Introduction to sensors

• Functional Elements of a
Clinical Thermometer ??

Clinical thermometer, the temperature

measuring instrument
1) Primary sensing element as well as a variable conversion element.
✓ Thermometer bulb containing mercury
1. It senses the input quantity, the temperature.
2. Mercury in bulb expands and its volume is increased.
TEMPERATURE TO VOLUME DISPLACMENT

2) Signal manipulation and data transportation elements

✓ Capillary tube
1. Cross section area of the capillary being constant, the volume signal is thus
converted into linear distance signal.

3) Data presentation stage

✓ Calibrated scale on the capillary tube
4) Data storage function of the instrument
✓ Restriction bend at the junction of the bulb and
the capillary
SENSORS

• Linear and rotational sensors

• Acceleration sensors
• Force, torque, and pressure sensors
• Flow sensors
• Temperature measurements
• Ranging and proximity sensing
• Light detection, image, and vision systems
• Fiber optic devices
• Micro and nanosensors
Introduction to sensor and
their characteristics
Selection Criteria
Static and Dynamic Characteristics
Calibration
• The relationship between the physical measurement
variable (X)/input and the signal variable (S)/output.
• A sensor or instrument is calibrated by applying a
number of KNOWN physical inputs and recording the
response of the system
True value
• This is the value that would be obtained in an ideal measurement. An
ideal measurement is one that would have no errors at all. In other
words, this is a value that is perfectly accurate. ... In other words, the
'true value' is hypothetical – no such thing can actually be measure
Static error
• Static error is defined as the difference between the best measured value and the true value of
the quantity.
𝐸𝑠 = 𝐴𝑚 − 𝐴𝑡
Where
Es = error/absolute static error of quantity
Am = measured value of quantity, and
At = true value of quantity.
𝐸𝑠
Relative static error Er is given by: 𝐸𝑟 =
𝐴𝑡
Static Correction
It is the difference between the true value and the measured value of the quantity, or δC = At - Am
 Question
• An analogue indicating instrument with a scale range of 0 - 2.50 V shows
a voltage of 1.46 V. A voltage has a true value of 1.50 V.
• What are the values of absolute error and correction?
• Express the error as a fraction of the true value and the full scale
deflection.

Given :
Range and span
Span : 2.5 V
At = 1.5 V
Am = 1.46 v
Solution
• Absolute error = Am - At
= 1.46- 1.50 = -0.04 V
• Absolute correction δC = At- Am = +0.04 V
• Relative error
𝐸𝑠
𝐸𝑟 = = -0.04 /1.50 = 0.0266
𝐴𝑡

• Relative error expressed as a percentage of full scale

division
= - (0.04/2.5)x 100 = - 1.6 %
• The performance characteristics may be broadly
divided into two groups, namely ‘STATIC’ and
‘DYNAMIC’ characteristics.

• If the quantity to be measured changes very

slowly it is only necessary to know the static
characteristics of sensors.
• Static characteristics influence also the dynamic
behaviour of the sensor
• If the measured quantity changes with time, then
dynamic characteristics are too be taken care
Static characteristics
• The various static characteristics of measurement
system are:

i) Accuracy vii) Resolution

ii) Precision viii) Threshold
iii) Sensitivity ix) Drift
iv) Linearity x) Stability
v) Reproducibility xi) Tolerance
vi) Repeatability xii) Range or span
 Accuracy
• This is the closeness with which the measuring instrument can
measure the ‘true value’ of the measurand under stated conditions
of use, i.e. its ability to ‘tell the truth
• The accuracy of an instrument is quantified by the difference of its
readings and the one given by the ultimate or primary standard.
• Accuracy depends on inherent limitations of instrument and
shortcomings in measurement process.

Accuracy
Precision
• The capacity of a measuring instrument to give the same reading
when repetitively measuring the same quantity under the same
prescribed conditions
• Precision implies agreement between successive readings, NOT
closeness to the true value
• Precision is often confused with accuracy. High
precision does not imply anything about
measurement accuracy
Precision vs. Accuracy
Errors, Precision and Accuracy
 Tolerance
Tolerance - Tolerance is a term that is closely related to
accuracy and defines the maximum error that is to be
expected in some value. - Tolerance describes the
maximum deviation of a manufactured component from
some specified value

Range or span
• Range or span - The range or span of an instrument
defines the minimum and maximum values of a quantity
that the instrument is designed to measure.
Scale range and scale span
• Scale range: The region between the limits with in which an
instrument is designed to operate for measuring, indicating or
recording a physical quantity is called the range of the
instruments.
• Thus range is between Xmin and Xmax . Many times it is also said
that the instrument range is Xmax.

• Scale span: The instrument span is the difference between

highest and the lowest point of calibration.
For example: For example for a thermometer calibrated between
100oC to 400oC, the range is 100oC to 400oC (or 400oC) but the span is
400 - 100oC= 300oC.
 Resolution (Discrimination)
• Resolution (Discrimination)
1. It is the minimum change or smallest increment in
the measured value that can be detected with
certainty by the instrument.
2. It can be least count of instrument.

Example: a digital voltmeter with resolution of 0.1V is used to measure the output
of a sensor. The change in input (temperature, pressure, etc.) that will provide a
change of 0.1V on the voltmeter is the resolution of the sensor/voltmeter system.
 Dead zone and Dead time
• Dead zone/ Threshold is
defined as the range of
different input values over
which there is no change in
output value.
• It is caused by friction,
backlash or hysteresis
Dead Time: “The time required by a
measurement system to begin to
respond to a change in the
measurand”
Linearity
• Linearity error is the deviation of the sensor output curve from a specified
straight line (theoretical behavior) over a desired span
• Deviation of transducer output curve from a specified straight line
(theoretical behavior)
• Linearity is the consistency of accuracy (bias) over the range of
measurement; a slope of one (unity) between measured and true value is
perfect
Sensitivity
• The sensitivity denotes the smallest change in the measured
variable to which the instrument responds.
• It is defined as the ratio of the changes in the output of an
instrument to a change in the value of the quantity to be
measured. Mathematically it is expressed as,
Change of Output Signal ∆𝒒𝟎
• SENSITIVITY= =
Change of Input Signal ∆𝒒𝒊
• Thus the slope of the calibration curve y=f(x)

Infinitesimal change in output

Infinitesimal change in input

Sensitivity can be linear

or non-linear
Hysteresis
• Hysteresis is defined as the magnitude of error caused in the output
for a given value of input, when this value is approached from
opposite directions ; i.e. from ascending order & then descending
order.
• Causes are, elastic deformations, magnetic characteristics, frictional
effects (mainly).
• Hysteresis can be eliminated by taking readings in both direction and
then taking its arithmetic mean.
 Instrumental drift
• It is defined as the variation of output for a given input caused due to
change in sensitivity of the instrument due to certain interfering
inputs like temperature changes, component instabilities, etc.

• It is an undesirable gradual deviation of the instrument output over a

period of time that is unrelated to the changes in the input operating
conditions or load.

• It is caused by wear and tear, high stress developed at some parts

• An instrument is said to have no drift if it reproduces the same

readings at different times for same variations in the measured
quantity
• Zero drift: If the whole calibration gradually shifts
due to slippage, permanent set, or due to undue
warming up of electronic tube circuits, zero drift
sets in.
• Span drift or sensitivity drift If there is proportional
change in the indication all along the upward scale,
the drifts is called span drift or sensitivity drift
• Zonal drift: In case the drift occurs only a portion of
span of an instrument, it is called zonal drift
 Repeatability and Reproducibility

Two terms closely related to precision:

• Repeatability : The precision of a set of measurements taken over a
short time interval
• Reproducibility : The precision of a set of measurements BUT
i. Taken over a long time interval
ii. Performed by different operators
iii. With different instruments
iv. In different laboratories
Dynamic characteristics
• The set of criteria defined for the instruments, which change rapidly
with time, are called ‘dynamic characteristics’.
• The various static characteristics are:
• i) Speed of response
• ii) Measuring lag
• iii) Fidelity
• iv) Dynamic error
Dynamic Error
Definition:
“The difference between the true value of measuring quantity
changing with time and the value indicated by the measuring system,
assuming the static error to be zero”

Static error = Measured value – True value

,
Speed of Response
• Definition: “The rapidity with which an instrument responds to
change in the value of quantity being measured”.
• Response Time is the time required by instrument or system to settle
to its final steady position after the application of the input.
Measuring lag
• Instrument does not react to a change in input
immediately.
• The delay in the response of an instrument to a change
in the measured quantity is known as measuring lag.
• It is usually quite small, but this small lag becomes
highly important when high speed measurements are
required.
i) Retardation type: In this type of measuring lag the response
begins immediately after a change in measured quantity has
occurred.
ii) Time delay: In this type of measuring lag the response of the
measurement system begins after a dead zone after the
application of the input.
Fidelity
• Fidelity of a system is defined as the ability of the system to reproduce the
output in the same form as the input.

• It is the degree to which a measurement system indicates changes in the

measured quantity without any dynamic error.

• Supposing if a linearly varying quantity is applied to a system and if the

output is also a linearly varying quantity the system is said to have 100
percent fidelity. Ideally a system should have 100 percent fidelity and the
output should appear in the same form as that of input and there is no
distortion produced in the signal by the system