Light
C O NTENT
FOCUS
In this module you will:
~~ Examine evidence for the
properties of light and evaluate
the implications of this evidence
for modern theories of physics.
~~ Study theories and models
developed by early physicists,
including Newton and Maxwell,
about mechanics, electricity
and magnetism and the nature
of matter.
~~ Explore how major discoveries in physics in the 20th century challenged existing theories
and models and led to the development of quantum theory and the theory of relativity.
~~ Understand how technologies arising from these new theories have shaped the modern world.
~~ Engage with all the Working Scientifically skills for practical investigations involving the
focus content to examine trends in data and to solve problems and communicate scientific
understanding about the nature of light.

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Surfing NSW Physics Modules 7 and 8 Module 8  From the Universe To the Atom 1
C O NTENT Investigate Maxwell’s contribution to the classical
FOCUS theory of electromagnetism, including unification
of electricity and magnets, prediction of
electromagnetic waves and prediction of velocity.

1 James Clerk Maxwell

James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879) was a Scottish scientist in the

field of mathematical physics.
Around 1862, Maxwell proposed that the speed of propagation of
an electromagnetic wave would be the same as the speed of light.
He considered this to be more than just a coincidence,
commenting, ‘We can scarcely avoid the conclusion that light
consists in the transverse undulations of the same medium which
is the cause of electric and magnetic waves’.
This resulted in Maxwell proposing that light must be a wave in a
medium which was the same cause of electrical and magnetic waves.
(Note that this medium, the aether, was later proven by Einstein not
to be necessary for the propagation of light or magnetism or electrical
field, and was proposed by him to not exist.)
In the 1830s Michael Faraday converted electric energy into
magnetic energy using an insulated wire and a galvanometer
and used this experiment as inspiration for ‘On Faraday’s Lines
Of Force’, a paper in which he derived electric and magnetic
equations by comparing the flow of liquid to lines of electrical James Clerk Maxwell (1831-1879).
and magnetic force.
Magnetic field (B)
Maxwell understood the significance of Faraday’s work and having
already proposed that electromagnetic waves travelled at the Electric field (E)
speed of light he proposed a theory connecting light, magnetism
and electricity into a single theory, He developed a set of Propagation
20 simultaneous equations containing 20 variables that showed that direction
Wavelength (λ)
electric and magnetic fields are two complementary components of
electromagnetic fields. In 1864, at the age of 33 he put forward his
famous theory of electromagnetic radiation which proposed that:
• Electricity, magnetism, and light could all be explained using the same theory in physics.
• Light was propagated by alternating electric and magnetic fields, which he believed would vibrate perpendicular to
one another.
Around 1867 Maxwell predicted thatthere would be a continuous range of electromagnetic radiations extending beyond
ultraviolet and below infra-red. This was the first prediction of a continuous spectrum of electromagnetic radiation.

QUESTIONS

1. When his theory on electromagnetism was proposed in 1864, it was not well accepted by many scientists who
claimed that it was ‘too different to warrant serious consideration’. What influenced these scientists to be opposed to
new ideas like Maxwell’s and many other brilliant minds of the mid 1800s?
2. List Maxwell’s contributions to the classical theory of electromagnetism.

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C O NTENT Describe the production and propagation of
FOCUS electromagnetic waves and relate these processes
qualitatively to the predictions made by Maxwell’s
electromagnetic theory.

2 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves

Science is a truly international enterprise. It progresses because scientists are continually investigating to improve upon,
or add to, existing ideas. The investigations into the electromagnetic spectrum show how scientists from many countries
have contributed to our existing knowledge of rays that reach us from outer space. Until 1800 the only waves known
were those in the visible spectrum. Then followed some important discoveries.
• 1800 William Herschel, a British astronomer, discovered infra-red radiation (heat waves).
• 1801 German chemist Johann Ritter discovered UV radiation.
• 1867 James Clerk Maxwell, British mathematical physicist, predicted the existence of a continuous electromagnetic
spectrum of waves.
• 1887 German scientist Heinrich Hertz discovered radio waves. (They were thought to be of no use!)
• 1895 German physicist Wilhelm Roentgen discovered X-rays.
• 1896 French physicist Henri Becquerel discovered uranic rays – radioactive rays emitted by uranium.
• 1898 Marie Curie discovered radium.
• 1899 Ernest Rutherford identified alpha and beta radiation (particles not electromagnetic radiation).
• 1900 Frenchman Paul Villard discovered gamma rays.
• 1926 Scotsman John Logie Baird demonstrated TV for the first time.
Through these discoveries the major electromagnetic waves were identified. Electromagnetic transverse waves are
different from transverse matter waves in that they have the following properties.
• Electromagnetic waves can travel through a vacuum.
• They all travel at the speed of light (3 × 108 m s–1) in a vacuum – they slow down a little in other media.
• Electromagnetic waves are proposed to be self-propagating alternating electric and magnetic fields.
• Because the motion of the changing magnetic and electric fields are at right angles to the direction in which they
carry energy, electromagnetic waves are also classified as transverse waves.
• Because electromagnetic waves are really hard to draw, we usually draw them as transverse matter waves. The flaw
in doing this is that the energy carried by a transverse wave is indicated by the amplitude of the wave but this is not
the case with electromagnetic waves.
• In electromagnetic waves, the energy is directly proportional to the frequency of the photons which constitute the
radiation as given by Planck’s quantum theory equation, E = hf, which you shall learn about later.
• The wavelength of an electromagnetic wave is the distance
between the peaks of successive magnetic or electric field pulses. Electromagnetic wave
• We usually refer to the intensity of an electromagnetic wave
Magnetic field (B)
rather than to its amplitude. The intensity of an electromagnetic
wave depends on the number of photons in the beam. Each
photon will have energy dependent on its frequency. Electric field (E)

• The period of an electromagnetic wave is the time for one Propagation

wavelength to pass a given point. direction
Wavelength (λ)
• The frequency of an electromagnetic wave is the number
of wavelengths that pass a point each second. Frequency is
measured in hertz (Hz).
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 The electromagnetic spectrum
Wavelength (metres)

Radio Microwave Infra-red Visible Ultraviolet X-ray Gamma ray

103 10–2 10–5 10–6 10–8 10–10 10–12

Frequency (Hz)

104 108 1012 1015 1016 1018 1020

QUESTIONS

1. (a) The waves shown below all represent electromagnetic waves travelling for the same interval of time. List them
in order of increasing wavelength, amplitude, and then in order of increasing frequency.
(b) Measure the wavelength and amplitude of each wave.

A B C D

2. Identify each of the labelled parts of the wave shown below.

A B C
D

E F

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3. Examine the diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum on the previous page.
(a) Which visible light photons (the particles that carry electromagnetic energy) would carry more energy, green
photons or yellow photons? Justify your choice of answer.
(b) On the basis of this information, would you say that the energy carried by electromagnetic photons is
proportional to their wavelength, frequency or amplitude? Justify your answer.
(c) An electromagnetic photon has a wavelength of 1.0 m. What type of ray is it?
(d) An electromagnetic photon has a wavelength of 1.0 cm. What type of ray is it?
(e) An electromagnetic photon has a wavelength of 1.0 mm. What type of ray is it?
(f) An electromagnetic photon has a wavelength of 1.0 µm. What type of ray is it?
(g) An electromagnetic photon has a wavelength of 1.0 nm. What type of ray is it?
4. (a) What is the distinguishing property of all electromagnetic waves?
(b) Microwaves, rather than radio waves are used to communicate with satellites and the space station. Suggest a
reason for this.
(c) Most of the data collected by astronomers in their study of celestial objects from the Earth’s surface, is
obtained from visible light, radio and microwaves. Explain why this data is from such a small section of the
electromagnetic spectrum.
5. (a) In terms of particle movement, define a transverse wave.
(b) In terms of particle movement, define a longitudinal wave.
(c) Given that electromagnetic waves do not involve the oscillation of particles, explain how they can be classified
as transverse waves.
6. A logical thinking puzzle. Use the clues to arrange electromagnetic waves (represented by the letters B, E, G, H, J,
K, L) in order of increasing wavelength, and then use the diagram of the electromagnetic spectrum on the previous
page to identify the radiation each letter represents. You may choose to use the grid to help you solve this problem.
• L has a shorter wavelength than E.
• L doesn’t have the shortest wavelength.
• G is more energetic than H.
• G does not have the shortest wavelength.
• J represents infra-red radiation.
• H is not visible light and L is not microwave radiation.
• G has a longer wavelength than E.
• K lies between E and J on the electromagnetic spectrum.

Increasing wavelength

γ X UV Vis IR M R/TV

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C O NTENT Conduct investigations of historical and
FOCUS contemporary methods used to determine the
speed of light and its current relationship to the
measurement of time and distance.

3 Historical Measurements Of the Speed Of Light

The accepted value for the speed of light (or any other electromagnetic radiation) today is 299 792 458 m s−1 in a vacuum.
Of course, when light (or any other electromagnetic waves) travel in denser mediums this speed is reduced – it is refracted.
This is so fast that scientists throughout the ages have had difficulties in determining the exact figure because their technology
was not accurate enough to get a decisive value. The first known people to consider how fast light travelled were the ancient
Greeks who considered, on the basis that stars appear as soon as you open your closed eyes, that the speed of light was infinite.
This was supported by most people including Roger Bacon in the 13th century, Dutch scientist Isaac Beeckman in 1629 and
even the famous Johannes Kepler in the 17th century. Some of the more notable attempts are summarised in the material below.
(Note that the values calculated by these scientists vary from resource to resource, so it is difficult to obtain reliable figures. The
values used here must, despite the degree of accuracy they sometimes state, therefore be taken as indicative rather than accurate.)
• 1638: Galileo: at least 10 times faster than sound
• 1675: Ole Roemer: 301 000 000 m s−1
• 1677: Christiaan Huygens: 201 168 000 m s−1
• 1728: James Bradley: 301 000 000 m s−1
• 1848: Hippolyte Louis Fizeau: 315 000 000 m s−1
• 1848: Marie Alfred Cornu: 300 400 000 m s−1
• 1862: Leon Foucault: 298 000 000 m s−1
• 1879: Albert Michelson: 299 310 000 m s−1
• 1926: Albert Michelson: 299 798 000 m s−1
• 1958: Keith Davy Froome: 299 7920500 m s−1
• 1972: US National Bureau of Standards: 299 792 458 m s−1
• 1983: 299 792 458 m s−1 (Conference of Weights And Measures. Internationally accepted value.)

1638 Galileo – Light speedometer

Galileo’s idea to measure the speed of light was to have two Galileo and the speed of light
people at a known distance from one another with covered
lanterns. One of the lantern bearers uncovers his lantern and
as soon as the other one observed the first lantern’s light he Galileo Galileo’s
immediately uncovers his own. This process was repeated assistant
several times so that the participants became well practised 
and improved their reaction times as much as possible.
Once they became accustomed to the process, they repeated the d
process over ever greater distances until finally needing telescopes
to view one another’s lantern lights. It is thought that Galileo used • Galileo turns on his lantern and starts his clock.
a water clock to measure the time lag for the experiment. • When his assistant sees Galileo’s light, he turns
Galileo couldn’t detect a perceptible time lag from this on his lantern.
experiment and concluded that light ‘if not instantaneous, • When Galileo sees the light from his assistant’s
it is extraordinarily rapid’. He did, however, state that light lantern he notes the time.
must travel at least ten times faster than sound.
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1675 Ole Roemer – The moons of Jupiter
Danish Astronomer Ole Roemer made the first real
measurements of the speed of light about 50 years after The speed of light was originally measured by
Galileo, making a systematic study of the motion of Io, Ole Roemer by measuring the orbital period of Io
one of the moons of Jupiter. (Jupiter’s moon).
He studied the time it took for Io to travel behind Jupiter • When Earth was closer, the orbital period was
– its eclipse time. He found that over several months 42.5 hours.
the eclipses seemed to take increasingly longer than he
• When farther away, the period was longer.
expected for several months and then to start to take shorter
and shorter times for the next few months. • The change in the Earth’s distance divided by the
change in observed period is the speed of light.
In September 1676, he correctly predicted that the Io eclipse
on 9 November would be about ten minutes ‘late’. Roemer
proposed that this lag in time was because the Earth and
Jupiter
Jupiter moved in different orbits and as they did so the distance Io
between them was changing. The light reflected from Io would Longer distance
take varying times depending on this distance. Earth on Sun
far side
He estimated that for the eclipse he observed the light took of Sun Earth
22 minutes to reach the Earth at a speed of 2.14 × 108 m s−1, Jupiter
Io
about 29% less than the accepted value today.

1677 Christiaan Huygens
Christiaan Huygens used Roemer’s estimate and combined it with better
estimates of the distances between the Sun and the planets to derive a new
speed of light. He calculated the speed of light to be around 201 168 000 m s−1.

1728 James Bradley
English astronomer James Bradley measured the speed of light by how stars
appear to change in position as the angle of the Earth changes as it orbits the
Sun. This is known as stellar aberration.
The distance that the stars appear to move is proportional to the speed that the
Earth moves, divided by the speed of light.
Bradley used the current estimate of the distance between the Earth and the Sun
to determine the distance that the Earth must travel in that time and calculated
Ole Roemer (1644-1710).
the speed of lights as 301 000 000 m s−1, in error by only about 0.4%!

James Bradley determined that the stellar aberration is approximately the ratio of the speed the Earth orbits
the Sun to the speed of light.
Stellar aberration causes the apparent position of stars to change due to the motion of the Earth around the Sun.
Bradley used stellar aberration to calculate the speed
of light by knowing: Star
• The speed of the Earth around the Sun.
• The stellar aberration angle.
His independent confirmation, after 53 years of θ
v
struggle, finally absolutely ended the opposition
to a finite value for the speed of light. Earth
Sun
He calculated the speed of light in a vacuum as
c = 301 000 km s−1.

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1848 Armand Hippolyte Louis Fizeau
The main problem with early measure of the speed of light was the lack of accuracy of distances used in the calculations.
In 1848 Fizeau attempted to solve this problem by shining a beam of light between the teeth of a rapidly rotating cog
wheel. This meant that the light source was constantly being covered and uncovered.
He used a mirror to reflect the light back so that it passed through the cog wheel a second time. This design eliminated
the need for two sources of light and the error associated with human reaction times as in Galileo’s experiment.
His idea was that depending on the speed of the wheel, the reflected light would either pass through the gaps between the
cogs or be blocked by them.
Doing the experiment with wheels with hundreds of cogs rotating very fast meant that measurements could be made to a
higher degree of accuracy than ever before. His value of 315 000 000 m s−1, about 5.1% different from the modern value
was less accurate than Bradley’s, but much more reliable and valid.

Mirror

Light source

Glass plate Rotating strobe disc

Hippolyte Fizeau (1819-1896).

1848 Marie Alfred Cornu

Alfred Cornu repeated Fizeau›s toothed wheel measurement in a series
of experiments in 1872-76. His goal was to obtain a more accurate
value for the speed of light.
Instead of estimating the intensity minimum of the light being blocked
by the adjacent teeth, a relatively inaccurate procedure, Cornu
measured the rotation rates of the wheel electrically and recorded the
measurements on a chart and compared them to the observatory clock.
A telegraph key arrangement allowed Cornu to mark on this same chart
the exact moments he judged that the light beam passed through the
rotating teeth of the wheel. His light path was 54 m long, nearly times
as long as that used by Fizeau.
Cornu made repeated observations, averaging the values obtained with
the wheel spun clockwise and anticlockwise. His experiment enabled
him to get a value for the speed of light of 300 400 000 m s−1, within
0.2% of the modern value.

Alfred Cornu (1841-1902).

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1862 Leon Foucault
Leon Foucault, another French physicist used a similar method to Fizeau.
He shone a light on a rotating mirror and reflected it back to a fixed mirror
18 metres away and then reflected it back to the first rotating mirror.
While the light was travelling between the mirrors, the rotating mirror also
travelled some circular distance. This resulted in the reflected beam hitting
the rotating mirror at a slightly different angle. By measuring this angle
Foucault was able to calculate the speed of light as 298 000 000 m s−1.
The difference of this to the modern value is about 2 × 10−4 %.

1879 Albert Michelson
Michelson redesigned Foucault’s method to provide greater accuracy.
He increased the distance between the mirrors to 610 m instead of 18 m.
He also used much higher quality reflecting mirrors and obtained a value
for the speed of light of 299 310 000 m s−1, within 0.6% of today’s value.
In 1926 he repeated his experiment using improved technology and obtained
a value of 299 798 000 m s−1.
Jean Bernard Leon Foucault (1819-1868).

1950s onwards
The expansion of scientific knowledge in the 1900s, particularly the debate over the existence of
the aether, a medium invented to allow light to travel through space, the nature of electromagnetic
radiations and Einstein’s theory of special relativity led to the development of extremely accurate
measuring devices, notably Michelson’s interferometer for which he was awarded the Nobel Prize
in Physics in 1907. In 1958 Keith Froome obtained a value of 299 792.5 km s−1 using a microwave
interferometer and a Kerr cell shutter.
After 1970 the development of lasers with very high spectral stability and accurate caesium clocks
made even better measurements possible. Up until then, the changing definition of the metre had
always stayed ahead of the accuracy in measurements of the speed of light. But by 1970 the point
had been reached where the speed of light was known to within an error of plus or minus 1 m s−1. Keith Davy Froome
(1921-).
More recent measurements using laser beams, electronic circuits and interferometry have led to
an acceptance of the value for the speed of light as 299 792 458 m s−1.

QUESTIONS

1. What were the two factors which contributed to the inaccuracies in early measurements of the speed of light?
2. Human reaction time is at best about 0.2 s.
(a) How far would light travel in 0.2 s?
(b) How far apart would Galileo’s two lanterns have to be so that the human error contributed say, 50% error to his
calculated speed?
(c) What are the implications of your answer to (b) for experiments designed to measure the speed of light?
3. Research and summarise one of the more modern ways in which the speed of light has been determined.

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 4 Measuring the Speed Of Light – Home Experiment

All you need to do this home experiment is a microwave, ruler,

bar of chocolate and a calculator. The frequency of a microwave
oven you will use is 2450 MHz = 2 450 000 000 Hz.
The way it affects the chocolate is shown in the diagram. As it heats
food, it will also heat the chocolate. There will be at least two heat
spots initially as shown in the diagram. If your bar of chocolate is
more than 6 cm long you may get three heat spots. These heat spots
will be half the wavelength of the microwave apart.
From v = fλ = 3 × 108 = 2.45 × 109 × λ
3 × 108
From which λ = __________9 = 0.122 m = 12.2 cm
2.45 × 10
Therefore half a wavelength = 6.1 cm.

Wavelength

Crest Crest

1
_
wavelength Melted
2 spot

Chocolate Trough

Method
• Take the turntable out of the microwave. The chocolate must be stationary when it is heated.
• Put a plate upside down over the rotor in the middle of the microwave base that turns the turntable.
• Place your bar of chocolate upside down (flat side upwards) so that its centre is as close as possible to the centre of the plate.
• Set the timer of the microwave for about 40 seconds. This is probably too long, but you will be turning it off manually.
• Turn the oven on and heat the chocolate until it starts to melt in two or three places. This should take about 20 seconds.
• Immediately you see the melted hot spots on the chocolate through the door, turn the microwave off.
• Take the plate and the chocolate out of the microwave – carefully! The chocolate will be hot. Measure the distance
between the centre of the melted spots as accurately as you can. This distance represents half the wavelength of the
microwaves. (Remember to change it to metres.)

QUESTIONS

1. Use the formula v = fλ to calculate your value for v, the speed of light.
2. Compare your answer to the accepted value (299 792 458 m s−1).
3. Calculate the percentage error in your experimental results from:
your experimental value 100
% Error = __________________________ × ____
real value = 299 792 458 1
4. Write up your experiment in the usual way and give it to your teacher to assess.

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C O NTENT Conduct an investigation to examine a variety of
FOCUS spectra produced by discharge tubes, reflected
sunlight or incandescent filaments.

5 Comparing Spectra From Lighting Sources

The nature of the spectrum of any source of radiation depends not only on the composition of the source, but as shown
by Planck’s work, the temperature of the source particularly if it is a solid. With elements and compounds, and even stars,
the individual composition and its surface temperature will be constant and therefore the spectrum they produce will be
the same every time it is produced. The spectrum is a ‘fingerprint’ for the object.
This applies also to individual light sources, but different low temperature light sources made by different manufacturers
will produce different spectra because they will not all be identical in composition. The spectra made by the same
manufacturer on different production runs might also show different spectra because there may be slight differences in
the composition of the materials used in their manufacture.
Light sources which have filaments that get very hot will all usually produce continuous spectra, but low temperature vapour
light sources such as mercury or sodium vapour lamps will produce light more consistent with their composition rather than
their temperature. So, sodium vapour lamps will tend to be yellow in colour and mercury vapour lamps purple.

Spectrum for low

pressure sodium lamp Spectrum for low
pressure mercury
Relative power

Relative power

vapour lamp

700 600 500 400 700 600 500 400

Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)

The graphs below compare the typical spectra emitted by several types of lights, compared to sunlight.

Daylight Incandescent Fluorescent

100 100 100
80 80 80
Intensity

Intensity

Intensity

60 60 60
40 40 40
20 20 20
0 0 0
400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)
Halogen Cool white LED Warm white LED
100 100 100
80 80 80
Intensity

Intensity

Intensity

60 60 60
40 40 40
20 20 20
0 0 0
400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)

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Surfing NSW Physics Modules 7 and 8 Module 8  From the Universe To the Atom 11
 These graphs are a little easier to compare when Spectra from common sources of visible light
they are superimposed on each other. Note that the 200
Noon sunlight
tungsten lamp is a typical incandescent light globe.
Tungsten
Note also, that because of their energy inefficiency, 150 lamp
incandescent light globes are no longer allowed to be Bar code

Relative energy
White LED scanning
manufactured in Australia. If you still have some of
them in your lighting fixtures at home, that is okay, but 100
when they ‘blow’, they will have to be replaced with
more energy efficient globes.
50 Mercury
vapour
lamp

0
400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm)

Modern technology enables LED Spectra profiles of light emitting diodes for optical microscope
globes with a wide variety of colour 100
characteristics to be manufactured. 365 400 455 470 505 530 590 625
These have found use in many
decorative situations. 80
Relative energy

60

40

20

0
300 400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm)

QUESTIONS

1. Consider the spectra of the cool white Cool white LED Warm white LED
100 100
LED and the warm light LED shown.
In terms of the given spectra, account for 80 80
Intensity

Intensity

the descriptions of these LEDs as ‘cool’ 60 60

or ‘warm’. 40 40
20 20
0 0
400 500 600 700 400 500 600 700
Wavelength (nm) Wavelength (nm)

2. This spectrum is that of mercury.

(a) Given this spectrum, what colour
would you expect see emitted from a
mercury vapour lamp?
(b) The colour of a mercury vapour lamp
is a light purple colour. Explain why
it is this colour, and maybe not the
colour you predicted.

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C O NTENT Investigate how spectroscopy can be used to
FOCUS provide information about the identification
of elements.

6 Spectroscopy and Elements

Spectroscopy is the study of the interaction

between matter and electromagnetic Hydrogen
radiation. Initially spectroscopy originated
through the study of visible light dispersed Aluminium
through a prism. It now covers the study of
the spectra produced by several other bands
of electromagnetic radiation as well as Argon
including X-rays, UVL and near infra-red.
Beryllium
Spectroscopic techniques are used to
identify elements in stars and the structure of
chemical compounds and is used extensively Boron
in forensic science. Radio frequency
spectroscopy of nuclei in a magnetic Carbon
field has been employed in magnetic
resonance imaging (MRI) to visualise
the internal soft tissue of the body with Chlorine
unprecedented resolution.
Microwave spectroscopy was used Magnesium
to discover the so called three degree
blackbody radiation, the remnant of the Mercurry
Big Bang from which the Universe is
thought to have originated. The internal
Sulfur
structure of the proton and neutron and the
state of the early Universe up to the first
thousandth of a second of its existence Sodium
are being unravelled with spectroscopic
techniques using high energy particle Silicon
accelerators.
The constituents of distant stars, Potassium
intergalactic molecules, and even
the primordial abundance of
Phosphorus
the elements before the formation of the
first stars can be determined by optical,
radio, and X-ray spectroscopy. Optical Oxygen
spectroscopy is used routinely to identify
the chemical composition of matter and to Nitrogen
determine its physical structure.
The diagram shows the individuality of the Neon
spectra of elements. Each spectrum acts as
an identifying ‘fingerprint’ for each element.
White light

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Surfing NSW Physics Modules 7 and 8 Module 8  From the Universe To the Atom 13
 QUESTIONS

1. Consider the following

spectra of five elements and Hydrogen H
the Sun.
Which of the five elements
Helium He
shown are part of the Sun’s
elemental composition?
Justify your answer. Sodium Na

Calcium Ca

Iron Fe

Sun

2. Consider the spectra of three starrs A, B and C

Hydrogen
shown along with the spectra of four elements
commonly found in stars.
Helium
(a) Which of the four elements are in star A?
(b) Which of the four elements are in star B? Sodium
(c) Which of the four elements are in star C?
Calcium

3. Consider the simple line spectra shown.

Which of the elements A, B, C and D are Unknown
sample
contained in the unknown sample?

Sample A

Sample B

Sample C

Sample D

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4. Consider the diagram showing
Li
the spectra of several elements and an
unknown substance. 700 650 600 550 500 450 400
Which of the elements shown are
contained in the unknown substance? Cd

700 650 600 550 500 450 400

Ca

700 650 600 550 500 450 400

Na

700 650 600 550 500 450 400

Sr

700 650 600 550 500 450 400

700 650 600 550 500 450 400

5. The diagram shows the absorption and

emission spectra of hydrogen, carbon and Hydrogen absorption
oxygen.
(a) What is the difference between an Hydrogen emission
emission spectrum and an absorption
spectrum? Carbon
(b) Careful examination of the spectra shows absorption
us that the black lines in each absorption
Carbon
spectrum are in identical places to the emission
coloured lines in each emission spectrum.
Explain this. Oxygen
absorption

Oxygen
emission

6. Consider the diagram showing the spectra of several elements and an unknown substance.
Which of the elements shown are contained in the unknown substance?
Bright line spectra

Lithium

Cadmium

Strontium

Mixture

750 700 650 600 550 500 450 400

Wavelength (nm)

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Surfing NSW Physics Modules 7 and 8 Module 8  From the Universe To the Atom 15
 Answers
1 James Clerk Maxwell 5. (a) Particle oscillation is at right angles to the direction of energy
1. The power of the ideas of scientists like Sir Isaac Newton and the transfer.
fact that Maxwell’s work was based on mathematics, not proper (b) Particle oscillation is back and forth in the same plane as
scientific experiments caused it to be considered less reliable than energy transfer.
‘proper science’. (c) The mechanism by which electromagnetic waves propagate,
2. Maxwell: the alternating electric and magnetic fields are at right angles
• Calculated that the speed of propagation of an electromagnetic to the direction of energy transfer.
was the same as the speed of light. 6.   Increasing wavelength 
• Proposed that light must be a wave in a medium which was
γ X UV Vis IR M R/TV
the same cause of electrical and magnetic waves.
• Proposed that electricity, magnetism, and light could all be B
explained using the same theory in physics. E
• Proposed that light was propagated by alternating electric
and magnetic fields, which he believed would vibrate G
perpendicular to one another. H

2 Transverse Electromagnetic Waves J

1. (a) Wavelength = CABD K
Amplitude = DBAC
Frequencies are equal (See the question – ‘same interval of L
time’.)
(b) Wave 3 Historical Measurements Of the Speed Of Light
Wavelength (mm) Amplitude (mm)
1. The two main limiting factors were the very limited technologies
A 10 16 available to measure both the distance that light travelled in the
B 16 13 experiments and how long it took to travel this distance because of
C 8.5 15 the fact that the speed of light was so great.
D 28 8 2. (a) Distance = 299 792 458 × 0.2 = 59 958 491.6 m
2. A = Crest = 59 958.5 km
B = Wavelength (b) If the human error was 50% of the value, then the time would
C = Crest have to be 0.4 s, so the distance the lanterns would have to be
D = Amplitude apart would be 59 958.5 km (remember the light travels there
E = Amplitude and back – a total distance of twice this).
F = Trough (c) Early measurements could not be accurated because of the
3. (a) Green photons. Green is closer to the high frequency end of high speed light and the limited accuracy of measuring
the visible spectrum, and energy carried by photons depends instruments. It is only with modern technology that
on their frequency, or, alternatively, general knowledge tells reasonable measures can be made.
us that gamma rays are most dangerous, so we could infer 3. Various.
that the gamma ray end of the spectrum is the high energy 4. Measuring the Speed Of Light – Home Experiment
end, and green is closer to this.
Various.
(b) Because energy increases as frequency increases and as
wavelength decreases, then energy is more likely to be 5 Comparing Spectra From Lighting Sources
proportional to the frequency (inversely proportional to the 1. In colour, we consider bluish or white light to be cool and yellow
wavelength). or reddish light to be warm. The cool LED spectrum indicates
Note that amplitude is a property of transverse matter waves a more even mix of the visible spectrum colours, so the light
and we use these only to represent electromagnetic waves will appear whiter than the warm LED which has no blue in
because the magnetic/electric field diagrams are too difficult its spectrum to ‘cancel out’ the higher intensity red end of its
to draw. spectrum.
(c) Radio wave. 2. (a) The spectral lines, although not continuous would suggest a
(d) Microwave. fairly even mix of colours and so perhaps a white light should
(e) Short wavelength microwave or long wavelength infra-red result.
(they overlap and the name depends on what we use them (b) The light purple colour can only be due to the intensity of
for). the blue/purple spectral lines compared to the red/green lines
(f) Visible light. resulting in the overall light purple in our vision.
(g) Short wavelength ultraviolet or long wavelength X-rays.
4. (a) They all travel at the speed of light = 3 × 108 m s–1 in 6 Spectroscopy and Elements
vacuum. 1. The spectra indicate that the Sun contains only hydrogen and
(b) Microwaves are used as their small wavelength allows the helium out of the elements shown. None of the spectral lines from
use of small antennas and dishes. Microwaves are also more the other elements are present in the spectrum of the Sun.
directional than radio waves, and their higher frequency 2. (a) Star A contains hydrogen and helium only.
means they can carry more information. (b) Star B contains helium and calcium only.
(c) These are the frequencies that pass through the atmosphere. (c) Star C contains hydrogen and sodium only.
Others are absorbed and do not make it to the surface. 3. Elements B and C only.
4. Elements strontium, cadmium and sodium only.

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