In strict usage integrated circuit refers to the single-piece circuit construction originally known

as a monolithic integrated circuit, built on a single piece of silicon.[2][3] In general usage,

Integrated circuit circuits not meeting this strict definition are sometimes referred to as ICs, which are
constructed using many different technologies, e.g. 3D IC, 2.5D IC, MCM, thin-film transistors,
thick-film technologies, or hybrid integrated circuits. The choice of terminology frequently
appears in discussions related to whether Moore's Law is obsolete.
An integrated circuit or monolithic integrated
circuit (also referred to as an IC, a chip, or a microchip)
is a set of electronic circuits on one small flat piece (or History
"chip") of semiconductor material, usually silicon. Large
numbers of miniaturized transistors and other electronic An early attempt at combining several components in one
components are integrated together on the chip. This results device (like modern ICs) was the Loewe 3NF vacuum tube
in circuits that are orders of magnitude smaller, faster, and from the 1920s. Unlike ICs, it was designed with the
less expensive than those constructed of discrete purpose of tax avoidance, as in Germany, radio receivers
components, allowing a large transistor count. The IC's had a tax that was levied depending on how many tube
mass production capability, reliability, and building-block holders a radio receiver had. It allowed radio receivers to
approach to integrated circuit design has ensured the rapid Jack Kilby's original integrated circuit.
have a single tube holder.
A microscope image of an integrated The world's first IC. Made from
adoption of standardized ICs in place of designs using
circuit die used to control LCDs. The germanium with gold-wire
discrete transistors. ICs are now used in virtually all Early concepts of an integrated circuit go back to 1949, when
pinouts are the black circles interconnects.
electronic equipment and have revolutionized the world of
surrounding the integrated circuit.
German engineer Werner Jacobi[4] (Siemens  AG)[5] filed a
electronics. Computers, mobile phones and other home patent for an integrated-circuit-like semiconductor
appliances are now inextricable parts of the structure of amplifying device[6] showing five transistors on a common substrate in a three-stage amplifier
modern societies, made possible by the small size and low cost of ICs such as modern computer arrangement. Jacobi disclosed small and cheap hearing aids as typical industrial applications of
processors and microcontrollers. his patent. An immediate commercial use of his patent has not been reported.
Very-large-scale integration was made practical by technological advancements in Another early proponent of the concept was Geoffrey Dummer (1909–2002), a radar scientist
semiconductor device fabrication. Since their origins in the 1960s, the size, speed, and capacity working for the Royal Radar Establishment of the British Ministry of Defence. Dummer
of chips have progressed enormously, driven by technical advances that fit more and more presented the idea to the public at the Symposium on Progress in Quality Electronic
transistors on chips of the same size – a modern chip may have many billions of transistors in Components in Washington,  D.C. on 7 May 1952.[7] He gave many symposia publicly to
an area the size of a human fingernail. These advances, roughly following Moore's law, make the propagate his ideas and unsuccessfully attempted to build such a circuit in 1956. Between 1953
computer chips of today possess millions of times the capacity and thousands of times the speed and 1957, Sidney Darlington and Yasuo Tarui (Electrotechnical Laboratory) proposed similar
of the computer chips of the early 1970s. chip designs where several transistors could share a common active area, but there was no
ICs have three main advantages over discrete circuits: size, cost and performance. The size and electrical isolation to separate them from each other.[4]
cost is low because the chips, with all their components, are printed as a unit by
The monolithic integrated circuit chip was enabled by the inventions of the planar process by
photolithography rather than being constructed one transistor at a time. Furthermore,
Jean Hoerni and p–n junction isolation by Kurt Lehovec. Hoerni's invention was built on
packaged ICs use much less material than discrete circuits. Performance is high because the IC's
Mohamed M. Atalla's work on surface passivation, as well as Fuller and Ditzenberger's work on
components switch quickly and consume comparatively little power because of their small size
the diffusion of boron and phosphorus impurities into silicon, Carl Frosch and Lincoln Derick's
and proximity. The main disadvantage of ICs is the high initial cost of designing them and the
enormous capital cost of factory construction. This high initial cost means ICs are only work on surface protection, and Chih-Tang Sah's work on diffusion masking by the oxide.[8]
commercially viable when high production volumes are anticipated.
First integrated circuits
Terminology
A precursor idea to the IC was to create small ceramic substrates (so-called micromodules),[9]
An integrated circuit is defined as:[1] each containing a single miniaturized component. Components could then be integrated and
wired into a bidimensional or tridimensional compact grid. This idea, which seemed very
promising in 1957, was proposed to the US Army by Jack Kilby[9] and led to the short-lived
A circuit in which all or some of the circuit elements are inseparably associated and Micromodule Program (similar to 1951's Project Tinkertoy).[9][10][11] However, as the project
electrically interconnected so that it is considered to be indivisible for the purposes was gaining momentum, Kilby came up with a new, revolutionary design: the IC.
of construction and commerce.

Newly employed by Texas Instruments, Kilby recorded his The earliest experimental MOS IC to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred
initial ideas concerning the integrated circuit in July 1958, Heiman and Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[29] General Microelectronics later introduced the
successfully demonstrating the first working example of an first commercial MOS integrated circuit in 1964,[30] a 120-transistor shift register developed by
integrated circuit on 12 September 1958.[12] In his patent Robert Norman.[29] By 1964, MOS chips had reached higher transistor density and lower
application of 6 February 1959,[13] Kilby described his new manufacturing costs than bipolar chips. MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate
device as "a body of semiconductor material … wherein all predicted by Moore's law, leading to large-scale integration (LSI) with hundreds of transistors
the components of the electronic circuit are completely on a single MOS chip by the late 1960s.[31]
integrated".[14] The first customer for the new invention was Robert Noyce invented the first
the US Air Force.[15] Kilby won the 2000 Nobel Prize in monolithic integrated circuit in 1959. Following the development of the self-aligned gate (silicon-gate) MOSFET by Robert Kerwin,
physics for his part in the invention of the integrated The chip was made from silicon. Donald Klein and John Sarace at Bell Labs in 1967,[32] the first silicon-gate MOS IC technology
circuit.[16] with self-aligned gates, the basis of all modern CMOS integrated circuits, was developed at
Fairchild Semiconductor by Federico Faggin in 1968.[33] The application of MOS LSI chips to
However, Kilby's invention was not a true monolithic integrated circuit chip since it had computing was the basis for the first microprocessors, as engineers began recognizing that a
external gold-wire connections, which would have made it difficult to mass-produce.[17] Half a complete computer processor could be contained on a single MOS LSI chip. This led to the
year after Kilby, Robert Noyce at Fairchild Semiconductor invented the first true monolithic IC inventions of the microprocessor and the microcontroller by the early 1970s.[31] During the
chip.[18][17] More practical than Kilby's implementation, Noyce's chip was made of silicon, early 1970s, MOS integrated circuit technology enabled the very large-scale integration (VLSI)
whereas Kilby's was made of germanium, and Noyce's was fabricated using the planar process, of more than 10,000 transistors on a single chip.[34]
developed in early 1959 by his colleague Jean Hoerni and included the critical on-chip
aluminum interconnecting lines. Modern IC chips are based on Noyce's monolithic IC,[18][17] At first, MOS-based computers only made sense when high density was required, such as
rather than Kilby's. aerospace and pocket calculators. Computers built entirely from TTL, such as the 1970
Datapoint 2200, were much faster and more powerful than single-chip MOS microprocessors
NASA's Apollo Program was the largest single consumer of integrated circuits between 1961 and such as the 1972 Intel 8008 until the early 1980s.[21]
1965.[19]
Advances in IC technology, primarily smaller features and larger chips, have allowed the
number of MOS transistors in an integrated circuit to double every two years, a trend known as
TTL integrated circuits Moore's law. Moore originally stated it would double every year, but he went on to change the
claim to every two years in 1975.[35] This increased capacity has been used to decrease cost and
Transistor–transistor logic (TTL) was developed by James L. Buie in the early 1960s at TRW increase functionality. In general, as the feature size shrinks, almost every aspect of an IC's
Inc. TTL became the dominant integrated circuit technology during the 1970s to early operation improves. The cost per transistor and the switching power consumption per
1980s.[20] transistor goes down, while the memory capacity and speed go up, through the relationships
defined by Dennard scaling (MOSFET scaling).[36] Because speed, capacity, and power
Dozens of TTL integrated circuits were a standard method of construction for the processors of consumption gains are apparent to the end user, there is fierce competition among the
minicomputers and mainframe computers. Computers such as IBM 360 mainframes, PDP-11 manufacturers to use finer geometries. Over the years, transistor sizes have decreased from tens
minicomputers and the desktop Datapoint 2200 were built from bipolar integrated circuits,[21] of microns in the early 1970s to 10 nanometers in 2017[37] with a corresponding million-fold
either TTL or the even faster emitter-coupled logic (ECL). increase in transistors per unit area. As of 2016, typical chip areas range from a few square
millimeters to around 600 mm2, with up to 25 million transistors per mm2.[38]
MOS integrated circuits The expected shrinking of feature sizes and the needed progress in related areas was forecast for
many years by the International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors (ITRS). The final
Nearly all modern IC chips are metal–oxide–semiconductor (MOS) integrated circuits, built
ITRS was issued in 2016, and it is being replaced by the International Roadmap for Devices and
from MOSFETs (metal–oxide–silicon field-effect transistors).[22] The MOSFET (also known as
Systems.[39]
the MOS transistor), which was invented by Mohamed M. Atalla and Dawon Kahng at Bell Labs
in 1959,[23] made it possible to build high-density integrated circuits.[24] In contrast to bipolar Initially, ICs were strictly electronic devices. The success of ICs has led to the integration of
transistors which required a number of steps for the p–n junction isolation of transistors on a other technologies, in an attempt to obtain the same advantages of small size and low cost.
chip, MOSFETs required no such steps but could be easily isolated from each other.[25] Its These technologies include mechanical devices, optics, and sensors.
advantage for integrated circuits was pointed out by Dawon Kahng in 1961.[26] The list of IEEE
milestones includes the first integrated circuit by Kilby in 1958,[27] Hoerni's planar process and Charge-coupled devices, and the closely related active-pixel sensors, are chips that are
Noyce's planar IC in 1959, and the MOSFET by Atalla and Kahng in 1959.[28] sensitive to light. They have largely replaced photographic film in scientific, medical, and
consumer applications. Billions of these devices are now produced each year for
applications such as cellphones, tablets, and digital cameras. This sub-field of ICs won the
 Nobel Prize in 2009.[40] Modern semiconductor chips have billions of components, and are too complex to be designed
Very small mechanical devices driven by electricity can be integrated onto chips, a by hand. Software tools to help the designer are essential. Electronic design automation (EDA),
technology known as microelectromechanical systems. These devices were developed in also referred to as electronic computer-aided design (ECAD),[58] is a category of software tools
the late 1980s[41] and are used in a variety of commercial and military applications. for designing electronic systems, including integrated circuits. The tools work together in a
Examples include DLP projectors, inkjet printers, and accelerometers and MEMS design flow that engineers use to design and analyze entire semiconductor chips.
gyroscopes used to deploy automobile airbags.
Since the early 2000s, the integration of optical functionality (optical computing) into silicon Types
chips has been actively pursued in both academic research and in industry resulting in the
successful commercialization of silicon based integrated optical transceivers combining
Integrated circuits can be broadly classified into analog,[59]
optical devices (modulators, detectors, routing) with CMOS based electronics.[42] Photonic
integrated circuits that use light such as Lightelligence’s PACE (Photonic Arithmetic digital[60] and mixed signal,[61] consisting of analog and
Computing Engine) also being developed, using the emerging field of physics known as digital signaling on the same IC.
photonics.[43]
Digital integrated circuits can contain billions[38] of logic
Integrated circuits are also being developed for sensor applications in medical implants or gates, flip-flops, multiplexers, and other circuits in a few Virtual detail of an integrated circuit
other bioelectronic devices.[44] Special sealing techniques have to be applied in such square millimeters. The small size of these circuits allows through four layers of planarized
biogenic environments to avoid corrosion or biodegradation of the exposed semiconductor high speed, low power dissipation, and reduced copper interconnect, down to the
materials.[45] manufacturing cost compared with board-level integration. polysilicon (pink), wells (greyish), and
These digital ICs, typically microprocessors, DSPs, and substrate (green)
As of 2018, the vast majority of all transistors are MOSFETs fabricated in a single layer on one microcontrollers, use boolean algebra to process "one" and
side of a chip of silicon in a flat two-dimensional planar process. Researchers have produced "zero" signals.
prototypes of several promising alternatives, such as:
Among the most advanced integrated circuits are the
various approaches to stacking several layers of transistors to make a three-dimensional microprocessors or "cores", used in personal computers,
integrated circuit (3DIC), such as through-silicon via, "monolithic 3D",[46] stacked wire cell-phones, microwave ovens, etc. Several cores may be
bonding,[47] and other methodologies. integrated together in a single IC or chip. Digital memory
transistors built from other materials: graphene transistors, molybdenite transistors, carbon chips and application-specific integrated circuits (ASICs) are
nanotube field-effect transistor, gallium nitride transistor, transistor-like nanowire electronic examples of other families of integrated circuits.
devices, organic field-effect transistor, etc.
In the 1980s, programmable logic devices were developed.
fabricating transistors over the entire surface of a small sphere of silicon.[48][49]
These devices contain circuits whose logical function and
modifications to the substrate, typically to make "flexible transistors" for a flexible display or connectivity can be programmed by the user, rather than A-to-D converter IC in a DIP
other flexible electronics, possibly leading to a roll-away computer. being fixed by the integrated circuit manufacturer. This
allows a chip to be programmed to do various LSI-type
As it becomes more difficult to manufacture ever smaller transistors, companies are using functions such as logic gates, adders and registers.
multi-chip modules, three-dimensional integrated circuits, package on package, High Programmability comes in various forms – devices that can
Bandwidth Memory and through-silicon vias with die stacking to increase performance and be programmed only once, devices that can be erased and
reduce size, without having to reduce the size of the transistors. Such techniques are collectively then re-programmed using UV light, devices that can be
known as advanced packaging.[50] Advanced packaging is mainly divided into 2.5D and 3D (re)programmed using flash memory, and field-
packaging. 2.5D describes approaches such as multi-chip modules while 3D describes programmable gate arrays (FPGAs) which can be
approaches where dies are stacked in one way or another, such as package on package and high programmed at any time, including during operation.
bandwidth memory. All approaches involve 2 or more dies in a single package.[51][52][53][54][55] Current FPGAs can (as of 2016) implement the equivalent of
Alternatively, approaches such as 3D NAND stack multiple layers on a single die. millions of gates and operate at frequencies up to 1 GHz.[62]
The die from an Intel 8742, an 8-bit
NMOS microcontroller that includes a
Design Analog ICs, such as sensors, power management circuits,
and operational amplifiers (op-amps), process continuous CPU running at 12 MHz, 128 bytes of
RAM, 2048 bytes of EPROM, and I/O
signals, and perform analog functions such as amplification,
The cost of designing and developing a complex integrated circuit is quite high, normally in the in the same chip
active filtering, demodulation, and mixing.
multiple tens of millions of dollars.[56][57] Therefore, it only makes economic sense to produce
integrated circuit products with high production volume, so the non-recurring engineering ICs can combine analog and digital circuits on a chip to
(NRE) costs are spread across typically millions of production units. create functions such as analog-to-digital converters and digital-to-analog converters. Such
mixed-signal circuits offer smaller size and lower cost, but must account for signal interference.

Prior to the late 1990s, radios could not be fabricated in the same low-cost CMOS processes as polysilicon, insulators or metal (typically aluminium or copper) tracks deposited on them.
microprocessors. But since 1998, radio chips have been developed using RF CMOS processes. Dopants are impurities intentionally introduced to a semiconductor to modulate its electronic
Examples include Intel's DECT cordless phone, or 802.11 (Wi-Fi) chips created by Atheros and properties. Doping is the process of adding dopants to a semiconductor material.
other companies.[63]
Integrated circuits are composed of many overlapping layers, each defined by
Modern electronic component distributors often further sub-categorize integrated circuits: photolithography, and normally shown in different colors.
Some layers mark where various dopants are diffused
Digital ICs are categorized as logic ICs (such as microprocessors and microcontrollers), into the substrate (called diffusion layers), some define
memory chips (such as MOS memory and floating-gate memory), interface ICs (level where additional ions are implanted (implant layers),
shifters, serializer/deserializer, etc.), power management ICs, and programmable devices. some define the conductors (doped polysilicon or metal
Analog ICs are categorized as linear integrated circuits and RF circuits (radio frequency layers), and some define the connections between the
circuits). conducting layers (via or contact layers). All components
are constructed from a specific combination of these
Mixed-signal integrated circuits are categorized as data acquisition ICs (including A/D layers.
converters, D/A converters, digital potentiometers), clock/timing ICs, switched capacitor
(SC) circuits, and RF CMOS circuits. In a self-aligned CMOS process, a transistor is formed
wherever the gate layer (polysilicon or metal) crosses a
Three-dimensional integrated circuits (3D ICs) are categorized into through-silicon via (TSV)
ICs and Cu-Cu connection ICs. diffusion layer.[65]: p.1 (see Fig. 1.1) 
Capacitive structures, in form very much like the parallel
conducting plates of a traditional electrical capacitor, are
Manufacturing formed according to the area of the "plates", with
insulating material between the plates. Capacitors of a
wide range of sizes are common on ICs.
Fabrication Meandering stripes of varying lengths are sometimes
used to form on-chip resistors, though most logic circuits
Schematic structure of a CMOS chip,
The semiconductors of the periodic table of the chemical do not need any resistors. The ratio of the length of the
resistive structure to its width, combined with its sheet as built in the early 2000s. The
elements were identified as the most likely materials for a
graphic shows LDD-MISFET's on an
solid-state vacuum tube. Starting with copper oxide, resistivity, determines the resistance.
SOI substrate with five metallization
proceeding to germanium, then silicon, the materials were More rarely, inductive structures can be built as tiny on- layers and solder bump for flip-chip
systematically studied in the 1940s and 1950s. Today, chip coils, or simulated by gyrators. bonding. It also shows the section for
monocrystalline silicon is the main substrate used for ICs FEOL (front-end of line), BEOL
although some III-V compounds of the periodic table such Since a CMOS device only draws current on the transition (back-end of line) and first parts of
as gallium arsenide are used for specialized applications like between logic states, CMOS devices consume much less back-end process.
LEDs, lasers, solar cells and the highest-speed integrated current than bipolar junction transistor devices.
circuits. It took decades to perfect methods of creating
crystals with minimal defects in semiconducting materials' A random-access memory is the most regular type of integrated circuit; the highest density
crystal structure. devices are thus memories; but even a microprocessor will have memory on the chip. (See the
Rendering of a small standard cell regular array structure at the bottom of the first image.) Although the structures are intricate –
Semiconductor ICs are fabricated in a planar process which with three metal layers (dielectric has with widths which have been shrinking for decades – the layers remain much thinner than the
includes three key process steps  – photolithography, been removed). The sand-colored device widths. The layers of material are fabricated much like a photographic process, although
deposition (such as chemical vapor deposition), and etching. structures are metal interconnect, light waves in the visible spectrum cannot be used to "expose" a layer of material, as they would
with the vertical pillars being be too large for the features. Thus photons of higher frequencies (typically ultraviolet) are used
The main process steps are supplemented by doping and
contacts, typically plugs of tungsten. to create the patterns for each layer. Because each feature is so small, electron microscopes are
cleaning. More recent or high-performance ICs may instead
The reddish structures are polysilicon
use multi-gate FinFET or GAAFET transistors instead of essential tools for a process engineer who might be debugging a fabrication process.
gates, and the solid at the bottom is
planar ones, starting at the 22 nm node (Intel) or 16/14 nm the crystalline silicon bulk. Each device is tested before packaging using automated test equipment (ATE), in a process
nodes.[64]
known as wafer testing, or wafer probing. The wafer is then cut into rectangular blocks, each of
Mono-crystal silicon wafers are used in most applications (or for special applications, other which is called a die. Each good die (plural dice, dies, or die) is then connected into a package
semiconductors such as gallium arsenide are used). The wafer need not be entirely silicon. using aluminium (or gold) bond wires which are thermosonically bonded[66] to pads, usually
Photolithography is used to mark different areas of the substrate to be doped or to have found around the edge of the die. Thermosonic bonding was first introduced by A. Coucoulas
which provided a reliable means of forming these vital electrical connections to the outside
world. After packaging, the devices go through final testing on the same or similar ATE used
during wafer probing. Industrial CT scanning can also be used. Test cost can account for over FCBGA packages allow an array of input-output signals (called Area-I/O) to be distributed over
25% of the cost of fabrication on lower-cost products, but can be negligible on low-yielding, the entire die rather than being confined to the die periphery. BGA devices have the advantage
larger, or higher-cost devices. of not needing a dedicated socket but are much harder to replace in case of device failure.

As of 2022, a fabrication facility (commonly known as a semiconductor fab) can cost over Intel transitioned away from PGA to land grid array (LGA) and BGA beginning in 2004, with
US$12 billion to construct.[67] The cost of a fabrication facility rises over time because of the last PGA socket released in 2014 for mobile platforms. As of 2018, AMD uses PGA packages
increased complexity of new products; this is known as Rock's law. Such a facility features: on mainstream desktop processors,[69] BGA packages on mobile processors,[70] and high-end
desktop and server microprocessors use LGA packages.[71]
The wafers up to 300 mm in diameter (wider than a common dinner plate).
As of 2022, 5 nm transistors. Electrical signals leaving the die must pass through the material electrically connecting the die
Copper interconnects where copper wiring replaces aluminum for interconnects. to the package, through the conductive traces (paths) in the package, through the leads
connecting the package to the conductive traces on the printed circuit board. The materials and
Low-κ dielectric insulators.
structures used in the path these electrical signals must travel have very different electrical
Silicon on insulator (SOI). properties, compared to those that travel to different parts of the same die. As a result, they
Strained silicon in a process used by IBM known as Strained silicon directly on insulator require special design techniques to ensure the signals are not corrupted, and much more
(SSDOI). electric power than signals confined to the die itself.
Multigate devices such as tri-gate transistors.
When multiple dies are put in one package, the result is a system in package, abbreviated SiP. A
ICs can be manufactured either in-house by integrated device manufacturers (IDMs) or using multi-chip module (MCM), is created by combining multiple dies on a small substrate often
the foundry model. IDMs are vertically integrated companies (like Intel and Samsung) that made of ceramic. The distinction between a large MCM and a small printed circuit board is
design, manufacture and sell their own ICs, and may offer design and/or manufacturing sometimes fuzzy.
(foundry) services to other companies (the latter often to fabless companies). In the foundry
model, fabless companies (like Nvidia) only design and sell ICs and outsource all manufacturing Packaged integrated circuits are usually large enough to include identifying information. Four
to pure play foundries such as TSMC. These foundries may offer IC design services. common sections are the manufacturer's name or logo, the part number, a part production
batch number and serial number, and a four-digit date-code to identify when the chip was
manufactured. Extremely small surface-mount technology parts often bear only a number used
Packaging in a manufacturer's lookup table to find the integrated circuit's characteristics.

The earliest integrated circuits were packaged in ceramic flat The manufacturing date is commonly represented as a two-digit year followed by a two-digit
packs, which continued to be used by the military for their week code, such that a part bearing the code 8341 was manufactured in week 41 of 1983, or
reliability and small size for many years. Commercial circuit approximately in October 1983.
packaging quickly moved to the dual in-line package (DIP),
first in ceramic and later in plastic, which is commonly
cresol-formaldehyde-novolac. In the 1980s pin counts of
Intellectual property
VLSI circuits exceeded the practical limit for DIP packaging,
leading to pin grid array (PGA) and leadless chip carrier The possibility of copying by photographing each layer of an integrated circuit and preparing
(LCC) packages. Surface mount packaging appeared in the photomasks for its production on the basis of the photographs obtained is a reason for the
early 1980s and became popular in the late 1980s, using A Soviet MSI nMOS chip made in introduction of legislation for the protection of layout designs. The US Semiconductor Chip
finer lead pitch with leads formed as either gull-wing or J-
1977, part of a four-chip calculator Protection Act of 1984 established intellectual property protection for photomasks used to
lead, as exemplified by the small-outline integrated circuit set designed in 1970[68] produce integrated circuits.[72]
(SOIC) package – a carrier which occupies an area about
A diplomatic conference held at Washington, D.C. in 1989 adopted a Treaty on Intellectual
30–50% less than an equivalent DIP and is typically 70% thinner. This package has "gull wing"
leads protruding from the two long sides and a lead spacing of 0.050 inches. Property in Respect of Integrated Circuits,[73] also called the Washington Treaty or IPIC Treaty.
The treaty is currently not in force, but was partially integrated into the TRIPS agreement.[74]
In the late 1990s, plastic quad flat pack (PQFP) and thin small-outline package (TSOP)
packages became the most common for high pin count devices, though PGA packages are still There are several United States patents connected to the integrated circuit, which include
used for high-end microprocessors. patents by J.S. Kilby US3,138,743 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US3138743),
US3,261,081 (https://patents.google.com/patent/US3261081), US3,434,015 (https://patents.g
Ball grid array (BGA) packages have existed since the 1970s. Flip-chip Ball Grid Array packages, oogle.com/patent/US3434015) and by R.F. Stewart US3,138,747 (https://patents.google.com/p
which allow for a much higher pin count than other package types, were developed in the 1990s. atent/US3138747).
In an FCBGA package, the die is mounted upside-down (flipped) and connects to the package
balls via a package substrate that is similar to a printed-circuit board rather than by wires.

National laws protecting IC layout designs have been adopted in a number of countries, States Navy programs accounted for the total $4 million integrated circuit market in 1962, and
including Japan,[75] the EC,[76] the UK, Australia, and Korea. The UK enacted the Copyright, by 1968, U.S. Government spending on space and defense still accounted for 37% of the $312
Designs and Patents Act, 1988, c. 48, § 213, after it initially took the position that its copyright million total production.
law fully protected chip topographies. See British Leyland Motor Corp. v. Armstrong Patents Co.
The demand by the U.S. Government supported the nascent integrated circuit market until
Criticisms of inadequacy of the UK copyright approach as perceived by the US chip industry are costs fell enough to allow IC firms to penetrate the industrial market and eventually the
summarized in further chip rights developments.[77] consumer market. The average price per integrated circuit dropped from $50.00 in 1962 to
$2.33 in 1968.[85] Integrated circuits began to appear in consumer products by the turn of the
Australia passed the Circuit Layouts Act of 1989 as a sui generis form of chip protection.[78] 1970s decade. A typical application was FM inter-carrier sound processing in television
Korea passed the Act Concerning the Layout-Design of Semiconductor Integrated Circuits in receivers.
1992.[79]
The first application MOS chips were small-scale integration (SSI) chips.[86] Following
Mohamed M. Atalla's proposal of the MOS integrated circuit chip in 1960,[87] the earliest
Generations experimental MOS chip to be fabricated was a 16-transistor chip built by Fred Heiman and
Steven Hofstein at RCA in 1962.[29] The first practical application of MOS SSI chips was for
In the early days of simple integrated circuits, the technology's large scale limited each chip to NASA satellites.[86]
only a few transistors, and the low degree of integration meant the design process was relatively
simple. Manufacturing yields were also quite low by today's standards. As metal–oxide–
semiconductor (MOS) technology progressed, millions and then billions of MOS transistors Medium-scale integration (MSI)
could be placed on one chip,[80] and good designs required thorough planning, giving rise to the
field of electronic design automation, or EDA. Some SSI and MSI chips, like discrete transistors, The next step in the development of integrated circuits introduced devices which contained
are still mass-produced, both to maintain old equipment and build new devices that require hundreds of transistors on each chip, called "medium-scale integration" (MSI).
only a few gates. The 7400 series of TTL chips, for example, has become a de facto standard and
remains in production. MOSFET scaling technology made it possible to build high-density chips.[24] By 1964, MOS
chips had reached higher transistor density and lower manufacturing costs than bipolar
Acronym Name Year Transistor count[81] Logic gates number[82] chips.[31]
SSI small-scale integration 1964 1 to 10 1 to 12
In 1964, Frank Wanlass demonstrated a single-chip 16-bit shift register he designed, with a
MSI medium-scale integration 1968 10 to 500 13 to 99 then-incredible 120 MOS transistors on a single chip.[86][88] The same year, General
LSI large-scale integration 1971 500 to 20 000 100 to 9999 Microelectronics introduced the first commercial MOS integrated circuit chip, consisting of 120
p-channel MOS transistors.[30] It was a 20-bit shift register, developed by Robert Norman[29]
VLSI very large-scale integration 1980 20 000 to 1 000 000 10 000 to 99 999
and Frank Wanlass.[89] MOS chips further increased in complexity at a rate predicted by
ULSI ultra-large-scale integration 1984 1 000 000 and more 100 000 and more Moore's law, leading to chips with hundreds of MOSFETs on a chip by the late 1960s.[31]

Small-scale integration (SSI) Large-scale integration (LSI)

The first integrated circuits contained only a few transistors. Early digital circuits containing Further development, driven by the same MOSFET scaling technology and economic factors,
tens of transistors provided a few logic gates, and early linear ICs such as the Plessey SL201 or led to "large-scale integration" (LSI) by the mid-1970s, with tens of thousands of transistors per
the Philips TAA320 had as few as two transistors. The number of transistors in an integrated chip.[90]
circuit has increased dramatically since then. The term "large scale integration" (LSI) was first
used by IBM scientist Rolf Landauer when describing the theoretical concept;[83] that term gave The masks used to process and manufacture SSI, MSI and early LSI and VLSI devices (such as
rise to the terms "small-scale integration" (SSI), "medium-scale integration" (MSI), "very-large- the microprocessors of the early 1970s) were mostly created by hand, often using Rubylith-tape
scale integration" (VLSI), and "ultra-large-scale integration" (ULSI). The early integrated or similar.[91] For large or complex ICs (such as memories or processors), this was often done by
circuits were SSI. specially hired professionals in charge of circuit layout, placed under the supervision of a team
of engineers, who would also, along with the circuit designers, inspect and verify the correctness
SSI circuits were crucial to early aerospace projects, and aerospace projects helped inspire and completeness of each mask.
development of the technology. Both the Minuteman missile and Apollo program needed
lightweight digital computers for their inertial guidance systems. Although the Apollo Guidance Integrated circuits such as 1K-bit RAMs, calculator chips, and the first microprocessors, that
Computer led and motivated integrated-circuit technology,[84] it was the Minuteman missile began to be manufactured in moderate quantities in the early 1970s, had under 4,000
that forced it into mass-production. The Minuteman missile program and various other United transistors. True LSI circuits, approaching 10,000 transistors, began to be produced around
1974, for computer main memories and second-generation microprocessors. between modules on the same chip. This has led to an exploration of so-called Network-on-Chip
(NoC) devices, which apply system-on-chip design methodologies to digital communication
networks as opposed to traditional bus architectures.
Very-large-scale integration (VLSI)
A three-dimensional integrated circuit (3D-IC) has two or more layers of active electronic
"Very-large-scale integration" (VLSI) is a development components that are integrated both vertically and horizontally into a single circuit.
started with hundreds of thousands of transistors in the Communication between layers uses on-die signaling, so power consumption is much lower
early 1980s, and, as of 2016, transistor counts continue to than in equivalent separate circuits. Judicious use of short vertical wires can substantially
grow beyond ten billion transistors per chip. reduce overall wire length for faster operation.[99]

Multiple developments were required to achieve this

increased density. Manufacturers moved to smaller Silicon labeling and graffiti
MOSFET design rules and cleaner fabrication facilities. The
path of process improvements was summarized by the To allow identification during production, most silicon chips will have a serial number in one
International Technology Roadmap for Semiconductors corner. It is also common to add the manufacturer's logo. Ever since ICs were created, some
(ITRS), which has since been succeeded by the International chip designers have used the silicon surface area for surreptitious, non-functional images or
Roadmap for Devices and Systems (IRDS). Electronic words. These are sometimes referred to as chip art, silicon art, silicon graffiti or silicon
Upper interconnect layers on an Intel
design tools improved, making it practical to finish designs doodling.
80486DX2 microprocessor die
in a reasonable time. The more energy-efficient CMOS
replaced NMOS and PMOS, avoiding a prohibitive increase
in power consumption. The complexity and density of modern VLSI devices made it no longer
ICs and IC families
feasible to check the masks or do the original design by hand. Instead, engineers use EDA tools The 555 timer IC
to perform most functional verification work.[92]
The Operational amplifier
In 1986, one-megabit random-access memory (RAM) chips were introduced, containing more 7400-series integrated circuits
than one million transistors. Microprocessor chips passed the million-transistor mark in 1989, 4000-series integrated circuits, the CMOS counterpart to the 7400 series (see also: 74HC00
and the billion-transistor mark in 2005.[93] The trend continues largely unabated, with chips series)
introduced in 2007 containing tens of billions of memory transistors.[94] Intel 4004, generally regarded as the first commercially available microprocessor, which led
to the famous 8080 CPU and then the IBM PC's 8088, 80286, 486 etc.
The MOS Technology 6502 and Zilog Z80 microprocessors, used in many home computers
ULSI, WSI, SoC and 3D-IC of the early 1980s
The Motorola 6800 series of computer-related chips, leading to the 68000 and 88000 series
To reflect further growth of the complexity, the term ULSI that stands for "ultra-large-scale (used in some Apple computers and in the 1980s Commodore Amiga series)
integration" was proposed for chips of more than 1 million transistors.[95] The LM-series of analog integrated circuits
Wafer-scale integration (WSI) is a means of building very large integrated circuits that uses an
entire silicon wafer to produce a single "super-chip". Through a combination of large size and See also
reduced packaging, WSI could lead to dramatically reduced costs for some systems, notably
massively parallel supercomputers. The name is taken from the term Very-Large-Scale Central processing unit
Electronics portal
Integration, the current state of the art when WSI was being developed.[96][97] Chipset
CHIPS and Science Act Physics portal
A system-on-a-chip (SoC or SOC) is an integrated circuit in which all the components needed
Integrated injection logic
for a computer or other system are included on a single chip. The design of such a device can be Technology portal
complex and costly, and whilst performance benefits can be had from integrating all needed Ion implantation
Microelectronics Telecommunication
components on one die, the cost of licensing and developing a one-die machine still outweigh portal
having separate devices. With appropriate licensing, these drawbacks are offset by lower Monolithic microwave integrated circuit
manufacturing and assembly costs and by a greatly reduced power budget: because signals Engineering portal
Multi-threshold CMOS
among the components are kept on-die, much less power is required (see Packaging).[98] Silicon–germanium History of science
Further, signal sources and destinations are physically closer on die, reducing the length of portal
Sound chip
wiring and therefore latency, transmission power costs and waste heat from communication Companies portal
SPICE
Chip carrier Computer

Internet (https://books.google.com/books?id=gfeCXlElJTwC&pg=PA221). Routledge. p. 221.

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Further reading
Veendrick, H.J.M. (2017). Nanometer CMOS ICs, from Basics to ASICs. Springer.
ISBN 978-3-319-47595-0. OCLC 990149326 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/990149326).
Baker, R.J. (2010). CMOS: Circuit Design, Layout, and Simulation (3rd ed.). Wiley-IEEE.
ISBN 978-0-470-88132-3. OCLC 699889340 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/699889340).
Marsh, Stephen P. (2006). Practical MMIC design. Artech House. ISBN 978-1-59693-036-0.
OCLC 1261968369 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/1261968369).
Camenzind, Hans (2005). Designing Analog Chips (https://web.archive.org/web/201706120
55924/http://www.designinganalogchips.com/_count/designinganalogchips.pdf) (PDF).
Virtual Bookworm. ISBN 978-1-58939-718-7. OCLC 926613209 (https://www.worldcat.org/o
clc/926613209). Archived from the original (http://www.designinganalogchips.com/_count/de
signinganalogchips.pdf) (PDF) on 12 June 2017. "Hans Camenzind invented the 555 timer"
Hodges, David; Jackson, Horace; Saleh, Resve (2003). Analysis and Design of Digital
Integrated Circuits. McGraw-Hill. ISBN 978-0-07-228365-5. OCLC 840380650 (https://www.
worldcat.org/oclc/840380650).
Rabaey, J.M.; Chandrakasan, A.; Nikolic, B. (2003). Digital Integrated Circuits (https://archiv
e.org/details/agilesoftwaredev00robe) (2nd ed.). Pearson. ISBN 978-0-13-090996-1.
OCLC 893541089 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/893541089).
Mead, Carver; Conway, Lynn (1991). Introduction to VLSI systems (https://archive.org/detail
s/introductiontovl00mead). Addison Wesley Publishing Company. ISBN 978-0-201-04358-7.
OCLC 634332043 (https://www.worldcat.org/oclc/634332043).

External links
Media related to Integrated circuits at Wikimedia Commons
The first monolithic integrated circuits (https://web.archive.org/web/20120319150151/http://h
omepages.nildram.co.uk/~wylie/ICs/monolith.htm)
A large chart listing ICs by generic number (http://rtellason.com/ic-generic.html) including
access to most of the datasheets for the parts.
The History of the Integrated Circuit (https://web.archive.org/web/20170702192457/http://w
ww.nobelprize.org/educational/physics/integrated_circuit/history/)

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