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General Mathematics Learners Material

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General

Mathematics
Learner’s Material

This learning resource was collaboratively developed and reviewed by educators from public and
private schools, colleges, and/or universities. We encourage teachers and other education
stakeholders to email their feedback, comments and recommendations to the Department of
Education at [email protected].

We value your feedback and recommendations.

Department of Education
Republic of the Philippines

General Mathematics
Learner’s Material
All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means - electronic or
mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
First Edition 2016

Republic Act 8293. Section 176 states that: No copyright shall subsist in any work of the
Government of the Philippines. However, prior approval of the government agency or office
wherein the work is created shall be necessary for exploitation of such work for profit. Such
agency or office may, among other things, impose as a condition the payment of royalties.

Borrowed materials (i.e., songs, stories, poems, pictures, photos, brand names,
trademarks, etc.) included in this learning resource are owned by their respective copyright
holders. DepEd is represented by the Filipinas Copyright Licensing Society (FILCOLS), Inc. in
seeking permission to use these materials from their respective copyright owners. All means
have been exhausted in seeking permission to use these materials. The publisher and authors do
not represent nor claim ownership over them.

Only institutions and companies which have entered an agreement with FILCOLS and
only within the agreed framework may copy from this Learner’s Material. Those who have not
entered in an agreement with FILCOLS must, if they wish to copy, contact the publishers and
authors directly.

Authors and publishers may email or contact FILCOLS at [email protected] or (02)

435-5258, respectively.

Published by the Department of Education

Secretary: Br. Armin A. Luistro FSC
Undersecretary: Dina S. Ocampo, PhD

Development Team of the General Mathematics Learner’s Material

Dr. Debbie Marie B. Verzosa Francis Nelson M. Infante
Paolo Luis Apolinario Jose Lorenzo M. Sin
Regina M. Tresvalles Len Patrick Dominic M. Garces
Reviewers
Leo Andrei A. Crisologo Lester C. Hao
Shirlee R. Ocampo Eden Delight P. Miro
Jude Buot Eleanor Villanueva
Layout Artist Cover Art Illustrator
Mary Ann A. Mindaña Quincy D. Gonzales

Management Team of the General Mathematics Learner’s Material

Bureau of Curriculum Development
Bureau of Learning Resources

Printed in the Philippines by Lexicon Press Inc.

Department of Education-Bureau of Learning Resources (DepEd-BLR)

Office Address: Ground Floor Bonifacio Building, DepEd Complex
Meralco Avenue, Pasig City, Philippines 1600
Telefax: (02) 634-1054 or 634-1072
E-mail Address: [email protected]

ii
All rights reserved. No part of this material may be reproduced or transmitted in any form or by any means - electronic or
mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
TABLE OF CONTENTS

I. Functions
Lesson 1: Functions ................................................................................................. 1
Lesson 2: Evaluating Functions ...............................................................................10
Lesson 3: Operations on Functions ..........................................................................13
II. Rational Functions
Lesson 4: Representing Real-Life Situations Using Rational Functions .................21
Lesson 5: Rational Functions, Equations, and Inequalities .....................................24
Lesson 6: Solving Rational Equations and Inequalities ..........................................25
Lesson 7: Representations of Rational Functions ...................................................35
Lesson 8: Graphing Rational Functions .................................................................44
III. One-to-One Functions
Lesson 9: One-to-One functions ............................................................................60
Lesson 10: Inverse of One-to-One Functions.........................................................62
Lesson 11: Graphs of Inverse Functions.................................................................67
IV. Exponential Functions
Lesson 12: Representing Real-Life Situations Using Exponential Functions…...77
Lesson 13: Exponential Functions, Equations, and Inequalities...........................82
Lesson 14: Solving Exponential Equations and Inequalities................................83
Lesson 15: Graphing Exponential Functions........................................................88
Lesson 16: Graphing Transformations of Exponential Functions .......................92
V. Logarithmic Functions
Lesson 17: Introduction to Logarithms ...............................................................99
Lesson 18: Logarithmic Functions, Equations, and Inequalities ........................103
Lesson 19: Basic Properties of Logarithms.........................................................104
Lesson 20: Laws of Logarithms .........................................................................106
Lesson 21: Solving Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities..............................111
Lesson 22: Graphing Logarithmic Functions......................................................124
Lesson 23: Illustrating Simple and Compound Interest .....................................135

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
iii
VI. Simple and Compound Interest
Lesson 24: Simple Interest.............................................................................. 137
Lesson 25: Compound Interest ....................................................................... 144
Lesson 26: Compounding More than Once a Year.......................................... 150
Lesson 27: Finding Interest Rate and Time in Compound Interest .................. 158
VII. Annuities:
Lesson 28: Simple Annuity.............................................................................. 168
Lesson 29: General Annuity ............................................................................ 183
Lesson 30: Deferred Annuity ........................................................................... 199
VIII. Basic Concepts of Stocks and Bonds
Lesson 31: Stocks and Bonds ......................................................................... 208
Lesson 32: Market Indices for Stocks and Bonds ............................................ 217
Lesson 33: Theory of Efficient Markets............................................................ 222
IX. Basic Concepts of Loans
Lesson 34: Business and Consumer Loans .................................................... 225
Lesson 35: Solving Problems on Business and Consumer Loans .................. 226
X. Logic
Lesson 36: Propositions .................................................................................. 240
Lesson 37: Logical Operators.......................................................................... 246
Lesson 38: Truth Tables.................................................................................. 257
Lesson 39: Logical Equivalence and Conditional Propositions ........................ 263
Lesson 40: Valid Arguments and Fallacies...................................................... 270
Lesson 41: Methods of Proof........................................................................... 283

Lesson 1: Functions

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to represent real-life
situations using functions, including piecewise functions.

Lesson Outline:

1. Functions and Relations

2. Vertical Line Test
3. Representing real-life situations using functions, including piecewise functions.

Definition: A relation is a rule that relates values from a set of values (called the
domain) to a second set of values (called the range).

A relation is a set of ordered pairs (x,y).

Definition: A function is a relation where each element in the domain is related to

only one value in the range by some rule.

A function is a set of ordered pairs (x,y) such that no two ordered pairs have the
same x-value but different y-values. Using functional notation, we can write f(x) = y,
read as “f of x is equal to y.” In particular, if (1, 2) is an ordered pair associated with
the function f, then we say that f(2) = 1.

Example 1. Which of the following relations are functions?

f = {(1,2),(2.3),(3,5),(4,7)}
g = {(1,3),(1,4),(2,5),(2,6),(3,7)}
h = {(1,3),(2,6),(3,9),...(n,3n),...}

Solution.

The relations f and h are functions because no two ordered pairs have the same x-value
but different y-values. Meanwhile, g is not a function because (1,3) and (1,4) are ordered pairs
with the same x-value but different y-values.

Relations and functions can be represented by mapping diagrams where the elements of
the domain are mapped to the elements of the range using arrows. In this case, the relation or
function is represented by the set of all the connections represented by the arrows.

1
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Example 2. Which of the following mapping diagrams represent functions?

Solution.

The relations f and g are functions because each value y in Y is unique for a specific
value of x. The relation h is not a function because there is at least one element in X
for which there is more than one corresponding y-value. For example, x =7
corresponds to y = 11 or 13. Similarly, x =2 corresponds to both y =17 or 19.

A relation between two sets of numbers can be illustrated by a graph in the Cartesian
plane, and that a function passes the vertical line test.

The Vertical Line Test

A graph represents a function if and only if each vertical line intersects the graph at
most once.

a.) d.)

Solution.

Graphs a.), b.), c.) are graphs of functions while d.) and e.) are not because they
do not pass the vertical line test.

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3
Important Concepts.
● Relations are rules that relate two values, one from a set of inputs and
the second from the set of outputs.
● Functions are rules that relate only one value from the set of outputs to a
value from the set of inputs.
Definition: The domain of a relation is the set of all possible values that the variable x can take.

Example 4. Identify the domain for each relation using set builder notation.

(a) y = 2x + 1
(b) y = x2 - 2x + 2
(c) x2 + y2 = 1
(d) y = ❑√ x+1
2 x +1
(e) y =
x−1
(f) y = [x] + 1 where [x] is the greatest integer function.

Solution. The domains for the relations are as follows:

(a) {x : x ϵ R }
(b) {x : x ϵ R }
(c) {x : x ϵ R ,−1 ≤ x ≤1 }
(d) {x : x ϵ R , x ≥−1 }
(e) {x : x ϵ R , x ≠1 }
(f) {x : x ϵ R }

Functions as representations of real-life situations.

Functions can often be used to model real situations. Identifying an appropriate

functional model will lead to a better understanding of various phenomena.

Example 5. Give a function C that can represent the cost of buying x meals, if
one meal costs P40.
Solution. Since each meal costs P40, then the cost function is C(x) = 40x.
Example 6. One hundred meters of fencing is available to enclose a rectangular
area next to a river (see figure). Give a function A that can represent the area
that can be enclosed, in terms of x.

Solution. The area of the rectangular enclosure is A = xy. We will write this as a function of x.
Since only 100 m of fencing is available, then x + 2y = 100 or y = (100 – x)/2 = 50 – 0.5x. Thus,
A(x) = x(50 – 0.5x) = 50x – 0.5x2 .

Piecewise functions
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Some situations can only be described by more than one formula, depending on the value of the
independent variable.

Example 7. A user is charged P300 monthly for a particular mobile plan, which includes 100
free text messages. Messages in excess of 100 are charged P1 each. Represent the monthly cost
for text messaging using the function t(m), where m is the number of messages sent in a month.

Solution. The cost of text messaging can be expressed by the piecewise function:

300 ,if 0< m ≤100

t (m) ¿300+m , if m>100 ¿

Example 8. A jeepney ride costs P8.00 for the first 4 kilometers, and each additional integer
kilometer adds P1.50 to the fare. Use a piecewise function to represent the jeepney fare in terms
of the distance (d) in kilometers.

Solution. The input value is distance and the output is the cost of the jeepney fare. If F(d)
represents the fare as a function of distance, the function can be represented as follows:

8.00 ,if 0<d ≤4

f (d )¿(8+1.5 [d ]), if d> 4 ¿

Note that [d] is the floor function applied to d. The floor function gives the largest integer less
than or equal to d, e.g. [4.1] = [4.9] = 4.

Example 9. Water can exist in three states: solid ice, liquid water, and gaseous water vapor. As
ice is heated, its temperature rises until it hits the melting point of 0°C and stays constant until
the ice melts. The temperature then rises until it hits the boiling point of 100°C and stays
constant until the water evaporates. When the water is in a gaseous state, its temperature can rise
above 100°C (This is why steam can cause third degree burns!).

A solid block of ice is at -25°C and heat is added until it completely turns into water vapor.
Sketch the graph of the function representing the temperature of water as a function of the
amount of heat added in Joules given the following information:
● The ice reaches 0°C after applying 940 J.
● The ice completely melts into liquid water after applying a total of 6,950 J.

5
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
● The water starts to boil (100°C) after a total of 14,470 J.
● The water completely evaporates into steam after a total of 55,260 J.
Assume that rising temperature is linear. Explain why this is a piecewise function.

Solution. Let T(x) represent the temperature of the water in degrees Celsius as a function of
cumulative heat added in Joules. The function T(x) can be graphed as follows:

This is a piecewise function because the temperature rise can be expressed as a linear function
with positive slope until the temperature hits 0°C, then it becomes a constant function until the
total heat reaches 6,950K J. It then becomes linear again until the temperature reaches 100°C,
and becomes a constant function again until the total heat reaches 55,260 J.

Solved Examples

1. Is the relation {(0,0), (1,1), (2,4), (3,9), … (n,n2), …} a function?

Solution.

Yes, it is a function.

Solution.

C. All diagrams, except for C, represent a function.

3. Can the graph of a circle be considered a function?

Solution.

No, it cannot. A circle will fail the vertical line test.

4. Give the domain of y = √ 2−x using set builder notation.

Solution.

{x : x ϵ R , x ≤2 }

5. Contaminated water is subjected to a cleaning process. The concentration of pollutants is

initially 10 mg per liter of water. If the cleaning process can reduce the pollutant by 5% each
hour, define a function that can represent the concentration of pollutants in the water in terms of
the number of hours that the cleaning process has taken place.

Solution. After 1 hour, the concentration of pollutants is (10)*(0.95). After 2 hours, it is this
value, times 0.95, or [(10)*(0.95)](0.95) = 10(0.95)2 . In general, after t hours, the concentration
is C(t) = (10)(0.95)t mg per liter of water.

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7
6. Squares of side x are cut from each corner of an 8 in x 5 in rectangle (see figure), so that its
sides can be folded to make a box with no top. Define a function in terms of x that can represent
the volume of this box.

Solution. The length and width of the box are 8 – 2x and 5 – 2x, respectively. Its height is x.
Thus, the volume of the box can be represented by the function

V(x) = (8 - 2x)(5 - 2x)x = 40x – 26x2 + 4x3

7. A certain chocolate bar costs P35.00 per piece. However, if you buy more than 10 pieces, they
will be marked down to a price of P32.00 per piece. Use a piecewise function to represent the
cost in terms of the number of chocolate bars bought.

Solution.

35n , if 0<n ≤10

f (n)¿ 32n , if n>10 ¿

8. A school’s fair committee wants to sell t-shirts for their school fair. They found a supplier that
sells t-shirts at a price of P175.00 a piece but can charge P15,000 for a bulk order of 100 shirts
and P125.00 for each excess t-shirt after that. Use a piecewise function to represent the cost in
terms of the number of tshirts purchased.

Solution.

175n ,if 0< n≤ 99

F(n) 15000 , if n=100
15000 + 125(n-100), if n> 100

9. The fee to park in the parking lot of a shopping mall costs P40.00 for the first two hours and
an extra P10.00 for each hour (or a fraction of it) after that. If you park for more than twelve
hours, you instead pay a flat rate of P200.00. Represent your parking fee using the function p(t)
where t is the number of hours you parked in the mall.

40 , if 0<t ≤2
p(t) 40 + 10[t−2 , if 2<t ≤ 12
200 , if t> 12

Here [t −2] is the ceiling function applied to t – 2. The ceiling function of a number x
gives the smallest integer greater than or equal to x, e.g. [5.1] = [5.8] = [6] = 6.

2. Which of the following statements represents a function?

(a) Students to their current age.
(b) Countries to its capital.
(c) A store to its merchandise.

3. Which of the following letters will pass the vertical line test? V W X Y Z

1
4. Give the domain of y= in set builder notation.
√ x ²−4

5. A person is earning P600 per day to do a certain job. Express the total salary S as a function of
the number n of days that the person works.

6. A canned drink will be made using 40 in2 of aluminum. Let r be the radius of the can and let h
be the height. Define a function in terms of r that can represent the volume of the can.

7. A computer shop charges 20 pesos per hour (or a fraction of an hour) for the first two hours
and an additional 10 pesos per hour for each succeeding hour. Represent your computer rental
fee using the function R(t) where t is the number of hours you spent on the computer.

8. A taxi ride costs P40.00 for the first 500 meters, and each additional 300 meters (or a fraction
thereof) adds P3.50 to the fare. Use a piecewise function to represent the taxi fare in terms of the
distance d in meters.

9. Temperature readings T (in ⁰ C) were recorded every three hours from midnight until 6 PM.
The time t was measured in hours from midnight.
T 0 3 6 9 12 15 18

T 24 26 28 30 32 30 28
(a) Use the data to sketch a rough graph of T as a function of t.
(b) Assuming that the peak temperature was recorded during 12 noon, what do you think is the
temperature by 9 PM?

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to evaluate functions and
solve problems involving functions.

Lesson Outline:

1. Evaluating functions

Evaluating a function means replacing the variable in the function, in this case x, with a value
from the function's domain and computing for the result. To denote that we are evaluating f at a
for some a in the domain of f, we write f(a).

Example 1. Evaluate the following functions at x = 1.5:

(g)
(h)
(i)

(j)
(k) where is the greatest integer function.

Solution. Substituting 1.5 for x in the functions above, we have

(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)

Example 2. Find g(-4) and r(1) where g and r are as defined in the previous example.

Solution. This is not possible because -4 is not in the domain of g(x) and 1 is not in the domain
of r(x).

Example 3. Evaluate the following functions, where f and q are as defined in Example 1.

(b)

Solution.

(a)

10
Solved Examples

1. Evaluate the following functions at x=3.

(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)
(e) where means the absolute value of

Solution.

(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)
(e)

2. For what values of x can we not evaluate the function

Solution.

The domain of the function is given by {x : x ϵ R , x ≠± 2 . Since 2 and -2 are not in the domain,
we cannot evaluate the function at x = -2,2.

3. Evaluate f( a + b) where f(x) = 4x2 - 3x .

Solution.

=
=

4. Suppose that s(T) is the top speed (in km per hour) of a runner when the temperature is T
degrees Celsius. Explain what the statements s(15) = 12 and s(30) = 10 mean.

Solution. The first equation means that when the temperature is 15C, then the top speed of a
runner is 12 km per hour. However, when temperature rises to 30C, the top speed is reduced to
10 km per hour.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
5. The velocity V (in m/s) of a ball thrown upward t seconds after the ball was thrown is given
by V(t) = 20 – 9.8t. Calculate V(0) and V(1), and explain what these results mean.

Solution. V(0) = 20 – 9.8(0) = 20 and V(1) = 20 – 9.8(1) = 10.2. These results indicate that the
initial velocity of the ball is 20 m/s. After 1 second, the ball is traveling more slowly, at 10.2 m/s.

11
Lesson 2 Supplementary Exercises

1. Evaluate the following functions at

(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)

2. Given

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(e)

3. Given Solve for

(a)
(b)
Is the same as

4. A computer shop charges P20.00 per hour (or a fraction of an hour) for the first two hours and
an additional P10.00 per hour for each succeeding hour. Find how much you would pay if you
used one of their computers for: (a) 40 minutes (b) 3 hours (c) 150 minutes

5. Under certain circumstances, a rumor spreads according to the equation

where p(t) is the proportion of the population that knows the rumor (t) days after the rumor
started. Find p(4) and p(10), and interpret the results.

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to perform addition,
subtraction, multiplication, division, composition of functions, and solve problems involving
functions.

Lesson Outline:

1. Review: Operations on algebraic expressions

2. Addition, subtraction, multiplication, and division of functions
3. Function composition

Addition and Subtraction:

(a) Find the least common denominator (LCD) of both fractions.

(b) Rewrite the fractions as equivalent fractions with the same LCD.
(c) The LCD is the denominator of the resulting fraction.
(d) The sum or difference of the numerators is the numerator of the resulting fraction.

1 2
Example 1. Find the sum of and .
3 5

Solution. The LCD of the two fractions is 15.

1 2
Example 2. Find the sum of and .
x−3 x−5

Solution. The LCD of the two fractions is (x - 3)(x- 5) or x2 - 8x + 15 .

Multiplication:
(a) Rewrite the numerator and denominator in terms of its prime factors.
(b) Common factors in the numerator and denominator can be simplified as “1” (this is often
called “cancelling”).
(c) Multiply the numerators together to get the new numerator.
(d) Multiply the denominators together to get the new denominator.

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10 15
Example 3. Find the product of and . Use cancellation of factors when convenient.
21 8

Solution. Express the numerators and denominators of the two fractions into their prime factors.
Multiply and cancel out common factors in the numerator and the denominator to reduce the
final answer to lowest terms.

Example 4. Find the product of

Solution. Express the numerators and denominators of the two rational expressions into their
prime factors. Multiply and cancel out common factors in the numerator and the denominator to
reduce the final answer to lowest terms. Note the similarity in the process between this example
and the previous one on fractions.

Division:
To divide two fractions or rational expressions, multiply the dividend with the reciprocal of the
divisor.

Definition. Let f and g be functions.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
1. Their sum, denoted by f + g, is the function denoted by ( f + g) = f(x) + g(x).
2. Their difference, denoted by f - g, is the function denoted by ( f - g) = f(x) - g(x).
3. Their product, denoted by f * g, is the function denoted by ( f * g) = f(x) * g(x).
4. Their quotient, denoted by f /g, is the function denoted by ( f / g) = f(x) / g(x), excluding the
values of x where g(x) = 0.

14
Use the following functions below for Example 5.

Example 5. Determine the following functions.

Solution.

Use the following functions for Examples 6-12:

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Example 6. Express the function f1(x) = x2 + 3 as a sum or difference of the functions above.

Solution.

The solution can involve some trial and error. Add q(x) and f(x) and check if the sum is x2 +3.

Thus

15
Example 7. Express the function f2(x) = x - 4x +1 as the sum or difference of the given
2

functions.

Solution.

Again, the solution can involve trial and error. Check if q(x) - f(x) gives x2 - 4x +1.

Thus

Thus f2 (x )= q(x) - f(x).

Example 8. Express the function as a sum or difference of the given

functions.

Solution.

Because has as a denominator, then must be one of the

functions in our solution. Let us try to add and :

=
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Example 9. Write down the answers from the previous items in the notation denoted in the
definitions.

Solution

(a)
(b)
(c)

Example 10 .Express the function as a product or quotient of

the given functions.

Solution.

since is cubic, then it is possibly the product of and

\\
=

Thus,

16
Example 11. Express the function as a product or quotient of the given
functions.

Solution.

The function involves The goal is to "get rid" of This can be

done by dividing by

Thus,

Example Express the function as a product or quotient of the given

functions.

Solution.

The function is very similar to . The goal is to "get rid" of

This can be done by dividing by

Thus,
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Definition. Let and be functions. The composite function denoted by is defined by
. The process of obtaining a composite function is called function
composition.

For examples 13 to use the following functions:

Example 13. Find and simplify

Solution.

Example 14. Find and simplify

Solution:
= = =
=

17
Example 15 .Find and simplify

Solution.

= = =

Example 16. Find and simplify

Solution.

Solved Examples

1. Let . Find:

(a)
(b)

(e)

2. Let Find:

(a)
(b)
(c)
Solution.
(a)

18
(b)

(c)

3. Express the following functions as the sum, difference, quotient, or product of

and
(a)
(b)
(c)

(d)

Solution.
(a)
(b)

(c )

(d)

4. Suppose that denotes the number of shirts sold by a shop, and the selling price per
shirt is given by for Find
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
and describe what it represents.

Solution. . since
this function is the product of the quantity sold and the selling price, then represents
the revenue earned by the company.

5. A spherical balloon is being inflated. Let cm represent its radius at time seconds,

and let be the volume of the same balloon if its radius is

Write in terms of and describe what it represents.

Solution. This function represents the volume

of the balloon at time seconds.

Lesson 3 Supplementary Exercises

1. Let and be defined as and Find
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
(e)
19
2. Let and be defined as in the previous example. Express the following functions as the sum,
difference, quotient, or product of and g.

(a)
(b)

(c)

(d)

(e)

3. Let and . Find

(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)
4. Given the following, find .
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

5. Suppose that denotes the number of bags sold by a shop, and the selling price per
bag is given by for Suppose further that the cost of producing
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
bags is given by Find and What do these
functions represent?

6. Let x represent the regular price of a book.

a) Give a function that represents the price of the book if a price reduction
applies.
b) Give a function that represents the price of the book if a discount applies.
c) Compute and . Describe what these mean. Which of these give a
better deal for the customer?

20
Lesson 4: Representing Real-Life Situations Using Rational Functions

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to represent real-life
situations rational functions.

Lesson Outline:

1. Review: Polynomial functions

2. Rational functions and real-life situations

Recall the definition of a polynomial function.

Definition: A polynomial function p of degree n is a function that can be written in the form

where and is a positive integer. Each addend of the sum is a

term of the polynomial function. The constants are the coefficients. The
leading coefficient is The leading term is and the constant term is .

Definition: A rational function is a function of the form where and are

polynomial functions and is not the zero function (i.e., . The domain of is
the set of all values of where

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Example 1. An object is to travel a distance of 10 meters. Express velocity v as a function of
travel time t, in seconds. Solution.

The following table of values show v for various values of t.

t (seconds) 1 2 4 5 10

v (meters per second) 10 5 2.5 2 1

The function can represent as a function of

Example 2. Suppose that (in ) represents the concentration of a drug in

a patient's bloodstream t hours after the drug was administered. Construct a table of values for
for Round off answers to three decimal places. Use the table to sketch a
graph and interpret the results.

Solution.

t 0 1 2 5 10

c(t) 0 2.5 3 0.962 0.495

The graph indicates that the maximum drug concentration occurs around 1 hour after the drug
was administered (calculus can be used to determine the exact value at which the maximum
occurs). After 1 hour, the graph suggests that drug concentration decreases until it is almost zero.

Solved Examples

1. In an organ pipe, the frequency f of vibration of air is inversely proportional to the length L of
the pipe.1 Suppose that the frequency of vibration in a 10-foot pipe is 54 vibrations per second.
Express f as a function of L.

If then Thus, Thus, the function

represents f as a function of .

2. The distance from Manila to Baguio is around 250 kilometers.

(a) How long will it take you to get to Baguio if your average speed is 25 kilometers per
hour? 40 kilometers per hour? 50 kilometers per hour?
(b) Construct a function where is the speed of travel, that describes the time it takes
to drive from Manila to Baguio.

1
Barnett, R.A., Ziegler, M.R., Byleen, K.E., &Sobecki, D. (2008). Precalculus(7th ed). New
York: McGraw Hill.

22
Solution.

(a) Distance is calculated as the product of speed and time. So we can get the time by dividing
distance by the speed.

250 kilometers/ 25 kilometers per hour = 10 hours

250 kilometers/ 40 kilometers per hour = 6.25 hours
250 kilometers/ 50 kilometers per hour = 5 hours

(b) Since time is the quotient of distance and speed, we can write out the function as

The distance is fixed at 250 kilometers so the final function we have is

Lesson 4 Supplementary Exercises

1. Given the polynomial function find
(a) The degree of the polynomial
(b) The leading coefficient
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
(c) The constant term
(d) The number of zeroes

2. The budget of a university organization is split evenly among its various committees. If they
have a budget of :
(a) Construct a function which would give the amount of money each of the
number of committees would receive.
(b) If the organization has eight committees, how much would each committee have?

3. A company has a budget of to be split evenly among its various offices. The
marketing office of the company receives twice the amount of money than the other offices.
(a) Given as the number of offices in the company, construct a function which
would give the amount of money each of the non-marketing offices would receive.
(b) If the company had five offices, how much would the marketing office receive? How
much would each of the non-marketing offices receive?

4. Let be the function that describes the concentration of a certain medication in

the bloodstream over time .
(a) What is C(0)? Why is that so?
(b) Construct a table of values for when t is equal to 0,1,2,3,4, and 5.
(c) Interpret your answers in relation to drug concentration.

23
Lesson 5: Rational Functions, Equations, and Inequalities

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to distinguish among rational
functions, rational equations, and rational inequalities

Lesson Outline: 1.
Rational functions, rational equations, and rational inequalities

Definition: A rational expression is an expression that can be written as a ratio of two

polynomials.

Some examples of rational expressions are

The definitions of rational equations, inequalities, and functions are shown below.
Rational Inequality Rational Function

Definition An equation An inequality A function of the

involving rational involving rational
expressions. expressions. form
where and
are polynomial
functions and is
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
not the zero function

Example

A rational equation or inequality can be solved for all x values that satisfy the equation or
inequality. A rational function expresses a relationship between two variables (such as x and y),
and can be represented by a table of values or a graph (Lessons 6-7).

Solved Examples
Determine whether the given is a rational function, a rational equation, a rational inequality or
none of these.

1. (Answer: Rational equation)

2. (Answer: None of these)

3. (Answer: Rational Function)

4. (Answer: Rational Inequality)

5. (Answer: Rational equation)

24
Lesson 5 Supplementary Exercises

Determine whether the given is a rational function, a rational equation, a rational inequality or
none of these. 1. 3.

1. 3. 5.

2. 4. 6.

Lesson 6: Solving Rational Equations and Inequalities

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to solve rational equations
and inequalities, and solve problems involving rational equations and inequalities.

Lesson Outline:

1. Solving rational equations.

2. Solving rational inequalities.
3. Solving word problems involving rational equations or inequalities.
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
To solve a rational equation:

(a) Eliminate denominators by multiplying each term of the equation by the least common
denominator.
(b) Note that eliminating denominators may introduce extraneous solutions. Check the solutions
of the transformed equations with the original equation.

Example Solve for

Solution. The LCD of all the denominators is . Multiply both sides of the equation by
and solve the resolving equation.

Example 2. Solve for

Solution. Factor each denominator in the rational expression.

Multiply the LCD to both sides of the equation to remove the denominators.

Upon reaching this step, we can use strategies for solving polynomial equations.

Example 3. In an inter-barangay basketball league, the team from Barangay Culiat has won 12
out of 25 games, a winning percentage of 48%. How many games should they win in a row to
improve their win percentage to 60%

Solution. Let represent the number of games that they need to win to raise their percentage to
The team has already won 12 out of their 25 games. If they win games in a row to
increase their percentage to then they would have played games out of their

games. The equation is Multiply to both sides of the equation and

solve the resulting equation.

Therefore, Barangay Culiat needs to win 8 games in a row to raise their winning percentage to
60%.

26
Example 4. Jens walks 5 kilometers from his house to Quiapo to buy a new bike which he uses
to return home. He averaged 10 kilometers faster on his bike than on foot. If his total trip took 1

hour and 20 minutes, what is his walking speed in kph? Use the formula

Solution. Using the formula we derive the formula for the time . Let be Jens'

walking speed. Then is his speed on his new bike. Jens' walking time is and his biking

time is

The equation now becomes

Multiply both sides of the equation by the LCD and solve the resulting equation.

To solve rational inequalities:

(a) Rewrite the inequality as a single rational expression on one side of the inequality symbol
and 0 on the other side.
(b) Determine over what intervals the rational expression takes on positive and negative values.

i. Locate the x values for which the rational expression is zero or undefined
(factoring the numerator and denominator is a useful strategy).
ii. Mark the numbers found in (i) on a number line. Use a shaded circle to indicate
that the value is included in the solution set, and a hollow circle to indicate that the value
is excluded. These numbers partition the number line into intervals.
iii. Select a test point within the interior of each interval in (ii). The sign of the
rational expression at this test point is also the sign of the rational expression at each
interior point in the aforementioned interval.
iv. Summarize the intervals containing the solutions.

27
Warning! Multiplying both sides of an inequality by a number requires that the sign (positive
or negative) of the number is known. Since the sign of a variable is unknown, it is not valid to
multiply both sides of an inequality by a variable.

Example 6. Solve the inequality

Solution.
(a) Rewrite the inequality as a single rational expression.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
(b) The rational expression will be zero for and undefined for The value is
included while is not. Mark these on the number line. Use a shaded circle for (a
solution) and an unshaded circle for (not a solution).

in these intervals. Construct a table of signs as shown below.

Interval

Test Point

- - +

- + +

+ - +

(d) since we are looking for the intervals where the rational expression is positive or zero, we
determine the solution to be the set Plot this set on the number
line.

Example 7. Solve the inequality

(a) Rewrite the inequality with zero on one side.

(b) The rational expression will be zero for and undefined for 0 and 2 . Plot these points
on a number line. Use hollow circles since these values are not part of the solution.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
(c) Construct a table of signs to determine the sign of the function in each interval determined by
–1, 0, and 2.

Interval

Test Point

- + + +

- - + +

- - - +

- + - +

(d) Summarize the intervals satisfying the inequality. The solution set of the inequality is the set
. Plot this set on the number line.

29
Example 8. A box with a square base is to have a volume of 8 cubic meters. Let x be the length
of the side of the square base and h be the height of the box. What are the possible measurements
of a side of the square base if the height should be longer than a side of the square base?

Solution. The volume of a rectangular box is the product of its width, length, and height. Since
the base of the box is square, its width and length are equal.

The variable is the length of a side of the box, while is its height. The equation relating and
is Expressing in terms of we obtain

since the height is greater than the width, and our inequality is

(a) To solve this inequality, we begin by rewriting it with zero on one side:
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
(b) The rational expression will be zero for and undefined for Plot on a number
line and use hollow circles since these values are not part of the solution.

(c) Construct a table of signs to determine the sign of the function in each interval determined by
0 and Note that is positive for any real values of
Interval

Test point

+ + -

+ + +

+ + -

(d) Since the rational expression is positive in the interval 0 < x < 2, this is the solution set of the
inequality. We reject the interval x < 0 even if the expression is positive here since we only
consider positive values of x for this problem.

Therefore the height of the box should be less than 2 meters.

Example 9. A dressmaker ordered several meters of red cloth from a vendor, but the vendor only
had 4 meters of red cloth in stock. The vendor bought the remaining lengths of red cloth from a
wholesaler for P1,120.00. He then sold those lengths of red cloth to the dressmaker along with
the original 4 meters of

30
cloth for a total of P1,600.00. If the vendor's price per meter is at least P10.00 more than the
wholesaler's price per meter, how many additional meters of red cloth did the vendor purchase
from the wholesaler?

Solution. Let the variable x be the length of the additional cloth purchased by the vendor from
the wholesaler.

The wholesaler's price of red cloth per meter can be expressed as . The vendor's price of red

cloth per meter can be expressed as

If the vendor sold his cloth to the dressmaker at a price that is at least more per meter,
the inequality can be written as

(b) The rational expression will be zero for x = 16 and x = 28 and undefined for x = 0 and x = 4.
Plot on a number line and use hollow circles since these values are not part of the solution set.
The figure below is not drawn to scale.

31
Interval

Test point

- - - + +

- - - - +

- - + + +

- + + + +

+ - + - +

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
(d) The rational expression is negative in the interval -4 < x < 0 and in the interval 16 < x < 28.
However, since we are dealing with lengths of cloth, we discard the interval where the length is
negative. Also, the rational expression is 0 when x = 16 and x = 28. Therefore the vendor bought
and sold an additional length of red cloth from 16 – 28 meters to the dressmaker.

Solved Examples

1. Solve for

Solution. The LCD is Multiplying both sides of the equation by the LCD
results in:

Therefore, or . since will make the original equation undefined, the only
solution is

2. Solve for
Solution.

(a) Rewrite the equation with zero on one side

32
(b) The rational expression will be zero for x = -4 and undefined for x = 1. Plot the points on a
number line and use hollow circles since these values are not part of the solution set.

(c) Construct a table of signs to determine the sign of the function in each interval determined by
the values above.
Interval

Test Point

- + +

- - +

(d) We are looking for the intervals where the function will be negative. The solution set is given
by . The graph is shown below.

3. Solve for

Solution.

(a) Rewrite the equation with zero on one side

(b) The rational expression will be zero for and undefined for and

Mark these on the number line where is included while the others are not.

33
(c) Construct a table of signs to determine the sign of the function in each interval determined by
the values above.

Interval

Test Point

- + + +

- - + +

- - - +

(d) The solution set of the inequality is given by }

Lesson 6 Supplementary Exercises

1. Solve for

2. Solve for

3. Solve for

4. Solve for

5. Solve for

6. If a and b are real numbers such that , find the solution set .

7. You have 6 liters of a pineapple juice blend that has 50% pure pineapple juice. How many
liters of pure pineapple juice needs to be added to make a juice blend that is 75% pineapple
juice?

8. Two ships traveling from Dumaguete to Cagayan de Oro differ in average speed by 10 kph.
The slower ship takes 3 hours longer to travel a 240-kilometer route than for the faster ship to
travel a 200-kilometer route. Find the speed of the slower ship.

34
Lesson 7: Representations of Rational Functions

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to represent a rational
function through its table of values, graphs and equation, and solve problems involving rational
functions.

Lesson Outline:

1. Table of values, graphs and equations as representations of a rational function.

2. Rational functions as representations of real-life situations

Average speed (or velocity) can be computed by the formula Consider a 100-meter
track used for foot races. The speed of a runner can be computed by taking the time for him to

run the track and applying it to the formula , since the distance is fixed at 100 meters.

Example 1. Represent the speed of a runner as a function of the time it takes to run 100 meters
in the track.

Solution. since the speed of a runner depends on the time it takes to run 100 meters, we can
represent speed as a function of time.

Let represent the time it takes to run 100 meters. Then the speed can be represented as a
function as follows:

Observe that it is similar to the structure to the formula relating speed, distance, and time.

Example 2. Continuing the scenario above, construct a table of values for the speed of a runner
against different run times.

Solution. A table of values can help us determine the behavior of a function as the variable
changes.

The current world record (as of October 2015 ) for the 100 -meter dash is 9.58 seconds set by the
Jamaican Usain Bolt in We start our table of values at 10 seconds.

35
Let be the runtime and be the speed of the runner in meters per second, where

The table of values for run times from 10 seconds to 20 seconds is as follows:

x 10 12 14 16 18 20

s(x) 10 8.33 7.14 6.25 5.56 5

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From the table we can observe that the speed decreases with time. We can use a graph to
determine if the points on the function follow a smooth curve or a straight line.

Example 3. Plot the points on the table of values on a Cartesian plane. Determine if the points on

the function follow a smooth curve or a straight line.

Solution. Assign points on the Cartesian plane for each entry on the table of values above:

A(10,10) B(12,8.33) C(14, 7.14) D(16, 6.25) E(18,5.56) F(20,5)

Plot these points on the Cartesian plane:

By connecting the points, we can see that they are not collinear but rather follows a smooth
curve.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
For the 100-meter dash scenario, we have constructed a function of speed against time, and
represented our function with a table of values and a graph.

The previous example is based on a real world scenario and has limitations on the values of the
x-variable. For example, a runner cannot have negative time (which would mean he is running
backwards in time!), nor can he exceed the limits of human physiology (can a person run 100-
meters in 5 seconds?). However, we can apply the skills of constructing tables of values and
plotting graphs to observe the behavior of rational functions.

Example 4. Represent the rational function given by using a table of values and
plot a graph of the function by connecting points.

Solution. Since we are now considering functions in general, we can find function values across
more values of x. Let us construct a table of values for some x-values from -10 to 10:

x -10 -8 -6 -4 -2 0 2 4 6 8 10

f(x) 1.22 1.29 1.4 1.67 3 -1 0.33 0.6 0.71 0.78 0.82

Plotting the points on a Cartesian plane we get:

Why would the graph unexpectedly break the smooth curve and jump from point E to point F?
The answer is that it doesn’t! Let us take a look at the function again:

Observe that the function will be undefined at . This means that there cannot be a line
connecting point and point as this implies that there is a point in the graph of the function
where We will cover this aspect of graphs of rational functions in a future lesson, so for
now we just present a partial graph for the function above as follows:

Example 5. Represent the rational function using a table of values. Plot

the points given in the table of values and sketch a graph by connecting the points.

Solution. As we have seen in the previous example, we will need to take a look at the -values
which will make the denominator zero. In this function, will make the denominator zero.
Taking function values for integers in- we get the following table of values:

x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

f(x) -6 -4.5 -2.67 0 6 -12 -6 -3.33 -1,5 0 1.33 2.57 3.75 4.89 6

We connect the dots to sketch the graph, but we keep in mind that is not part of the
domain. For now we only connect those with values and those with values

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Note that and are zeroes of the rational function, which means that the function
value at these values is zero. These -values give the -intercepts of the graph.

39
The behavior of the function near those values which make the function undefined will be
studied in the next few lessons.

Example 6. In an inter-barangay basketball league, the team from Barangay Culiat has won 12
out of 25 games, a winning percentage of 48%. We have seen that they need to win 89 games
consecutively to raise their percentage to at least 60%. What will be their winning percentage if
they win:

(a) 10 games in a row?

(b) 15? 20? 30? 50? 100 games?
(c) Can they reach a 100% winning percentage?

Solution. Let be the number of wins the Barangay Culiat needs to win in a row. Then the
percentage is a function of the number of wins that the team needs to win. The function can be
written as:

Construct a table of values for

x 10 15 20 30 50 100 200 300

p(x) 0.63 0.68 0.71 0.76 0.83 0.90 0.94 0.96

8 60%
10 63%
15 68%
20 71%
30 76%
50 83%
100 90%
200 94%
300 96%

Even if the team wins 300 consecutive games, the team still cannot reach a winning
percentage. Note that the denominator is greater than the numerator, so cannot be
achieved. This is reasonable, since the team has lost 13 games already, so they cannot be
"perfect".

Example 7. Ten goats were set loose in an island and their population growth can be

approximated by the function

where represents the goat population in year since they were set loose. Recall that the symbol
. ] denotes the greatest integer function.

(a) How many goats will there be after 5 years?

(b) What is the maximum goat population that the island can support?

40
Solution.

(a) Evaluate the function for

There will be 32 goats after 5 years.

(b) Construct a table of values for

t 5 10 15 20 50 300 1000

p(t) 32 41 45 48 54 59 59

Observe that even if t increase, the function does not exceed 59. The model suggests that the
island can only support up to 59 goats. (Note that since the model is just an approximation, there
may be errors and the number 59 may not be exact).

Solved Examples

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
1. Given
(a) Construct a table of values using the numbers from -2 to 8 .
(b) Plot the points in the Cartesian plane and determine whether the points form a smooth
curve or a straight line.

Solution.

(a)
x -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8

f(x) -2 -2.5 -3.3 -5 -10 Und. 10 5 3.3 2.5 2

(b) Plotting the points, we get the following:

41
Connecting the points, we get the following graph which forms two different smooth curves.

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2. Using integer values from to -5, find the interval where the smooth curve of the following
functions will disconnect:

(a)

(b)
Solution.

a.)
x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

f(x) -0.66 -0.8 -1 -1.33 -2 -4 und 4 2 1.33 1

Constructing the table of values, we see that the function is undefined at If we plot
the points and connect them, we will see that we can only connect those with values and
those with values

So we can say that it disconnects at the interval (0,2).

(b)

x -5 -4 -3 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 5

g(x) 2 2.33 3 5 und -3 -1 -0.33 0 0.8 0.33

Similar to letter (a), we see that is undefined at It disconnects at the interval (-

2,0).

42
3. A hypothetical function representing the concentration of a drug in a patient's bloodstream

over time (in hours) is given as

(a) Construct a table of values.

(b) Plot the points in a Cartesian plane and connect them.
(c) What can you say about the function?

Solution.

(a) Since t is in time, we can only use non-negative values for it. Using the first ten whole
numbers, we get
t 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

c(t) 0 2.5 2 1.5 1.18 0.96 0.81 0.7 0.62 0.55

(c) At t = 0, the concentration is zero since the drug has not entered the bloodstream yet. It shoots
up at t = 1 but it starts decreasing after that.

Lesson 7 Supplementary Exercises

1. Construct a table of values for the following functions using the integers from
-4 to 4

(a) (b)
2. Using the table of values you got from the previous question, plot and connect the points of
(c) (e)
3. A certain invasive species of fish was introduced in a small lake and their population growth
can be modeled with time by the function

(a) Construct a table of values

(b) Is their population approaching a specific value?

43
Lesson 8: Graphing Rational Functions

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to find the
domain and range, intercepts, zeroes, asymptotes of rational functions, graph
rational functions, and solve problems involving rational functions.

Lesson Outline:

1. Domain and range of rational functions.

2. Intercepts and zeroes of rational functions.
3. Vertical and horizontal asymptotes of rational functions.
4. Graphs of rational functions

Recall:

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
(a) The domain of a function is the set of all values that the variable x can take.
(b) The range of the function is the set of all values that f(x) will take.
(c) The zeroes of a function are the values of x which make the function zero.
The real numbered zeroes are also x-intercepts of the graph of the function.
(d) The y-intercept is the function value when x=0.

Example 1 . Consider the function . (a) Find its domain, (b) intercepts, (c) sketch
its graph and (d) determine its range.

Solution.

(a) The domain of is

Observe that the function is undefined at This means that is not part of the
domain of . In addition, other values of will make the function undefined.

(b) The x-intercept of is 2 and its -intercept is -1

Recall that the -intercepts of a rational function are the values of that will make the function
zero. A rational function will be zero if its numerator is zero. Therefore the zeroes of a rational
function are the zeroes of its numerator. The numerator will be zero at . Therefore
is a zero of . since it is a real zero, it is also an x-intercept. The y-intercept of a

function is equal to In this case,

(c) In sketching the graph of , let us look at what happens to the graph near the
values of which makes the denominator undefined. Recall that in the previous lesson, we
simply skipped connecting the points at integer values. Let us see what happens when takes on
values that brings the denominator closer to zero.

The denominator is zero when Let us look at the values of close to -2 on its left side
(i.e. and values of close to -2 on its right side (i.e.

44
I. Table of values for approaching
x –3 –2.5 –2.1 –2.01 –2.001 –2.0001 As x approaches –2

f(x) 5 9 41 401 4001 40001 f(x) increases

without bound.

Notation. We use the notation as to indicate that increases

without bound as approaches -2 from the left.

ii. Table of values for approaching

x –1 –1.5 –1.9 –1.99 –1.999 –1.9999 As approaches

Notation. We use the notation "f as to indicate that decreases

without bound as approaches -2 from the right.

Plotting the points corresponding to these values on the Cartesian plane:

Figure 2.3 Note that the axes do not have the same scale.

Observe that as x approaches –2 from the left and from the right, f(x) gets closer and closer to the
line x = –2, indicated in the figure with a dashed line.

We call this line a vertical asymptote, formally defined as follows:

Definition. The vertical line x = a is a vertical asymptote of a function f if the graph of f either
increases or decreases without bound as the x-values approach a from the right or left.

45
Finding the Vertical Asymptotes of a Rational Function

● Find the values of a where the denominator is zero.

● If this value of a does not make the numerator zero, then the line x = a is a vertical
asymptote.

We will also look how the function behaves as x increases or decreases without bound.

We first construct a table of values for as increases without bound, or in symbols, as

0.43 0.67 0.96 0.9960 0.99960 approaches

Next, construct a table of values for as decreases without bound, or in symbols,

iv. Table of values for as

-5 -10 -100 -1,000 -10,000 As

2.33 1.41 1.041 1.00401 1.0004001 approaches

Plotting the points according to these on the Cartesian Plane:

Figure 2.4: Note that the axes do not have the same scale.

Observe that as x increases or decreases without bound, f(x) gets closer and closer to 1. The line
y= 1 is indicated in the figure with a dashed line.

We call this line a horizontal asymptote, formally defined as follows:

46
Definition. The horizontal line is a horizontal asymptote of the function if gets
closer to as increases or decreases without bound

A rational function may or may not cross its horizontal asymptote. If the function does not cross
the horizontal asymptote then is not part of the range of the rational function.

Now that we know the behavior of the function as approaches -2 (where the function is not
defined), and also as or we can complete the sketch of the graph by
looking at the behavior of the graph at the zeroes.
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Construct a table of signs to determine the sign of the function on the intervals determined by the
zeroes and the intercepts. Refer to the lesson on rational inequalities for the steps in constructing
a table of signs:

Interval

Test point

Test with the rational function

The boundary between the intervals and is a zero. since the function is
positive on the left of 2 and negative on the right, the function transitions from positive to
negative at

Plot the zeroes, y-intercept, and the asymptotes. From the table of signs and the previous graphs,
we know that as Draw a short segment across (2,0) to indicate that the
function transitions from negative to positive at this point.

We also know that increases without bound as and decreases without

bound as . Sketch some arrows near the asymptote to indicate this information.

Figure 2.5 Zeroes and asymptotes of f(x).

47
Trace the arrowheads along with the intercepts using smooth curves. Do not cross the vertical
asymptote.

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(d) From the graph of the rational function, we observe that the function does not cross the
horizontal asymptote. We also observe that the function increases and decreases without bound,
and is asymptotic to the line y = 1. Therefore only the value 1 is not included in the range of f(x).

The range of is

Example 2. Find the horizontal asymptote of

Solution. We have seen from the previous example that the horizontal asymptotes can be
determined by looking at the behavior of rational functions when is very large (i.e., at extreme
values of ).

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48
However, at extreme values of the value of a polynomial can be approximated using the value
of the leading term.

For example, if the value of is A good approximation is

the value of which is 4,000,000 .

Similarly, for extreme values of the value of can be approximated by Thus,

for extreme values of then can be approximated by and therefore

approaches 4 for extreme values of

This means that we have a horizontal asymptote at

Example 3. Find the horizontal asymptote of

Solution. Following the idea from the previous example, the value of can be

approximated by for extreme values of

Thus, the horizontal asymptote is

Example 4. Find the horizontal asymptote of

Solution. Again, based on the idea from the previous example, the value of can

be approximated by for extreme values of

If we substitute extreme values of in we obtain values very close to 0.

Thus, the horizontal asymptote is .

Example 5. Show that can be approximated by

If we substitute extreme values of in we obtain extreme values as well.

Thus, if takes on extreme values, then also takes on extreme values and does not approach a
particular finite number. The function has no horizontal asymptote.

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49
We summarize the results from the previous examples as follows:
Finding the Horizontal Asymptotes of a Rational Function
Let be the degree of the numerator and be the degree of the denominator.
● If the horizontal asymptote is

● If the horizontal asymptote is where is the leading coefficient of the

numerator and is the leading coefficient of the denominator.
● If there is no horizontal asymptote.

Properties of rational functions:

How to find the: Do the following:

y-intercept Evaluate the function at x = 0

x-intercept Find the values of x where the numerator will

be zero.

Vertical asymptotes Find the values of a where the denominator is

zero. If this value of a does not make the
numerator zero, then the line x = a is a vertical
asymptote.

Horizontal asymptotes Let n be the degree of the numerator and m

the degree of the denominator

● If the horizontal asymptote is

where a is the leading

coefficient of the numerator and is
the leading coefficient of the
denominator.
● If there is no horizontal
asymptote.

Example 6. Sketch the graph of . Find its domain and range.

Solution. The numerator and denominator of can be factored as follows:

● -intercept:

● zeroes:

● vertical asymptotes: and

● horizontal asymptote: The polynomials in the numerator and denominator have equal

degree. The horizontal asymptote is the ratio of the leading coefficients:

Plot the intercepts and asymptotes on the Cartesian plane:

Construct a table of signs for the following intervals defined by the zeroes and the values where
the denominator will be zero:

●
●

Draw sections of the graph through the zeroes indicating the correct transition based on the table
of signs.

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52
Draw sections of the graph near the asymptotes based on the transition indicated on the table of
signs.

Complete the sketch by connecting the arrowheads, making sure that the sketch passes through
the y-intercept as well. The sketch should follow the horizontal asymptote as the x-values goes to
the extreme left and right of the Cartesian plane.

The domain of the function is all values of not including those where the function is undefined.

Therefore the domain of is

From the graph of the function, we observe that the function increases and decreases without
bound. The graph also crosses the horizontal asymptote. Therefore the range of the function is
the set of all real numbers.

Solved Examples

1. Let (a) Find its domain, (b) intercepts, (c) asymptotes. Next, (d) sketch its
graph and (e) determine its range.

Solution.

(a) The domain of is

(b) The x-intercept is -5 and its y-intercept is -5 .
(c) The vertical asymptote is . The degree of the numerator is equal to the degree of the
denominator. The horizontal asymptote is
(d) The table of signs is shown below.

(d) Based on the graph, the range of the function is

2. Let . Find its domain, (b) intercepts, (c) asymptotes. Next, (d) sketch its
graph.

Solution.

(a) The domain of is

(b) The x-intercept is -3 and its y-intercept is -1
(c) The vertical asymptotes are and . The degree of the numerator is less than the
degree of the denominator. The horizontal asymptote is .
(d) The table of signs is shown below.

Observe that the graph approaches the horizontal asymptote as increases or decreases
without bound. Calculus is needed to determine the range of this function.

3.Past records from a factory suggest that new employees can assemble components per

day after days of being on the job, where Sketch the graph of . Identify
the horizontal asymptote of , and discuss its meaning in practical terms.

Solution.

(a) The domain of as stated in the problem, is (Negative values of are

not allowed because refers to a number of days).
(b) The t-intercept is 0 and the -intercept is 0 .
(c) There is no vertical asymptote in the stated domain. The degree of the numerator and
denominator are equal. The horizontal asymptote is
(d) The table of signs is shown below.

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As a person gains experience on the job, he or she works faster, but the maximum number of
items that can be assembled cannot exceed 75.

56
Lesson 8 Supplementary Exercises

1. Find all asymptotes of

2. Explain why the function is not asymptotic to the line Sketch the
graph of this function.

3. Sketch the graph of and give its domain, intercepts, asymptotes, and range.

4. Sketch the graph of and give its domain, intercepts, and asymptotes.

5. After a drug is injected into a patient's bloodstream, the concentration c of the drug in the

bloodstream t minutes after the injection is given by Sketch the graph of

c. Identify the horizontal asymptote of and discuss its meaning in practical terms.

6. challenging riddle. I am a rational function having a vertical asymptote at the lines

and and a horizontal asymptote at If my only intercept is and y-
intercept is what function

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57
Lessons 1-8 Topic Test 1
1. True or False [6]
(a) A function is a set of ordered pairs such that no two ordered pairs have the same
-value but different -values
(b) The leading coefficient of is 3 .
(c) In a rational function, If the degree of the numerator is the smaller than the degree of
the denominator then there is an asymptote at .

2. Give the domain of using set builder notation. [4]

3. Given what is [5]

4. Given and , find: [15]

(a)
(b)
(c)

5. Is the solution set of in set builder notation ? Explain. [5]

6. Identify the zeroes of the function . For what values will the function
be undefined? [10]

7. Identify the asymptotes of the graph below. [5]

1. A part-time job gives you an hourly wage of . If you work for more than 40 hours per
week, you get an overtime pay that is 1.5 times your normal hourly wage. Write a piecewise
function that gives your weekly pay in terms of the number of hours you worked that
week. [10]

2. Given the piecewise function

[5]
at the following values of :
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

3. Let and find

[10]

4. Solve for [10]

6. Find the asymptotes of [5]

59
Lesson 9: One-to-One functions

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to represent reallife situations
using one-to-one functions.

Lesson Outline:

1. One-to-one functions
2. Examples of real-life situations represented by one-to-one functions.
3. Horizontal line test.

Definition: The function is one-to-one if for any in the domain of then

That is, the same -value is never paired with two different -Values.

In Examples 1-5, determine whether the given relation is a function. If it is a function,

determine whether it is one-to-one or not.

Example 1. The relation pairing an SSS member to his or her SSS number

Solution. Each SSS member is assigned to a unique SSS number. Thus, the
relation is a function. Further, two different members cannot be assigned the same
SSS number. Thus, the function is one-to-one.
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Example 2. The relation pairing a real number to its square.

Solution. Each real number has a unique perfect square. Thus, the relation is a
function. However, two different real numbers such as 2 and –2 may have the same
square. Thus, the function is not one-to-one.

Example 3. The relation pairing an airport to its airport code

Airport codes are three letter codes used to uniquely identify airports around the
world and prominently displayed on checked-in bags to denote the destination of
these bags. Here are some examples of airport codes:

● MNL – Ninoy Aquino International Airport (All terminals)

● CEB – Mactan-Cebu International Airport
● DVO – Francisco Bangoy International Airport (Davao)
● JFK – John F. Kennedy International Airport (New York City
● CDG – Charles de Gaulle International Airport (Paris, France)

Airport codes can be looked up at https://www.world-airport-codes.com

Solution. Since each airport has a unique airport code, then the relation is a
function. Also, since no two airports share the same airport code, then the function is
one-to-one.

60
Example 4. The relation pairing a person to his or her citizenship.

Solution. The relation is not a function because a person can have dual citizenship
(i.e., citizenship is not unique).

Example 5. The relation pairing a distance d (in kilometers) traveled along a given
jeepney route to the jeepney fare for traveling that distance.

Solution. The relation is a function since each distance traveled along a given
jeepney route has an official fare. In fact, as shown in Lesson 1, the jeepney fare
may be represented by a piecewise function, as shown below:

Note that is the floor or greatest integer function applied to .

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However, the function is not one-to-one because different distances (e.g., 2, 3 or 4 kilometers)
are charged the same rate That is, because then is
not one-to-one.

A simple way to determine if a given graph is that of a one-to-one function is by using the
Horizontal Line Test.

Horizontal Line Test. A function is one-to-one if each horizontal line does not intersect the
graph at more than one point.

A graph showing the plot of fails the horizontal line test because some lines
intersect the graph at more than one point.

The Vertical and Horizontal Line Tests. All functions satisfy the vertical line test.
All one-to-one functions satisfy both the vertical and horizontal line tests.

Solved Examples

1. Which of the following are one-to-one functions?

(a) Books to authors
(b) SIM cards to cell phone numbers
(c) True or False questions to answers

Solution.

Only b is a one-to-one function. Books can have multiple authors that wrote the
book. A true or false question has only one answer so it is a function but a “True”
answer can correspond to multiple questions.

2. Which of the following relations is a one-to-one function?

(a) \{(0,0),(1,1),(2,8),(3,27),(4,64)\}
(b) \{(-2,4),(-1,1),(0,0),(1,1),(2,4)\}
(c)

61
Solution.

Both a and c are one-to-one functions. B is a function however it is not one-to-one since it has y-
values that are paired up with two different x-values.

Lesson 9 Supplementary Exercises

1. For what values of is the set of order pairs a one-to-one function?

2. Consider each uppercase letter in the English alphabet as a graph. Is there any of these letters
that will pass both the vertical and horizontal line tests?

3. The length of a rectangle, , is four more than its width. Let be the function mapping the
length of the rectangle to its area. Is the function one-to-one?

Lesson 10: Inverse of One-to-One Functions

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Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to determine the
inverses of one-to-one functions.

Lesson Outline:
1. Inverse of a one-to-one function.
2. Finding the inverse of a one-to-one function.
3. Property of inverse functions

The importance of one-to-one functions is due to the fact that these are the only functions that
have an inverse, as defined below.

Definition: Let be a one-to-one function with domain and range . Then the inverse of
denoted by is a function with domain and range defined by if and only if
for any in B.

A function has an inverse if and only if it is one-to-one. If a function is not oneto-one,

properly defining an inverse function will be problematic. For example, suppose that
and If exists, then has to be both 1 and and this prevents
from being a valid function. This is the reason why the inverse is only defined for one-to-one
functions.

To find the inverse of a one-to-one function:

(a) Write the function in the form ;
(b) Interchange the and variables;
(c) Solve for y in terms of Example 1. Find the inverse of

Solution. The equation of the function is

Interchange the and variables:

62
Solve for in terms of :

Therefore the inverse of is

Property of an inverse of a one-to-one function

Given a one-to-one function and its inverse then the following are true:
● The inverse of is

For the second and third properties above, it can be imagined that evaluating a function and its
inverse in succession is like reversing the effect of the function. For example, the inverse of a
function that multiplies 3 to a number and adds 1 is a function that subtracts 1 and then divides
the result by 3.

Example 2. Find the inverse of

Solution. The equation of the function is

Interchange the and variables:

Solve for y in terms of :

The inverse of is

Example 3. Find the inverse of the rational function

Solution. The equation of the function is:

Interchange the and variables

63
Solve for in terms of :

(Place all terms with y on one side and those without y on the other side.)

Therefore the inverse of is

Solution. The students should recognize that this is a quadratic function with a
graph in the shape of a parabola that opens upwards. It is not a one-to-one function
as it fails the horizontal line test.

(Optional) We can still apply the procedure for finding the inverse of a one-to-one
function to see what happens when it is applied to a function that is not one-to-one.

The equation of the function is:

Interchange the and variables:

Solve for in terms of

(Complete the square)

The equation does not represent a function because there are some -
values that correspond to two different y-values (e.g., if can be 1 or
5.). Therefore the function has no inverse function.

64
Example 5. Find the inverse of , if it exists.

Solution. Recall that the graph of is shaped like a “v” whose vertex is located at
the origin. This function fails the horizontal line test and therefore has no inverse.

Alternate Solution. We can also show that does not exist by showing that is not one-to-
one. Note that . since the -values 1 and -1 are paired to the same y-value,
then is not one-to-one and it cannot have an inverse.

(Optional) If we apply the procedure for finding the inverse of a one-to-one function:

The equation of the function is:

Interchange and

In this function, will correspond to and . Therefore has no

inverse function.

Example 6. To convert from degrees Fahrenheit to Kelvin, the function is

where is the temperature in Fahrenheit (Kelvin is the SI unit of

temperature). Find the inverse function converting the temperature in Kelvin to degrees
Fahrenheit.

Solution. The equation of the function is:

since and refer to the temperatures in Kelvin and Fahrenheit respectively, we do not
interchange the variables.

65
Solve for in terms of :

Therefore the inverse function is where is the temperature in

Kelvin.

Solved Examples

Solution.

Therefore,

2. Find the inverse of

Solution.

Therefore,

66
Lesson 10 Supplementary Exercises

1. Which among the following functions have an inverse?

(a)
(b)

3. Find if

Lesson 11: Graphs of Inverse Functions

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to represent an inverse
function through its table of values and graph, find the domain and range of an inverse function,
graph inverse functions, solve problems involving inverse functions.

Lesson Outline:

1. Graphs of inverse functions as a reflection about the line y = x

2. Domain and range of a one-to-one function and its inverse

Graphing Inverse Functions

First we need to ascertain that the given graph corresponds to a one-to-one function by applying
the horizontal line test. If it passes the test, the corresponding function is one-to-one.

Given the graph of a one-to-one function, the graph of its inverse can be obtained by reflecting
the graph about the line

Example 1. Graph if the graph of restricted in the domain

is given below. What is the range of the function? What is the domain and
range of its inverse?

67
Solution. Take the reflection of the restricted graph of across the line

The range of the original function can be determined by the inspection of the graph. The range is

The domain and range of the inverse function can be determined by inspection of the graph:

Domain of

In summary,

Observe that the domain of the inverse is the range of the original function, and that the range f
of the inverse is the domain of the original function. Is this true for all one-to-one functions and
their inverses?

Example 2. Find the inverse of using its given graph.

68
Solution. Applying the horizontal line test, we verify that the function is one-to-one. since the

graph of is symmetric with respect to the line (indicated by a dashed line), its
reflection across the line is itself. Therefore the inverse of is itself or

Example 3. Find the inverse of using the given graph.

Solution. Applying the horizontal line test, we confirm that the function is one-to-one. Reflect
the graph of across the line to get the plot of the inverse function.

The result of the reflection of the graph of is the graph of

Therefore,

Example 4. Consider the rational function whose graph is shown below:

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(a) Find its domain and range.
(b) Find the equation of its asymptotes.
(c) Find the graph of its inverse.
(d) Find the domain and range of its inverse.

Solution.

(a) From our lessons on rational functions, we get the following results:

(b) Using techniques from the lesson on rational functions, the equations of the asymptotes are

Vertical asymptote:

Horizontal asymptote:

70
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(c) The inverse can be graphed by taking the reflection of the graph across y=x

Observe that the new asymptotes are the old asymptotes with the and values interchanged. In
fact, the asymptotes could also be obtained by reflecting the original asymptotes about the line

Vertical asymptote:
Horizontal asymptote:

(d) The domain and range of the functions and its inverse are as follows:

We can make the observation that the domain of the inverse is the range of the original function
and the range of the inverse is the domain of the original function.

Example 5. In the examples above, what will happen if we plot the inverse functions of the
inverse functions?

Solution. If we plot the inverse of a function, we reflect the original function about the line
If we plot the inverse of the inverse, we just reflect the graph back about the line
and end up with the original function.

This result implies that the original function is the inverse of its inverse, or

We can apply the concepts of inverse functions in solving word problems involving reversible
processes.

Example 6. You asked a friend to think of a nonnegative number, add two to the number, square
the number, multiply the result by 3 and divide the result by 2. If the result is 54, what is the
original number? Construct an inverse function that will provide the original number if the result
is given.

Solution. We first construct the function that will compute the final number based on the original
number. Following the instructions, we come up with this function.

The graph is shown below, on the left. This is not a one-to-one function because the graph does
not satisfy the horizontal line test. However, the instruction indicated that the original number
must be nonnegative. The domain of the function must thus be restricted to and its graph
is shown on the right, below:

The function with restricted domain is then a one-to-one function, and we can find its
inverse.

Interchange the and variables:

Finally we evaluate the inverse function at to determine the original number:

The original number is

Example 7. Engineers have determined that the maximum force in tons that a particular bridge
can carry is related to the distance in meters between it supports by the following function:

How far should the supports be if the bridge is to support 6.5 tons? Construct an inverse function
to determine the result.

Solution. The equation of the function is

To lessen confusion in this case, let us not interchange and as they denote specific values.
Solve instead for in terms of

The inverse function is

Evaluate the function at

The supports should be placed at most 6.70 meters apart.

1. If is restricted on the domain , what is the domain

of its inverse?

Solution.

The domain of the inverse of is just the range of . The range of is

Therefore the domain of is

2. Given the graph of below, sketch the graph of its inverse.

Solution.

The graph of is just the graph's reflection along . So we get:

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74
3. Using algebraic methods, construct the inverse of . Is the function you get
the same as the sketch of the inverse in the previous number?

Solution.

To get we first interchange and in So we get

We then isolate y

So we get However, the graph of that will result in a parabola opening

downwards while the sketch we have in number 2 was just half that parabola. This occurs
because the function must be one-to-one to have an inverse.

Lesson 11 Supplementary Exercises

1. Find the domain and range of the inverse of with domain restriction

2. Give the vertical and horizontal asymptotes of . Give the vertical and
horizontal asymptotes of its inverse.

3. At what point will the graph of and its inverse intersect?

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4. The formula for converting Celsius to Fahrenheit is given as where is the
temperature in Celsius and is the temperature in Fahrenheit. Find the formula for converting
Fahrenheit to Celsius. If the temperature in a thermometer reads what is that in

5. A particular breed of tilapia has its weight w (in kg) related to its length L (in ) modeled by
the function Explain why the function is one-to-one, even if it is a
quadratic function. Find the inverse of this function and approximate the length of a single fish if
its weight is 400 grams.

75
Lessons 9-11 Topic Test 1

1. True or False [6]

(a) A linear function is a one-to-one function.

(b) The inverse of is

2. Identify if the following are one-to-one functions or not. [6]

(a) People to their birthdays
(b) People to their Social Security System number
(c) People to their place of residence

3. Which of the following functions have an inverse function? If so, find its inverse. [18]
(a)
(b)
(c)
(d)

(e)
4. Sketch the graph of the inverse of the function [10]

Lessons 9-11 Topic Test 2

1. Find the inverse of the following functions: [15]

(a)
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(b)

2. Find the domain and range of the inverse of [10]

3. Find the asymptotes of the inverse of [10]

4. At what point/s do the following functions and their inverses intersect? [15]
(a)
(b)
(c)

76
Lesson 12: Representing Real-Life Situations Using Exponential Functions

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to represent reallife situations
using exponential functions.

Lesson Outline:

1. Exponential functions
2. Population, half-life, compound interest
3. Natural exponential function

Definition: An exponential function with base b is a function of the form

Example 1. Complete a table of values for and 3 for the exponential

functions and

Solution.

Example 2. If evaluate and

Solution.
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since is irrational, the rules for rational exponents are not applicable. We
define using rational numbers: can be approximated by A better
approximation is Intuitively, one can obtain any level of accuracy for by considering
sufficiently more decimal places of Mathematically, it can be proved that these
approximations approach a unique value, which we define to be .

Definition. Let b be a positive number not equal to A transformation of an exponential

function with base is a function of the form

where a, and are real numbers.

77
Some of the most common applications in real-life of exponential functions and their
transformations are population growth, exponential decay, and compound interest.

Example 3. At t = 0, there were initially 20 bacteria. Suppose that the bacteria

doubles every 100 hours. Give an exponential model for the bacteria as a function of t.

Solution.
Initially, at Number of bacteria
at Number of bacteria
at Number of bacteria
at Number of bacteria
at Number of bacteria

An exponential model for this situation is

Exponential Models and Population Growth

Suppose a quantity y doubles every T units of time. If is the initial amount, then the quantity
after units of time is given by

The half-life of a radioactive substance is the time it takes for half of the substance to decay.

Example 4. Suppose that the half-life of a certain radioactive substance is 10 days and there are
10g initially, determine the amount of substance remaining after 30 days, and give an
exponential model for the amount of remaining substance.

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Solution. We use the fact that the mass is halved every 10 days (from definition of
half-life).

Let t = time in days. Thus, we have:

Initially, at Amount of Substance

at days Amount of Substance
at days Amount of Substance
at days Amount of Substance

An exponential model for this situation is y = 10(1/2)t/10 .

Exponential Functions and Half-life

If the half-life of a substance is units, and is the amount of the substance corresponding
to then the amount of substance remaining after units of time is given by

A starting amount of money (called the principal) can be invested at a certain interest rate that is
earned at the end of a given period of time (such as one year). If the interest rate is compounded,
the interest earned at the end of the period is

78
added to the principal, and this new amount will earn interest in the next period. The same
process is repeated for each succeeding period: interest previously earned will also earn interest
in the next period.

Example 5. Mrs. De la Cruz invested P100,000.00 in a company that offers 6% interest

compounded annually. Define an exponential model for this situation. How much will this
investment be worth at the end of each year for the next five years?

Solution.

Initially, at t = 0 Investment = P100,000

at t = 1 Investment = P100,000(1.06) = P106,000
at t = 2 Investment = P106,000(1.06) = P112,360
at t = 3 Investment = P112,360(1.06) P119,101.60
at t = 4 Investment = P119,101.60(1.06) P126,247.70
at t = 5 Investment = P 26,247.70(1.06) P133,822.56

An exponential model for this situation is y = 100,000(1.06)t . The investment is worth

P133,822.56.

Compound Interest.
If a principal is invested at an annual rate of compounded annually, then the amount after
years is given by

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Example 6. Referring to Example is it possible for Mrs. De la Cruz to double her money in 8
years? in 10 years?

Solution. Using the model substitute and

since her money still has not reached after 10 years, then she has not doubled her
money during this time.

The Natural Exponential Function

While an exponential function may have various bases, a frequently used based is the irrational
number e, whose value is approximately 2.71828. The enrichment in Lesson 27 will show how
the number e arises from the concept of compound interest. Because e is a commonly used
based, the natural exponential function is defined having e as the base.

Definition

The natural exponential function is the function f(x) = ex

79
Example 7. A large slab of meat is taken from the refrigerator and placed in a preheated oven.
The temperature T of the slab t minutes after being placed in the oven is given by T = 170 –
165e–0.006t degrees Celsius. Construct a table of values for the following values of t: 0, 10, 20, 30,
40, 50, 60, and interpret your results. Round off values to the nearest integer.

Solution.

The slab of meat is increasing in temperature at roughly the same rate.

Solved Examples
1. Robert invested P30,000 after graduation. If the average interest rate is 5.8% compounded
annually, (a) give an exponential model for the situation, and (b) will the money be doubled in
15 years?

(a) At t = 0, the amount is P30,000.

At t = 1, the amount is P30,000(1.058) = P31,740.
At t = 2, the amount is P30,000(1.058)2 = P33,580.92
At t = 3, the amount is P30,000(1.058)3 = P35,528.61.
An exponential model for this situation is y = 30000 (1.058)t

(b) If t = 15, then y = 69,888.59. The money has more than doubled in 15 years.
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2. At time t = 0, 500 bacteria are in a petri dish, and this amount triples every 15 days. (a) Give
an exponential model for the situation. (b) How many bacteria are in the dish after 40 days?

Solution.

(a) Let y be the number of bacteria.

At t = 0, y = 500.
At t = 15, y = 500(3) = 1,500.
At t = 30, y = 500(3)2= 4,500.
At t = 45, y = 500(3)3 = 13,500.
At t = 60, y = 500(3)4 = 40,500.
An exponential model for this situation is y = 500(3)t/15
.
(b) If t = 40, then y = 500(3)40/15=9360. There will be 9360 bacteria after 40 days.

3. The half-life of a substance is 400 years. (a) Give an exponential model for the situation.
(b)How much will remain after 600 years if the initial amount was 200 grams?

80
Solution.

(a) At t = 0, the amount is 200 grams.

At t = 400, the amount is 200(1/2) = 100.
At t = 800, the amount is 200(1/2)2 = 50
At t = 1200, he amount is 200(1/2)3 = 25
Thus, an exponential model for this situation is y = 200(1/2)t/400 .

(b) If t = 600, then y = 70.71 grams.

4. The population of the Philippines can be approximated by the function P(x) = 20000000e0.0251x
(0 ≦ x ≦ 40) where x is the number of years since 1955 (e.g. x = 0 at
1955). Use this model to approximate the Philippine population during
the years 1955, 1965, 1975, and 1985. Round of answers to the nearest
thousand.

Solution.

1. A barangay has 1,000 individuals and its population doubles every 60 years. Give an
exponential model for the barangay. What is the barangay’s population in 10 years?

2. A bank offers a 2% annual interest rate, compounded annually, for a certain fund. Give an
exponential model for a sum of P10,000 invested under this scheme. How much money will
there be in the account after 20 years?

3. The half-life of a radioactive substance is 1200 years. If the initial amount of the substance is
300 grams, give an exponential model for the amount remaining after t years. What amount of
substance remains after 1000 years?

81
Lesson 13: Exponential Functions, Equations, and Inequalities

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to distinguish among
exponential functions, exponential equations and exponential inequality.

Lesson Outline:
1. Exponential functions, exponential equations and exponential inequalities

Definition: An exponential expression is an expression of the form a

The definitions of exponential equations, inequalities and functions are shown below.

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An exponential equation or inequality can be solved for all x values that satisfy the equation or
inequality (Lesson 13).An exponential function expresses a relationship between two variables
(such as x and y), and can be represented by a table of values or a graph (Lessons 14 and 15).

Solved Examples

Determine whether the given is an exponential function, an exponential equation, an exponential

inequality, or none of these.
1. (Answer: None of these)
2. (Answer: Exponential inequality)
3. (Answer: Exponential function)
4. (Answer: Exponential equation)
5. (Answer: Exponential inequality)
6. (Answer: Exponential function)

Lesson 13 Supplementary Exercises Determine whether the given is an exponential function, an

exponential equation, an exponential inequality or none of these.

1. 4.
2. 5.
3. 6.

82
Lesson 14: Solving Exponential Equations and Inequalities

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to solve exponential
equations and inequalities, and solve problems involving exponential equations and inequalities

Lesson Outline:

1. Solve exponential equations

2. Solve exponential inequalities

Example 1. Solve the equation .

Solution. Write both sides with 4 as the base.

Alternate Solution. Write both sides with 2 as the base.

Example 2. Solve the equation

Solution. Both 125 and 25 can be written using 5 as the base.

Example 3. Solve the equation

Solution. Both 9 and 3 can be written using 3 as the base.

If then the exponential function is increasing for all . This means that
if and only if
If then the exponential function is decreasing for all . This means that
if and only if .

Example 4. Solve the inequality

Solution. Both 9 and 3 can be written using 3 as the base.

since the base then this inequality is equivalent to

(the direction of the inequality is retained)

The solution set to the inequality is

Example 5. Solve the inequality

Solution. since then we write both sides of the inequality with as the base.

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since the base then this inequality is equivalent to
(the direction of the inequality is reversed)

The solution set is

Example 6. The half-life of is 2.45 minutes. At , there were grams of

but only of this amount remains after some time. How much time has
passed?

Solution. Using exponential models in Lesson we can determine that after minutes, the

amount of in the substance is

We solve the equation

Thus, 19.6 minutes have passed since .

2
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85
Solved Examples

Solve for in the following equations or inequalities.

1. 3.

Solution. Solution.

5. At time grams of an isotope with a half life of 30 hours is present. How much time
will have elapsed when only 15 grams remain?

Solution. The amount of substance after t hours

We solve the equation

Thus, 150 hours have passed since .

86
Lesson 14 Supplementary Exercises
In Exercises , solve for .

1. 6.

2. 7.

3. 8.
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4. 9.

5. 10.

11. How much time is needed for a sample of to lose of its original amount?
Pd-100 has a half-life of 3.634 days.

12. A researcher is investigating a specimen of bacteria. She finds that the original 1000 bacteria
grew to 2,048,000 in 60 hours. How fast does the bacteria (a) double? (b) quadruple?

3
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87
Lesson 15: Graphing Exponential Functions

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to represent an exponential
function through its (a) table of values, (b) graph, and (c) equation, find the domain and range of
an exponential function, determine the intercepts, zeroes, and asymptotes of an exponential
function, and graph exponential functions

Lesson Outline:

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1. Graphs of f(x) = bx for b > 1 and for 0 < b < 1
2. Domain, range, intercepts, zeroes, and asymptotes.

In the following examples, the graph is obtained by first plotting a few points. Results will be
generalized later on.

Example 1. Sketch the graph of f(x) = 2x .

Solution.

Step 1: Construct a table of values of ordered pairs for the given function. The table of values for
f(x) = 2x is as follows:

Step 2: Plot the points found in the table, and connect them using a smooth curve.

It can be observed that the function is defined for all values of x, is strictly increasing, and attains
only positive y-values. As x decreases without bound, the function approaches 0, i.e., the line y =
0 is a horizontal asymptote.

88
Example 2. g(x) = (1/2) x

Step 1: The corresponding table of values of x and y for g(x) = (1/2)x is as follows:

Step 2: Plot the points found in the table and connect them using a smooth curve.

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It can be observed that the function is defined for all values of x, is strictly decreasing, and
attains only positive values. As x increases without bound, the function approaches 0, i.e., the
line y = 0 is a horizontal asymptote. In general, depending on the value of b, the graph of f(x) =
bx has the following grap

89
PROPERTIES OF EXPONENTIAL FUNCTIONS:

1. The domain is the set of all real numbers.

2. The range is the set of all positive real numbers.
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3. It is a one-to-one function. It satisfies the Horizontal Line Test.
4. The y-intercept is 1. There is no x-intercept.
5. The horizontal asymptote is the line y = 0 (or the x-axis). There is no vertical asymptote. 6.
The function is increasing if b > 1, and is decreasing if 0 < b < 1.

Solved Examples

1. Graph the functions f(x) = 3x and g(x) = 4x in the same coordinate plane. Indicate the domain,
range, y-intercept, and horizontal asymptote. Compare the two graphs.

Solution. For both these functions, the base is greater than 1. Thus, both functions are increasing.
The following table of values will help complete the sketch.

For both functions:

Domain: Set of all real numbers
Range: Set of all positive real numbers
y-intercept: 1. There is no x-intercept
Horizontal Asymptote: y = 0

The two graphs have the same domain, range, y-intercept, and horizontal asymptote. However,
the graph of g(x) = 4x rises faster than does f(x) = 3x as x increases, and is closer to the x-axis if x
< 0.

90
2.

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Solution. The function can be written as This is an exponential
function with base . Thus, the function is decreasing. The following table of values will
help complete the sketch.

Domain: Set of all real numbers

Range: Set of all positive real numbers
y-intercept: 1. There is no x-intercept
Horizontal Asymptote:

Lesson 15 Supplementary Exercises

Construct a table of values for the given functions below using (a) the values o
. (b) Sketch their graphs on a coordinate plane. (c) For each function, label
the domain, range, y-intercept and horizontal asymptote.

1. 2. 3.

91
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Lesson 16: Graphing Transformations of Exponential Functions

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to graph exponential
functions.

Lesson Outline:

1. Vertical and horizontal reflection

2. Stretching and shrinking
3. Vertical and horizontal shifts

Reflecting Graphs

Example 1. Use the graph of y = 2x to graph the functions y = –2x and y = 2–x .

Solution. Some y-values are shown on the following table.

The y-coordinate of each point on the graph of the negative of the coordinate of the
graph of Thus, the graph of is the reflection of the graph of about the
-axis.

The value of at is the same as the value of at Thus, the graph of

is the reflection of the graph of about the -axis.

The corresponding graphs are shown below.

The graph of y = –f(x) is the reflection about the x-axis of the graph of y = f(x).
The graph of y = f(–x) is the reflection about the y-axis of the graph of y = f(x).

Example 2.Use the graph of y = 2x to graph the functions y = 3(2x ) and y = 0.4(2x ).

Solution. Some y-values are shown on the following table.

The -coordinate of each point on the graph of is 3 times the -coordinate of each
point on Similarly, the -coordinate of each point on the graph of is 0.4
times the -coordinate of each point on

The graphs of these functions are shown below.

Observations.

1. The domain for all three graphs is the set of all real numbers.
2. The y-intercepts were also multiplied correspondingly. The y-intercept of is and
the -intercept of is 0.4
3. All three graphs have the same horizontal asymptote: .
4. The range of all three graphs is the set of all .

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93
The results of Example 2 can be generalized as follows.
Vertical Stretching or Shrinking

Let c be a positive constant. The graph of y = cf(x) can be obtained from the graph of y = f(x)
by multiplying each y-coordinate by c. The effect is a vertical stretching (if c > 1) or shrinking
(if c < 1) of the graph of y = f(x).

Example 3. Use the graph of y = 2x to graph y = 2x – 3 and y = 2x + 1.

Solution. Some y-values are shown on the following table.

The graphs of these functions are shown below.

Observations.

1. The domain for all three graphs is the set of all real numbers.

2. The y-intercepts and horizontal asymptotes were also vertically translated from the
y-intercept and horizontal asymptote of

3. The horizontal asymptote of is Shift this 1 unit up to get the horizontal

asymptote of which is and 3 units down to get the horizontal asymptote of
which is

4. The range of is all , and the range of is all .

Let k be a real number. The graph of y = f(x) + k is a vertical shift of k units up (if k > 0) or k
units down (if k < 0) of the graph of y = f(x).

Example 4. Use the graph of y = 2x to graph y = 2x–2 and y = 2x+4

Solution. Some y-values are shown on the following table.

The graphs of these functions are shown below.

Observations. 1. The domain for all three graphs is the set of all real numbers.

2. The y-intercepts changed. To find them, substitute in the function. Thus, the y-intercept
of is and the -intercept of is

3. The horizontal asymptotes of all three graphs are the same . Translating a graph
horizontally does not change the horizontal asymptote.

4. The range of all three graphs is the set of all .

Let k be a real number. The graph of y = f(x – k) is a horizontal shift of k units to the right (if k
> 0) or k units to the left (if k < 0) of the graph of y = f(x).

Solved Examples

1. Sketch the graph of , then state the domain, range, y-intercept, and
horizontal asymptote.

Solution.

Transformation: The base function will be shifted 1 unit to the left and 2 units down.

Steps in Graph Sketching:

Step 1: Base function: -intercept: (0,1) horizontal asymptote:
Step 2: The graph of is found by shifting the graph of the function left one unit and down
two units.
Step 3: The y-intercept of will shift to the left by one unit and down two units
towards This is not the -intercept of .
Step 4: The horizontal asymptote will be shifted down two units, which is
Step 5: Find additional points on the graph; and

Step 6: Connect the points using a smooth curve.

2. Sketch the graph of then state the domain, range, -intercept, and
horizontal asymptote.

Transformation: The base function will be stretched 4 units (that is, every -
value will be multiplied by 4 ), then will be shifted 1 unit upward.

Steps in Graph Sketching:

Step1: Base function: -intercept: (0,1) horizontal asymptote:

Step 2: The graph of is obtained by stretching the graph of by four units then shifting the
graph upward by one unit.
Step 3: since the graph will be stretched by 4 units, the y-intercept of will be at
then will be shifted again by 1 unit upward to get (0,5) . This is the -intercept of
Step 4: The horizontal asymptote will be shifted 1 unit upward, which is .
Step5: Find additional points in the graph: and

Step 6: Connect the points using a smooth curve.

Lesson 16 Supplementary Exercises

In Exercises (a) use transformations to describe how the graph is related to its base
exponential function ,
(b) sketch the graph, identify its domain, range, y-intercept, and horizontal asymptote.

1. 2. 3.

4. Find an exponential function of the form such that the -intercept is

the horizontal asymptote is and

5. Give the range of the function for .

1. Solve for . [10]

a. b.

2. Solve the inequality [10]

3. The population of a certain city doubles every 50 years. [15]

(a) Give an exponential model for this situation.
(b) By what factor does the population increase after 30 years?
(c) If the city's population is currently how long will it take for the population
to exceed

4. Graph the following functions. Label all intercepts and asymptotes. Indicate the domain and
range. [15]

a. b.

Lessons 12-16 Topic Test 2

1. Solve for in the following equations. [10]

a. b.

2. Solve the inequality [10]

3. Maine decides to participate in an investment that yields interest annually. If she

invests how much will her investment be after 5 years? [10]

4. The population of a certain bacteria colony is modeled by the function

where is the bacteria population after minutes. Find the bacteria population after half an
hour. [10]

5. Graph the function . Label all intercepts and asymptotes. Indicate the
domain and range. [10]
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98
Lesson 17: Introduction to Logarithms

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to represent reallife
situations using logarithmic functions and solve problems involving logarithmic functions.

Lesson Outline:

1. Logarithms, including common and natural logarithms

2. Applications (Richter scale, decibels, pH levels)

Definition: Let a, b, and c be positive real numbers such that . The logarithm of a with
base is denoted by , and is defined as

Reminders.

1. In both the logarithmic and exponential forms, is the base. In the exponential form, is an
exponent; this implies that the logarithm is actually an exponent. Hence, logarithmic and
exponential functions are inverses.
2. In the logarithmic form x cannot be negative.
3. The value of can be negative.

Definition: Common logarithms are logarithms with base is a short notation for

Definition: Natural logarithms are logarithms to the base e (approximately 2.71828) and are
denoted by "In". In other words, Inx is another way of writing

Example 1. Rewrite the following exponential equations in logarithmic form, whenever

possible.

a. b. c. d.

e. f. g. h. i.

Solution.

a. b. c. d.
e. f. h.

99
Example 2. Rewrite the following logarithmic equations in exponential form.

a. b. c. d.
e. f. g.

Solution.

a. b. c. d.
e. f.

Example 3. Find the value of the following logarithmic expressions.

a. b. c. d.
e. f.

Solution.

a. 5 b. 3

Applications. Some of the most common applications in real-life of logarithms are the Richter
scale, sound intensity, and pH level.

In Charles Richter proposed a logarithmic scale to measure the intensity of an earthquake.

He defined the magnitude of an earthquake as a function of its amplitude on a standard
seismograph. The following formula produces the same results, but is based on the energy
released by an earthquake.4

Earthquake Magnitude on a Richter scale

The magnitude of an earthquake is given by

where (in joules) is the energy released by the earthquake (the quantity joules is the
energy released by a very small reference earthquake).
The formula indicates that the magnitude of an earthquake is based on the logarithm of the ratio
between the energy it releases and the energy released by the reference earthquake.

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Example 4. Suppose that an earthquake released approximately joules of energy. (a) What
is its magnitude on a Richter scale? (b) How much more energy does this earthquake release than
the reference earthquake?

Solution.

(a) since then

since by definition, is the exponent by which 10 must be raised to obtain then

Thus,

4
Barnett, R. A., Ziegler, M. R., Byleen, K. E., & Sobecki, D. (2008). Precalculus. New York: McGraw-Hill.
100
(b) This earthquake releases times more energy than the
reference earthquake.

Sound Intensity
In acoustics, the decibel (dB) level of a sound is

where I is the sound intensity in watts/m2 (the quantity 10–12 watts/m2 is least audible sound a
human can hear).

Example 5. The decibel level of sound in a quiet office is watts/m2. (a) What is the
corresponding sound intensity in decibels? (b) How much more intense is this sound than the
least audible sound a human can hear?

Solution.

(a) since by definition, is the exponent by which

10 must be raised to obtain then

Thus, decibels.

(b) This sound is times more intense than the least audible
sound a human can hear.

Acidity and the pH scale

The pH level of a water-based solution is defined as

where is the concentration of hydrogen ions in moles per liter. Solutions with a of 7
are defined neutral; those with are acidic, and those with are basic.

Example 6. A 1-liter solution contains 0.00001 moles of hydrogen ions. Find its level.
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Solution. Since there are 0.00001 moles of hydrogen ions in 1 liter, then the concentration of
hydrogen ions is moles per liter.

The pH level is since is the exponent by which 10 must be raised to obtain

then

Thus,

5
Young, C. (2012). College algebra (3rd ed). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.
6
Stewart, J., Redlin, L., & Watson, S. (2012). Precalculus: Mathematics for calculus (6th ed). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole,
Cengage Learning.

101
Solved Examples
In numbers find the value of the following logarithmic expressions.

1. 2. 3.
Answers. 1. 4 2. 2 3. -1

In numbers rewrite the following expressions in logarithmic form, whenever possible.

4. 5. 6.

Answers. 4. 5. 6.

In numbers rewrite the following logarithmic equations in exponential form, whenever

possible.7 . 8. 9. In
Answers. 7. 8. 9.

10. What is the magnitude in the Richter scale of an earthquake that released joules of
energy? How much more energy does this earthquake release than that of the reference
earthquake?

Answer. Magnitude The earthquake

released times more energy than that by the reference
earthquake.

11. Suppose the intensity of sound of a jet during takeoff is 100 watts/m . What is the
corresponding sound intensity in decibels? How much more intense is this sound than the least
audible sound a human can hear?

Answer. Sound intensity

140 decibels. This sound is times more intense than the least audible sound a
human can hear.

Lesson 17 Supplementary Exercises

In numbers find the value of the following logarithmic expressions.

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1. 2. 3.
In numbers rewrite the following exponential equations in logarithmic form.

4. 5. 6.
In numbers rewrite the following logarithmic equations in exponential form.

7. 8. 9.

10. What is the magnitude in the Richter scale of an earthquake that released joules of
energy?

11. A 1-liter solution contains moles of hydrogen ions. Determine whether the solution is
acidic, neutral, or basic.
102
Lesson 18: Logarithmic Functions, Equations, and Inequalities

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to distinguish among
logarithmic function, logarithmic equation, and logarithmic inequality.

Lesson Outline:
1. Logarithmic equations, logarithmic inequalities, and logarithmic functions

The definitions of exponential equations, inequalities and functions are shown below.

A logarithmic equation or inequality can be solved for all values that satisfy the equation or
inequality (Lesson 21). A logarithmic function expresses a relationship between two variables
(such as and ), and can be represented by a table of values or a graph (Lesson 22 ).

Solved Examples
Determine whether the given is a logarithmic function, a logarithmic equation, a logarithmic
inequality or neither.

1. (Answer: Logarithmic Function)

2. (Answer: Logarithmic Function)
3. (Answer: Logarithmic Equation)
4. (Answer: Logarithmic Inequality)
5, (Answer: Logarithmic Equation)

Lesson 18 Supplementary Exercises

Determine whether the given is a logarithmic function, a logarithmic equation, a logarithmic

inequality or neither.

103
Lesson 19: Basic Properties of Logarithms

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to apply basic properties of
logarithms and solve problems involving logarithmic equations

Lesson Outline:
1. Basic properties of logarithms.
2. Simplifying logarithmic expressions.

Definition: Let and be real numbers such that and the basic properties of
logarithms are as follows:

1.
2.
3. If then

Example 1. Use the basic properties of logarithms to find the value of the following logarithmic
expressions.

a. b. Ine c. d. e. f.

Solution.

a. (Property 2)
b. Ine (Property 2)
c. (Property 2)
d. (Property 2)
e. (Property 3)
f. (Property 1)

EXAMPLE 2. Suppose you have seats to a concert featuring your favorite musical artist.
Calculate the approximate decibel level associated if a typical concert's sound intensity is
. (Refer to Lesson 17 for a discussion of sound intensity).

Answer. A concert's decibel level is .

104
EXAMPLE 3. Calculate the hydrogen ion concentration of Vinegar that has a pH level of
(Refer to Lesson 17 for a discussion of pH levels).

Solution.

Answer. The hydrogen ion concentration is moles per liter.

Solved Examples
1. Use the basic properties of logarithms to find the value of the following logarithmic
expressions:

a. b. c. d. e. f.

Solution.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

2. Calculate the sound intensity in watts/m of a 65 -decibel sound. (Refer to Lesson 17 for a
discussion of sound intensity).

Solution.

watts

105
Lesson 19 Supplementary Exercises

In numbers use the three basic properties to find the value of the logarithm expressions
below:
1. 2. 3. 4. 5.

6. To measure the brightness of a star from earth, the brightness of the star Vega is used as a
reference, and is assigned a relative intensity The magnitude of any given star is
defined by where 1 is the relative intensity of that star. (a) What is the
magnitude of Vega? (b) Suppose that light arriving from another star has a relative intensity of
What is the magnitude of this star?

Lesson 20: Laws of Logarithms

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to illustrate the laws of
logarithms.

Lesson Outline:
1. Laws of logarithms
2. Change of base formula

Laws of Logarithms.Let and let ne . For , then

1.
2.
3. (Example:

Example 1. Use the properties of logarithms to expand each expression in terms of the
logarithms of the factors. Assume each factor is positive.
a.

Solution.

7
Crauder, B., Evans, B., & Noell, A. (2008). Functions and change: A modeling approach to college algebra and trigonometry.
Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

106
c.

Solution.

Example 2. Use the properties of logarithm to condense the expressions as a single logarithm.

Solution.

Any logarithmic expression can be expressed as a quotient of two logarithmic expressions with
a common base. Let a, b, and x be positive real numbers, with

Example 3. Use the change-of-base formula to rewrite the following logarithmic expressions to
the indicated base.

a. (change to base 2)

Solution.

b. (change to base e)

1. Use the properties of logarithms to expand the expressions as a sum, difference or multiple of
logarithms.
a.

Solution.

2. Use the properties of logarithms to condense the expressions as a single logarithm.

Solution.

109
Solution.

Solution.

3. Use the change of base formula to rewrite the following logarithmic expressions to the
indicated and then compute the approximate value using a calculator.

Solution.

b. (change to base 3 )

Solution.

1. Use the properties of logarithms to expand the expressions as a sum, difference or multiple of
logarithms

1. 2. 3.

2. Use the properties of logarithms to condense the expressions as a single logarithm.

4. 5. 6.

Use the change of base formula to rewrite the following logarithmic expressions to the indicated
and then compute the approximate value using a calculator.

7.
8. (change to base 3 )
9. (change to base e)

Lesson 21: Solving Logarithmic Equations and Inequalities

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to solve logarithmic
equations and inequalities and solve problems involving logarithmic functions, equations, and
inequalities

Lesson Outline:
1. Solve logarithmic equations
2. Solve logarithmic inequalities
3. Applications to problems in real-life contexts

Property of Logarithmic Equations

If then the logarithmic function is increasing for all . If then

the logarithmic function is decreasing for all This means that if
and only if

Techniques. Some strategies for solving logarithmic equations:

2. Using logarithmic properties;

111
3. Applying the one-to-one property of logarithmic functions;
4. The Zero Factor Property: If then or

Example 1. Find the value of in the following equations.

Solution.

Check: 5 is a solution since is defined.

Solution.

Check: 5 is a solution since is defined.

Solution.

(changing into exponential form)

Check: 4 is a solution since log is defined. However, -4 is not a solution since log
is not defined (the base cannot be negative).
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112
d.

Solution.

d.
(note: Zero Factor Property cannot be used yet)

Check: 3 is a solution since and are defined. However, -3 is not

a solution since is not defined.

Solution

(changing into exponential)

Check: Both are solutions since and are defined.

Solution B.

Check: Both are solutions since and are defined.

Incorrect Method. (using

(This is not a valid conclusion because only if 0)

Solution.

Check: Both are solutions since and are defined.

Example 2. Use logarithms to solve for the value of in the exponential equation

Solution.

(applying the one-to-one property)

Property of Logarithmic Inequalities

If then if and only if

Example 3. Solve the following logarithmic inequalities.

Solution.

Step 1: Ensure that the logarithms are defined.

Then and must be satisfied.
implies and implies
To make both logarithms defined, then (If then is surely greater than )

Step 2 : Ensure that the inequality is satisfied.

The base 3 is greater than
Thus, since then:

(subtract from both sides; add 1 to both sides)

Hence, the solution is

Solution.

Step 1: Ensure that the logarithms are defined.

This means that .

Step 2: Ensure that the inequality is satisfied.

Rewrite -3 as a logarithm to base

We obtain the inequality

The base is which is less than

Thus, since then

Also, should be positive (from Step 1 ). Thus, .

Hence, the solution is (0,125) .

Solution.

Step1: Ensure that the logarithms are defined.

This means that .

Step 2: Ensure that the inequality is satisfied.

115
Rewrite -2 and 2 as logarithms to the base which are and respectively,
obtaining the inequality:

We split the compound inequality into two simple inequalities:

since the base 10 is greater than simplify both inequalities as

and
Thus obtaining which automatically satisfies the condition in Step 1.

Hence, the solution is .

EXAMPLE 4. The 2013 earthquake in Bohol and Cebu had a magnitude of 7.2, while the 2012
earthquake that occurred in Negros Oriental recorded a 6.7 magnitude. How much more energy
was released by the 2013 Bohol/Cebu earthquake compared to that by the Negros Oriental
earthquake?" (Refer to Lesson 17 for a discussion of the Richter scale).

Solution. Let and be the energy released by the Bohol/Cebu and Negros Oriental
earthquakes, respectively. We will determine

Based on the given magnitudes, and

Solving for

Thus,
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The Bohol/Cebu earthquake released 5.62 times more energy than the Negros Oriental
earthquake.

116
EXAMPLE 5. How much more severe is an earthquake with a magnitude of n on a Richter
scale, compared to one with a magnitude of

Solution. Let and be the energy released by the earthquakes with magnitude and
respectively. We will determine

Based on the given magnitudes, and

Solving for

Thus,

These computations indicate that each 1 unit increase in magnitude represents 31.6 times more
energy released. (This result may seem to contradict other sources which state that each 1 unit
increase in magnitude represents an earthquake that is 10 times stronger. However, those
computations use amplitude as a measure of strength. The computations above are based on the
energy released by the earthquake).

EXAMPLE 6: Interest compounded annually.

Using the formula where is the future value of

the investment, is the principal, is the fixed annual interest rate, and is the number of years,
how many years will it take an investment to double if the interest rate per annum is

Solution:

117

Answer: It will take approximately 28 years for investment to double.

Example 7. (Population growth) The population of the Philippines can be modeled by the
function where is the number of years since 1955 (e.g.
at 1955 ). Assuming that this model is accurate, in what year will the population reach 200
million?

Solution.
Given

Answer. Around the year the Philippine population will reach 200 million.

Trivia: Based on this model, we will reach 100 million in the year 2019 . But last July the
Philippines officially welcomed its 100 millionth baby Hence mathematical models must
always be reviewed and verified against new data.

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8
http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/623749/philippines-welcomes-100-millionth-baby

118
EXAMPLE 8. In a bacteria culture, an initial population of 5,000 bacteria grows to 12,000 after
90 minutes. Assume that the growth of bacteria follows an exponential model
representing the number of bacteria after minutes. (a) Find and and use the model to
determine the number of bacteria after 3 hours.

Solution.

(a) It is given that and

Thus,

Also,

Take the In of both sides to obtain In

The exponential model is
(b) 3 hours minutes; bacteria

Solution. We have to solve the equation or

Let Then and obtain

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9
Weisstein, Eric W. "Catenary." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource. http://mathworld.wolfram.com/Catenary.html

119
The solutions to this quadratic equation are

since then
or

To determine the distance between the cables at we find the difference between the two
obtained x-values.

The distance is

Solved Examples

1. Find the value/s of in the following equations/inequalities.

Solution.

120
d.

Solution.

Solution.
Let be equal to

Solution.

Ensuring that the logarithms are defined, this means or

(note that from the first condition)

Therefore, the solution is .

Solution.

Ensuring that the logarithms are defined, this means and which implies,
and or just

Therefore, the solution is

Solution.
Ensuring the logarithms are defined, this means .

Hence, the solution is .

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122
3. When organisms die, the amount of carbon- 14 in its system starts to decrease. The carbon- 14
is about 5,600 years. If a piece of human bone was found to contain only of the carbon- 14 it
originally had, how long ago did the human die?

Solution. A model for this situation is where is the amount of carbon-14 in

the organism after t years, and y0 is the initial amount of carbon-14.

since then

Taking the In of both sides,

The human died approximately 8,876 years ago.

4. A culture starts at 2,000 bacteria, and doubles every 80 minutes. How long will it take the
number of bacteria to reach

Solution. A model for this situation is where is the number of bacteria at

time t.
If then

Taking the In of both sides, In

Thus
It will take approximately 185.7 or 186 minutes for the bacteria to reach 10,000 .

5. Under certain circumstances, a rumor spreads according to the equation

where is the proportion of the population who has heard of the

rumor at time t days. How long will it take the rumor to reach of the population?

Solution. Solve

123
Lesson 21 Supplementary Exercises

Find the value/s of in the following equations/inequalities.

1.
2.
3.
4.

5. An article from the New Yorker states that the strongest earthquake that can be caused by
the San Andreas fault has a magnitude of 8.2 on the Richter scale. It also states that this is only
as strong as the 2011 Japan earthquake, with a magnitude of 9.0. Verify this information.

6. Suppose that a fish population t days from now can be modeled by an exponential function
Suppose that the fish population doubled in 90 days. By how much will the fish
have multiplied from its initial number after 120 days?

7. Suppose that and denote the light intensity before and after going through a material. Then

according to Beer-Lambert's law where is a constant that depends on

the material. If and lumens, find the line intensity at a depth of 30 feet.

8. The dapdap tree in the Philippines is prone to wasp infestation. Suppose that the percent P of

defoliation is approximated by where is the number of egg masses in

thousands. If the percent of defoliation is approximately how many egg masses are there?

Lesson 22: Graphing Logarithmic Functions

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to represent a logarithmic
function through its table of values, graph, and equation, find the domain and range of a
logarithmic function, and graph logarithmic functions

Lesson Outline:
1. Graph of for and for
2. Domain, range, intercepts, zeroes, and asymptotes of logarithmic functions
3. Graphs of transformations of logarithmic functions

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Schulz, K. (2015). The really big one. http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/07/20/the-reallybig-one
10

Stewart, J., Redlin, L., & Watson, S. (2012). Precalculus: Mathematics for calculus (6th ed). Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole,
11

Cengage Learning.

124
In the following examples, the graph is obtained by first plotting a few points. Results will be
generalized later on.

Example 1. Sketch the graph of .

Solution.

Step 1: Construct a table of values of ordered pairs for the given function. A table of values for
is as follows:

Step 2: Plot the points found in the table, and connect them using a smooth curve.

It can be observed that the function is defined only for The function is strictly increasing,
and attains all real values. As approaches 0 from the right, the function decreases without
bound, i.e., the line is a vertical asymptote.

Example 2. Sketch the graph of

Solution.

Step 1: Construct a table of values of ordered pairs for the given function. A table of values for
is as follows:

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125
Step 2: Plot the points found in the table, and connect them using a smooth curve.

It can be observed that the function is defined only for . The function is strictly decreasing,
and attains all real values. As approaches 0 from the right, the function increases without
bound, i.e., the line is a vertical asymptote.

In general, the graphs of where and are shown below.

1. The domain is the set of all positive numbers, or

2. The range is the set of all positive real numbers.
3. It is a one-to-one function. It satisfies the Horizontal Line Test.
4. The x-intercept is There is no y-intercept.
5. The vertical asymptote is the line (or the -axis). There is no horizontal
asymptote.

Relationship Between the Graphs of Logarithmic and Exponential Functions

since logarithmic and exponential functions are inverses of each other, their graphs are
reflections of each other about the line as shown below.

Example 3. Sketch the graphs of . Determine the domain, range, vertical

asymptote, -intercept, and zero.

Solution.

The graph of can be obtained from the graph of by multiplying each y-

coordinate by as the following table of signs shows.

Analysis:

a. Domain:
b. Range :
c. Vertical Asymptote:
d. x-intercept: 1
e. Zero: 1

Example 4. Sketch the graph of

Solution.

Sketch the graph of the basic function Note that the base
The "-1" means vertical shift downwards by 1 unit.
Some points on the graph of are and (9,2)
Shift these points 1 unit down to obtain and (9,1) . Plot these points.

Analysis:
a. Domain:
b. Range:
c. Vertical Asymptote:
d. x-intercept: 3

The -intercept can be obtained graphically. Likewise, we can solve for the intercept
algebraically by setting :

e. Zero: 3

Example 5. Sketch the graph of

Solution.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Sketch the graph of the basic function Note that the base
Rewrite the equation, obtaining
The "-2" means a horizontal shift of 2 units to the left.
Some points on the graph of are and (0.25,1)

129
Shift these points 2 units to the left to obtain (–1,0), (2, –1), and (–1.75,1). Plot these points.

Graph:

Analysis:
a. Domain:
(The expression should be greater than 0 for to be defined. Hence, must
be greater than )
b. Range:
c. Vertical Asymptote:
d. x-intercept: -1
e. Zero: -1

The examples above can be generalized to form the following guidelines for graphing
transformations of logarithmic functions:

Graph of

● The value of (either or ) determines whether the graph is increasing

or decreasing.
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● The value of a determines the stretch or shrinking of the graph. Further, if a is negative,
there is a reflection of the graph about the -axis.
● Based on the vertical shift is d units up (if ) or d units down (if
), and the horizontal shift is units to the right (if ) or units to the left (if
).

130
Solved Examples

Analyze each of the following functions by (a) using the transformations to describe how the
graph is related to a logarithmic function (b) identifying the intercept, vertical
asymptote, domain and range. (c) Sketch the graph of the function.
a.)

Solution.
The graph of is shifted 3 units to the right from the graph of .

Domain:
Range: all real numbers
Vertical Asymptote:
-intercept: (4,0)

Solution.

The graph of is a vertical shift of 3 units downwards from the graph of

c.)

Solution.

The graph of is a stretch by a factor of the graph of

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132
The previous examples can be generalized to form the following guidelines for graphing
transformations of logarithmic functions:

Graph of

● The value of (either or ) determines whether the graph is increasing

or decreasing.
● The value of a determines the stretch or shrinking of the graph. Further, if is negative,
there is a reflection of the graph about the -axis.
● Based on

, and the horizontal shift is c units to the right (if ) or units to the left (if )

Lesson 22 Supplementary Exercises

Analyze each of the following functions by (a) using the transformations to describe how the
graph is related to a logarithmic function identifying the intercept, vertical
asymptote, domain and range. (c) Sketch the graph of the function.

a.
b.
c.
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133
Topic Test 1

1. Find the value of the following logarithmic expressions: [5]

a. b.

2. Express as a single logarithm. [5]

3. Solve for . [10]

a. b.

4. Solve the inequality [10]

5. If a certain sound wave has an intensity of find its corresponding decibel value.
[10]
6. Graph the following functions. Label all intercepts and asymptotes. Indicate the domain and
range. [10]
a. b.

Topic Test 2

1. Express Inxy as a sum, difference or multiple of logarithms. [5]

3. Solve for in the following equations. [10]

a. b.
4. Solve the inequality log [10]

5. Felix deposited in an investment that earns interest annually. How many years
will his investment be equal to [10]

6. Graph the following functions. Label all intercepts and asymptotes. Indicate the domain and
range. [10]
a. b.

134
Lesson 23: Illustrating Simple and Compound Interest

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to illustrate simple and
compound interest and distinguish between simple and compound interest.

Lesson Outline:
1. Simple Interest
2. Compound Interest

Definitions of Terms:

Lender or creditor-person (or institution) who invests the money or makes the funds available

Borrower or debtor - person (or institution) who owes the money or avails of the funds from
the lender

Origin or loan date - date on which money is received by the borrower

Repayment date or maturity date -date on which the money borrowed or loan is to be
completely repaid

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Time or term (t)- amount of time in years the money is borrowed or invested; length of time
between the origin and maturity dates

Principal (P)- amount of money borrowed or invested on the origin date

Rate(r)- annual rate, usually in percent, charged by the lender, or rate of increase of the
investment

Interest (I)- amount paid or earned for the use of money

Simple Interest interest that is computed on the principal and then added to it

Compound Interest ( )-interest is computed on the principal and also on the accumulated past
interests

Maturity value or future value (F) -amount after years that the lender receives from the
borrower on the maturity date.

135
Illustration of Simple and Compound Interest

Example 1. “Suppose you won 10,000 pesos and you plan to invest it for 5 years. A cooperative
group offers 2% simple interest rate per year. A bank offers 2% compounded annually. Which
will you choose and why?”

Solution.
Investment 1: Simple Interest

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Simple interest remains constant throughout the investment term. In compound interest, the
interest from the previous year also earns interest. Thus, the interest grows every year.

136
Lesson 24: Simple Interest

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to compute interest, maturity
value, and present value in simple interest environment, and solve problems involving simple
interest
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Lesson Outline:
1. Compute simple interest
2. Compute maturity value
3. Compute unknown principal, rate, or time

Annual Simple Interest

Prt
Where
principal, or the amount invested or borrowed

Example 1: A bank offers annual simple interest rate for a particular deposit. How much
interest will be earned if 1 million pesos is deposited in this savings account for 1 year?
Given:

Find:

Solution: Prt

Answer: The interest earned is .

Example 2: How much interest is charged when is borrowed for 9 months at an annual
interest rate of

Given: = 0.75 year

Find: Is
Note: When the term is expressed in
months (M), it should be converted in
M
years by t =
12

137

Example 3: Complete the table below by finding the unknown.

Solution:
(a) The unknown principal can be obtained by

(b) The unknown rate can be computed by

(c) The unknown time can be calculated by

(d) The unknown simple interest is given by

138
Example 4: When invested at an annual interest rate of the amount earned of
simple interest in two years. How much money was originally invested?

Solution:

Answer: The amount invested is .

Example 5: If an entrepreneur applies for a loan amounting to in a bank, the simple

interest of which is for 3 years, what interest rate is being charged?

Find: r

Solution:

Answer. The bank charged an annual simple interest rate of

Example 6: How long will a principal earn an interest equal to half of it at simple interest?

Given:

Find: t

Solution:

139
Answer: It will take 10 years for a principal to earn half of its value at 5% simple annual interest
rate.
Maturity (Future) Value

Substituting by Prt gives

Maturity (Future) Value

Where maturity (future) value

Example 7: Find the maturity value if 1 million pesos is deposited in a bank at an annual simple
interest rate of after (a) 1 year (b) 5 years?

Given:
Find: (a) maturity or future value after 1 year
(b) maturity or future value after 5 years

Solution:
(a) When , the simple interest is given by

Method 1:

The maturity or future value is given by

140
Method 2: To directly solve the future value ,

Answer: The future or maturity value after 1 year is

Method 1:

Method 2:

Answer: The future or maturity value after 5 years is

Solved Examples:

1. What are the amounts of interest and maturity value of a loan for at simple
interest for 5 years?

Given: years
Find: (i)
(ii)

Solution:
(i)

Answer:
2. How much money will you have after 4 years and 3 months if you deposited in a
bank that pays simple interest?

Given: years
Find:F
Solution:

Answer:
141
3. At what simple interest rate per annum will P 1 become P 2 in 2 years?
Given:
Find: r
Solution:

4. How long will 1 million pesos earn a simple interest of 100,000 at per annum?

Given:

Find: t

Solution:

Answer: years

5. How much should you invest at the simple interest is in order to have in 2
years,

Given:

Find:

Solution:

Answer:

Lesson 24 Supplementary Exercises

A. Find the unknown principal P, rate r, time t, and interest I by completing the table.

142

C. Solve the following problems.

11. Find the simple interest on a loan of P65,000 if the loan is given at a rate of 20% and is due
in 3 years.
12. Amparo invested a certain amount at 10% simple interest per year. After 2 years, the interest
she received amounted to P3,000. How much did she invest?
13. Miko borrowed P25,000 at 10% annual simple interest rate. How much should he pay after 3
years and 6 months?
14. How long will an amount of money triple at a simple interest rate of 1% per annum?
15. How long will an amount of P50,000 gain a simple interest of P10,000 at 4% per annum?
16. At what simple interest rate will an amount of money gain 50% of the principal in 4 years?
17. At what simple interest rate per annum will P20,000 accumulate to P25,000 in 3 years?
18. If you deposit P5,500 in a bank at an annual simple interest rate of 0.5% , how much money
will you have after 12 years?
19. How much money should you deposit in a bank so that it will accumulate to P100,000 at 1%
simple annual interest for 10 years?
20. How much should you invest at 6% annual interest rate to obtain a simple interest of P72,000
in 3 years?

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to compute interest, maturity
value, and present value in compound interest environment, and solve problems involving
compound interest

Lesson Outline:
1. Maturity value
2. Present Value

The following table shows the amount at the end of each year if principal is invested at an
annual interest rate compounded annually. Computations for the particular example
and are also included.

Maturity (Future) Value and Compound Interest

where
principal or present value
maturity (future) value at the end of the term
interest rate
term/ time in years

The compound interest is given by

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144
Example 1. Find the maturity value and the compound interest if is compounded
annually at an interest rate of in 5 years.

Find: (a) maturity value F

(b) compound interest I
Solution:
(a)

(b)

Answer: The future value is and the compound interest is .

Example 2. Find the maturity value and interest if is invested at compounded

annually for 8 years.

Find: (a) maturity value F

(b) compound interest
Solution:
(a)

Answer: The maturity value is and the compound interest is

Example 3.Suppose your father deposited in your bank account P10,000 at an annual interest
rate of 0.5% compounded yearly when you graduate from kindergarten and did not get the
amount until you finish Grade 12. How much will you have in your bank account after 12 years?

Answer: The amount will become after 12 years.

Present Value P at Compound Interest:

The present value or principal of the maturity value due in years any rate can be obtained
from the maturity value formula

Solving for the present value ,

Present Value at Compound Interest

where
principal or present value
maturity (future) value at the end of the term
interest rate
term/ time in years

Example 4. What is the present value of due in 7 years if money is worth

compounded annually?
Given:
Find: P
Solution: The present value can be obtained by

Answer: The present value is .

Example 5.How much money should a student place in a time deposit in a bank that pays
compounded annually so that he will have after 6 years?

Find: P
Solution: The present value P can be obtained by

Answer: The student should deposit in the bank.

Solved Examples

1. Mr. Ocampo invested at compounded annually. He plans to get this amount

after 6 years for his son's college education. How much will he get?

Find:
Solution:

Answer: He will get

2. What is the interest of if invested at compounded annually in 3 years and 2

months?

Given:
Find:
Solution:

Answer: The interest is

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147
3. Mr. Bautista aims to have his investment grow to in 4 years. How much should he
invest in an account that pays compounded annually?

Find: P

Solution:

Answer: He should invest P411,351.24.

4. Mrs. Versoza wants to compare simple and compound interests on a investment

for 3 and 3 months years.
a. Find the interest if funds earn simple interest for 1 year.
b. Find the interest if funds earn interest compounded annually.
c. Find the difference between the two interests.

Find: a. Ic
b. Ic
C. Difference between and 1c.

Solution:
a.

Answer: The interest is

c. Difference

Answer: The difference between the two interests is .

148
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Lesson 25 Supplementary Exercises

A. Find the unknown principal P, rate r, time t, and compound interest Ic by completing the table.

B. Solve the following problems on compound interest.

11. Peter borrowed P100,000 at 8% compounded annually? How much will he be paying
after 2 years?
12. A time deposit account in a bank yields 5.5% compound interest annually. Jennifer
invested P450,000 for 4 years in this savings account. How much interest will she gain?
13. In order to have P250,000 in 5 years, how much should you invest if the compound
interest is 12%?
14. How much money must be invested to obtain an amount of P150,000 in 2 years if
money earns at 10.5% compounded annually?
15. What amount must be deposited by a student in a bank that pays 2 % compounded
annually so that after 12 years he will have P100,000?

For numbers 16 to 18: Nora is thinking of investing an amount of P30,000 for 2 ½ years.
Find the future value based on the following investments:
16. Simple interest of 8.5%
17. 8.5% compounded annually
18. Which investment is better? Justify your answer.

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149
For numbers 19 & 20: Kaye aims to accumulate an amount of P180,000 in 5 years and 6 months.
Find the present value based on the following investments and tell which investment requires a
smaller principal.
19. Simple interest of 8.5%
20. 8.5% compounded annually

Lesson 26: Compounding More than Once a Year

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to compute maturity value,
interest, and present value, and solve problems involving compound interest when compound
interest is computed more than once a year

Lesson Outline:
1. Compounding more than once a year
2. Maturity value, interest, and present value when compound interest is computed more than
once a year

Sometimes, interest may be compounded more than once a year. Consider the following
example.

Example 1. Given a principal of PhP 10,000, which of the following options will yield greater
interest after 5 years:

OPTION A: Earn an annual interest rate of 2% at the end of the year, or

OPTION B: Earn an annual interest rate of 2% in two portions—1% after 6 months, and 1%
after another 6 months?

Solution.

OPTION A: Interest is compounded annually

Under this option, the interest rate every six months is 1% (2% divided by 2)

Answer: Option B will give the higher interest after 5 years.lf all else is equal, a more frequent
compounding will result in a higher interest, which is why Option B gives a higher interest
than Option A.

The investment scheme in Option introduces new concepts because interest is compounded
twice a year, the conversion period is 6 months, and the frequency of conversion is As the
investment runs for 5 years, the total number of conversion periods is The nominal rate is
and the rate of interest for each conversion period is These terms are defined generally
below.

Definition of Terms:

Frequency of conversion (m) - number of conversion periods in one year

Conversion or interest period- time between successive conversions of interest
Total number of conversion periods n
(frequency of conversion) (time in years)
Nominal rate annual rate of interest
Rate (j) of interest for each conversion period

In earlier lessons, r was used to denote the interest rate. Now that an interest rate can refer to two
rates (either nominal or rate per conversion period), the symbols i(m) and j will be used instead.

Examples of nominal rates and the corresponding frequencies of conversion and interest
rate for each period:

From Lesson 25, the formula for the maturity value when principal is invested at
an annual interest rate compounded annually is .

Because the rate for each conversion period is then in years, interest is compounded
times. The following formula is obtained.

Maturity Value, Compounding m times a year

where maturity (future) value

principal

term/ time in years

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152
Example 2. Find the maturity value and interest if is deposited in a bank at
compounded quarterly for 5 years.

Given:
Find: a. F
b. P

Solution.
Compute for the interest rate in a conversion period by

Compute for the total number of conversion periods given by

Compute for the maturity value using

The compound interest is given by

Example 3. Find the maturity value and interest if is deposited in a bank at

compounded monthly for 5 years.

Find: a. F
b. P

Solution.
Compute for the interest rate in a conversion period by

Compute for the total number of conversion periods given by

153

The compound interest is given by

Example 4. Cris borrows P50,000 and promises to pay the principal and interest at
compounded monthly. How much must he repay after 6 years?

Find: F

Solution.
You may also use the other formula to compute for the maturity value

Thus, Cris must pay after 6 years.

Present Value at Compound Interest

where maturity (future) value

nominal rate of interest (annual rate)

frequency of conversion
term time in years

Example 5. Find the present value of due in 4 years if money is invested at

compounded semi-annually.

Given:
Find: P

The total number of conversion periods is

The present value can be computed by substituting these values in the formula

Thus,

Example 6. What is the present value of due in 2 years and 6 months if money is
worth compounded quarterly?

Given: years
Find: P

Solution.
The interest rate per conversion period given by

and the total number of conversion periods is

The present value can be computed by substituting these values in the formula

Thus,

Solved Examples

A. Debbie wants to compare the simple interest to compound interest on a P 60,000 investment.
1. Find the simple interest if funds earn 8% simple interest for 1 year.
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
2. Find the interest if funds earn 8% compounded annually for 1 year
3. Find the interest if funds earn 8% compounded semi-annually for 1 year. 4. Find the interest if
funds earn 8% compounded quarterly for 1 year.

155
5. Which is the best investment? Why?
Given: year
1. Prt
2.

5. The investment that yields the highest interest is the one that earns compounded
quarterly.

B. James aims to accumulate 1 million pesos in 12 years. Which investment will require the
smallest present value?
6. simple interest
7. compounded annually
8. compounded semi-annually
9. compounded quarterly
10. compounded monthly

Given: years

6. 9.

7. 10.

8. (smallest present value)

A. Complete the table by computing the interest rate per period and total number of conversion
periods.

B. Complete the table by computing for the maturity values, compound interests and present
values.

C. Solve the following problems on compound interest.

13. Cian lends P45,000 for 3 years at 5% compounded semi-annually. Find the future
value and interest of this amount.

14. Tenten deposited P10,000 in bank which gives 1% compounded quarterly and let it
stay there for 5 years. Find the maturity value and interest.

15. How much should you set aside and invest in a fund earning 9% compounded
quarterly if you want to accumulate P200,000 in 3 years and 3 months?

16. How much should you deposit in a bank paying 2% compounded quarterly to
accumulate an amount of P80,000 in 5 years and 9 months?

17. Miko has P250,000 to invest at 6% compounded monthly. Find the maturity value if
he invests for (a) 2 years? (b) 12 years? (c) How much is the additional interest earned
due to the longer time.

18. Yohan sold his car and invested P300,000 at 8.5% compounded quarterly. Find the
maturity value if he invests for (a) 3 years? (b) 6 years? (c) How much is the additional
interest earned due to the longer time.

20. Yani has a choice to make short term investments for her excess cash P60,000. She
can invest at 6% compounded quarterly for 6 months or (b) 5% compounded semi-
annually fo 1 year. Which is larger?

157
Lesson 27: Finding Interest Rate and Time in Compound Interest

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to solve problems involving
rate of interest and time in compound interest

Lesson Outline:
1. Interest and time in compound interest
2. Equivalent interest rate

Finding the Number of Periods for Compounded Interest:

Using the formula for maturity value , present value , and interest rate ,

Then

Thus,
Note that must be an integer. Some rounding off may be necessary.

Example 1. How long will it take pesos to accumulate to in a bank savings

account at compounded monthly?

Given:

Find: n and t

Solution.
Substituting the given values in the maturity value formula

results to

158

Thus, payments must be made for 740 months, or years.

Example 2. How long will it take to earn if the interest is compounded semi-
annually?

Given:

Find: n and t

Solution.

Because interest is earned only at the end of the period, then 5 six-month periods are needed so
that the interest can reach .

Thus, and years

It will take 2.5 years for to earn .

Finding the Interest Rate, j, per Conversion Period

Using the formula maturity value , present value , and interest rate

Thus,

Using then

159
Example 3. At what nominal rate compounded semi-annually will accumulate to
in 10 years?

Find:
Solution.

The interest rate per conversion period is

The nominal rate (annual rate of interest) can be computed by

Hence, the nominal rate is

Example 4. At what interest rate compounded quarterly will money double itself in 10 years?

Given: years

Find:
Solution.

The interest rate in each conversion period is

The nominal rate can be computed by

Therefore, the nominal rate that will double an amount of money compounded quarterly in 10
years is

Definition of terms:

Equivalent rates - two annual rates with different conversion periods that will earn the same
maturity value for the same time/term
Nominal rate - annual interest rate (may be compounded more than once a year)
Effective rate-rate when compounded annually will give the same compound each year with the
nominal rate; denoted by

Example 5. What effective rate is equivalent to compounded quarterly?

Given:

Find: effective rate

Solution.
since the equivalent rates yield the same maturity value, then

Dividing both sides by P results to

161

Hence, the effective rate equivalent to compounded quarterly is

Number of Decimal Places

As you will see in Lesson when solving for an equivalent rate it is important to make it
very precise. Thus ,when solving for an equivalent rate, say in in Example
six or more decimal places will be used.

Example 6. Complete the table by computing for the rates equivalent to the following nominal
rates.Round off your answer to six decimal places.

Solution.

The maturity values accumulated by these interest rates at any time t (in particular, at )
must be equal. That is, for any including when

(1) Given: equal P; equal t

12% compounded monthly t

_____compounded annually t

Let be the future value when interest is compounded annually, and be the future value
when interest is compounded monthly.

162
(2) Given: equal P; equal t

compounded semi-annually t
_____compounded quarterly i =?
(4 )
t

Let be the future value when interest is compounded quarterly, and be the future value
when interest is compounded semi-annually.

Answer: compounded quarterly

(3) Given: equal P; equal t
compounded monthly t
_____compounded semi-annually t

Let be the future value when interest is compounded semi-annually, and be the future
value when interest is compounded monthly.

Answer: compounded semi-annually

Solved Examples

1. How long will a principal earn of this amount at compounded quarterly

Find: t
Solution.

Answer: years

Given:

Find: t

164
Solution.

Answer:

3. Shirl is planning to invest P20,000. At what rate compounded semi-annually will accumulate
her money to in 3 years?

Find:

Solution:

The interest rate in each conversion period is

The nominal rate can be computed by

Answer: (2)
or

Given:
Find

Solution.

165

Answer: The nominal rate compounded monthly equivalent to compounded annually is

What simple interest rate is equivalent to compounded semi-annually at the end of year

Given:

Find: r

Solution.
simple Interest Compound Interest

Substitute to obtain:

Answer:

Lesson 27 Supplementary Exercises

A. Complete the table by computing for unknown values. In numbers 3, 6, and 9, round off your
answer to six decimal places.

21. Jun invested an amount of P 100,000 where he obtained an interest of 16,000at the end of 2
½ years. At what nominal rate compounded semiannually was it invested?
22. Jen invested an amount of P 400,000 at 5% compounded quarterly. How long should she let
the investment stay if she wants to earn P 50,000?
23. Mr. Retanan was given a loan at 10% compounded monthly. When should he pay it so that it
will just earn only 10% of the amount borrowed?
24. At what interest rate compounded quarterly should an amount be invested if the interest
earned is 20% of the invested amount for 5 years?
25. What simple interest rate is equivalent to 1% compounded quarterly?

Lesson 28: Simple Annuity

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to illustrate simple and
general annuities, distinguish between simple and general annuities, find the future and present
values of simple annuities, computes the periodic payment of a simple annuity

Lesson Outline:

1. Definition of Terms
2. Time Diagrams
3. Future Value of a Simple Annuity
4. Present Value of a Simple Annuity
5. Periodic Payment of a Simple Annuity

Definition of Terms:

ANNUITY– a sequence of payments made at equal(fixed) intervals or periods of time

Annuities may be classified in different ways, as follows.

Note: Grade 11 will focus on Ordinary Annuities (not Annuity Due), and on Annuity Certain
(not Contingent Annuities). Simple Annuities are discussed in this lesson, and General Annuities
are discussed on Lesson 29.

Term of an annuity, t – time between the first payment interval and last payment interval

Regular or Periodic payment, R – the amount of each payment

Amount (Future Value) of an annuity, F – sum of future values of all the payments to be made
during the entire term of the annuity

Present value of an annuity, P – sum of present values of all the payments to be made during
the entire term of the annuity

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Annuities may be illustrated using a time diagram. The time diagram for an ordinary annuity
(i.e., payments are made at the end of the year) is given below.

169

Example 1. Suppose Mrs. Remoto would like to save every month in a fund that gives
compounded monthly. How much is the amount or future value of her savings after 6
months?

Given: periodic payment

term
interest rate per annum
number of conversions per year

interest rate per period

Find: amount (future value) at the end of the term,

Solution.

Thus, the amount of this annuity is

Amount (Future Value) of an Ordinary Annuity:

The derivation of the formula in finding the amount of an ordinary annuity is similar to the
solution of Example 1.

Illustrate the cash flow in a time diagram.

Multiply both sides by to get

(2)

From Equation (1), subtract Equation (2) to produce

171

The expression is usually denoted by the symbol read as "s angle n".

Alternate Solution to Example 1 :

Amount (Future Value) of ordinary annuity:

The future value of an ordinary annuity is given by

Example 2. In order to save for her high school graduation, Marie decided to save at the
end of each month. If the bank pays compounded monthly, how much will her money
be at the end of 6 years?

Given:

years

172

Find:
Solution.

Hence, Marie will be able to save P14,507.85 for her graduation

Example 3: (Recall the problem in Example 1.) Suppose Mrs. Remoto would like to know the
present value of her monthly deposit of P3,000 when interest is 9% compounded monthly. How
much is the present value of her savings at the end of 6 months?

term

interest rate per annum

number of conversions per year

interest rate per period

Find: Present value P

(1) Discount the payment of each period to the beginning of the term. That is, find the present
value of each payment. Recall the formula

173

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(2) Add the discounted payments to get the present value.
3000(1.0075)–1 =2977.667
3000(1.0075)–2 = 2955.501
3000(1.0075)–3 = 2933.50
3000(1.0075)–4 = 2911.663
3000(1.0075)–5 = 2889.988
3000(1.0075)–6 = 2868.474
________________________________________

Thus, the cost of the TV set at the beginning of the term is .

Alternate Solution to Example 3:

Since we already know from Example 1 that the accumulated amount at the end of 6 months is
then we can simply get the present value of this amount using the formula

Present Value of an Ordinary Annuity:

The derivation of the formula in finding the amount of an ordinary annuity is similar to the
solution of Example

Discount or get the value of each payment at the beginning of the term and then add to get
the present value of an ordinary annuity. Use the formula

174

Multiply both sides by to get

(2)

From Equation (1), subtract Equation (2) to produce

175

Hence, the present value P of an ordinary annuity can be written as

Alternative Derivation

The future value of an ordinary annuity was given earlier by

Present Value of an Ordinary Annuity

The present value of an ordinary annuity is given by

where R is the regular payment;

j is the interest rate per period;
n is the number of payments

To get the present value of this amount, we use the formula and obtain

Alternate Solution to Example 3 :

176
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
The cash value or cash price of a purchase is equal to the down payment (if there is any) plus
the present value of the installment payments.

Example 4. Mr. Ribaya paid as down payment for a car. The remaining amount is to
be settled by paying at the end of each month for 5 years. If interest is
compounded monthly, what is the cash price of his car?

Given:

Find: cash value or cash price of the car

Solution.
The time diagram for the installment payments is given by:

The present value of this ordinary annuity is given by

Cash value = Down payment + present value

=200,000+753,702.20
Cash Value
The cash price of the car is

177

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Periodic payment R of an Annuity:
Periodic payment R can also be solved using the formula for amount F or present value P of an
annuity.

where R is the regular payment;

P is the present value of an annuity
F is the future value of an annuity
j is the interest rate per period;
n is the number of payments

Example 5. Paolo borrowed P 100 000. He agrees to pay the principal plus interest by paying an
equal amount of money each year for 3 years. What should be his annual payment if interest is
8% compounded annually?

Given:

years

Find: periodic payment R

Solution.The cash flow of this annuity is illustrated in the time diagram given below.

since then

Thus, the man should pay P38,803.35 every year for 3 years.

Solved Examples

1. Aling Paring started to deposit quarterly in a fund that pays compounded

quarterly. How much will be in the fund after 6 years?

Given:

Find: F

Answer:
2. The buyer of a house and lot pays cash and every month for 20 years. If
money is compounded monthly, how much is the cash value of the lot?

Given: down payment

years

179

Answer: Cash Value

3. Grace borrowed P150,000 payable in 2 years. To repay the loan, she must pay an amount
every month with an interest rate of 6% compounded monthly. How much should he pay every
month?

Given:

Find: periodic payment R

Solution.

4. Mr. Ribaya would like to save for his son's college education. How much should
he deposit in a savings account every 6 months for 12 years if interest is at compounded
semi-annually?

Given:

years

Find: periodic payment R

180
Solution.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
5. A refrigerator is for sale at in cash or on terms, each month for the next 12
months. Money is compounded monthly. Which is lower, the cash price or the present value
of the installment terms?
Given:

Find: Present Value P

Solution.

Therefore, buying the refrigerator in cash is lower than paying it in installment term.

181
Lesson 28 Supplementary Exercises
A. Find the future value F of the following ordinary annuities.

B. Find the present value P of the following ordinary annuities.

6. Monthly payments of P2,000 for 5 years with interest rate of 12% compounded
monthly
7. Quarterly payment of P15,000 for 10 years with interest rate of 8% compounded
quarterly
8. Semi-annual payments of P20,500 with interest rate of 8.5% compounded semi-
annually for 3 years
9. Annual payments of P150,000 with interest rate of 8% compounded annually for 10
years
10. Daily payments of P54 for 30 days with interest rate of 15% compounded daily for
one month

C. Find the periodic payments of the following ordinary annuities.

11. Monthly payment of the future value of P50,000 for 1 year with an interest rate of
10% compounded monthly
12. Quarterly payment of an accumulated amount of P80,000 for 2 years with interest rate
of 8% compounded quarterly
13. Payment every six months for the present value of P100,000 for 2 years with an
interest rate of 12% compounded semi-annually
14. Annual payment of the loan P800,000 for 5 years with an interest rate of 9%
compounded annually
15. Monthly installment of an appliance cash prize of P20,000 for 6 months with an
interest rate of 6% compounded monthly

D. Solve the following problems.

16. How much is the monthly amortization on an automobile loan of P900,000 to be
amortized over a 5-year period at a rate 9.5% compounded monthly?

182
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
17. Shirl started to deposit P18,000 semi-annually in a fund that pays 5% compounded
semi-annually. How much will be in the fund after 10 years?
18. Kathrina wants to buy a lot which costs 1 million pesos. She plans to give a down
payment of 20% of the cost, and the rest will be paid by financing at annual interest rate
of 12% for 10 years in equal monthly installments? What will be the monthly payment?
19. Ken is paying P2,500 every 3 months for the amount he borrowed at an interest rate
of 8% compounded quarterly. How much did he borrow if he agreed that the loan will be
paid in 2 years and 6 months?
20. A store advertises a motorcycle for P3,000 downpayment and P3,000 per month for
15 months. If the interest is 15% compounded monthly, what is the actual value of the
motorcycle?

Lesson 29: General Annuity

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to find the future and present
values of general annuities and compute the periodic payment of a general annuity, and calculate
the fair market value of a cash flow stream that includes an annuity.

Lesson Outline:
1. Future Value of a General Annuity
2. Present Value of a General Annuity
3. Fair Market Value of a Cash Flow Stream that Includes and Annuity

Recall these terms defined in Lesson 28.

General Annuity–an annuity where the length of the payment interval is not the same as the
length of the interest compounding period

General Ordinary Annuity – a general annuity in which the periodic payment is made at the
end of the payment interval

Examples of General annuity:

1. Monthly installment payment of a car, lot, or house with an interest rate that is compounded
annually
2. Paying a debt semi-annually when the interest is compounded monthly

The future value and present value P of a general ordinary annuity is given by

where is the regular payment;

j is the equivalent interest rate per payment interval converted from the interest
rate per period; and
is the number of payments.

The formulas for F and P are same as those in Lesson 28. The extra step occurs in finding j: the
given interest rate per period must be converted to an equivalent rate per payment interval.

Example 1. Cris started to deposit P1,000 monthly in a fund that pays 6% compounded
quarterly. How much will be in the fund after 15 years?

Given: payments

Find: F
Solution:

The cash flow for this problem is shown in the diagram below.

(1) Convert compounded quarterly to its equivalent interest rate for monthly payment
interval.

Thus, the interest rate per monthly payment interval is 0.00497521 or

(2) Apply the formula in finding the future value of an ordinary annuity using the computed
equivalent rate

Thus, Cris will have in the fund after 20 years.

Number of Decimal Places
When solving for an equivalent rate, say j = (1.015)1/3 – 1 in Example 1, six or more decimal
places will be used. If you use fewer or more decimal places, your answers may differ from the
answers provided in the text. You can ignore these discrepancies, but it is suggested that you
use at least six decimal places, or the exact value.

Example 2. A teacher saves every 6 months in a bank that pays compounded

monthly. How much will be her savings after 10 years?

Given:

Find: F
Solution.
The cash flow for this problem is shown in the diagram below.

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185
(1) Convert compounded monthly to its equivalent interest rate for each semi-annual
payment interval.

Thus, the interest rate per semi-annual payment interval is 0.00125063 or 0.125%.

(2) Apply the formula in finding the future value of an ordinary annuity using the computed
equivalent rate

Thus, the teacher will be able to save after 10 years.

Example 3. Ken borrowed an amount of money from Kat. He agrees to pay the principal plus
interest by paying each year for 3 years. How much money did he borrow if
interest is compounded quarterly?

Given:

Find: present value P

The cash flow for this problem is shown in the diagram below.

(1) Convert 8\% compounded quarterly to its equivalent interest rate for each payment interval.

Thus, the interest rate per payment interval is 0.082432 or

(2) Apply the formula in finding the present value of an ordinary annuity using the computed
equivalent rate .

Hence, Ken borrowed P100,000 from Kat.

Example 4. Mrs. Remoto would like to buy a television (TV) set payable for 6 months starting at
the end of the month. How much is the cost of the TV set if her monthly payment is P3,000 and
interest is 9% compounded semi-annually?

Given: R = 3,000 m=2

i (2) = 0.09 n = 6 payments

Thus, the interest rate per monthly payment interval is 0.00736312 or 0.736312%.

(2) Apply the formula in finding the present value of an ordinary annuity using the computed
equivalent rate j = 0.00736312

Thus, the cost of the TV set is .

A cash flow is a term that refers to payments received (cash inflows) or payments or deposits
made (cash outflows). Cash inflows can be represented by positive numbers and cash outflows
can be represented by negative numbers.

The fair market value or economic value of a cash flow (payment stream) on a particular
date refers to a single amount that is equivalent to the value of the payment stream at that date.
This particular date is called the focal date.

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188
Example 5. Mr. Ribaya received two offers on a lot that he wants to sell. Mr. Ocampo has
offered P50,000 and a P1 million lump sum payment 5 years from now. Mr. Cruz has offered
P50,000 plus P40,000 every quarter for five years. Compare the fair market values of the two
offers if money can earn 5% compounded annually. Which offer has a higher market value?

Given:
Mr. Ocampo’s offer Mr. Cruz’s offer
P50,000 down payment P50,000 down payment
P1,000,000 after 5 years P40,000 every quarter for 5 years

Find: fair market value of each offer

Solution.

We illustrate the cash flows of the two offers using time diagrams.

Choose a focal date and determine the values of the two offers at that focal date. For example,
the focal date can be the date at the start of the term.

Since the focal date is at t = 0, compute for the present value of each offer.

Mr. Ocampo’s offer: Since P50,000 is offered today, then its present value is still PhP 50
000.The present value of P1,000,000 offered 5 years from now is

Mr. Cruz's offer: We first compute for the present value of a general annuity with quarterly
payments but with annual compounding at

Solve the equivalent rate, compounded quarterly, of compounded annually.

The present value of an annuity is given by

Fair Market Value = Downpayment + present value

Hence, Mr. Ocampo's offer has a higher market value. The difference between the market values
of the two offers at the start of the term is

Alternate Solution (Focal date at the end of the term):

Mr. Ocampo's offer:

The future value of at the end of the term at compounded annually is given by

The fair market value of this offer at the end of the term is 63,814.08 plus 1 million pesos
amounting to

Mr. Cruz's offer:

The future value of this ordinary general annuity is given by:

The future of P50,000 at the end of the term is P63,814.08, which was already determined
earlier.

Fair Market Value = 900,509.40 + 63,814.08 = P964,323.48

As expected, Mr. Ocampo’s offer still has a higher market value, even if the focal date was
chosen to be at the end of the term. The difference between the market values of the two offers at
the end of the term is

1,063,814.08 –964,323.48 = P99,490.60.

You can also check that the present value of the difference is the same as the difference
computed when the focal date was the start of the term:

P = 99,490.60(1 + 0.05)-5 = P77,953.49.

Example 6. Which offer has a better market value?

Company A offers P150,000 at the end of 3 years plus P300,000 at the end of 5 years. Company
B offers P25,000 at the end of each quarter for the next 5 years. Assume that money is worth 8%
compounded annually.

Given:
Company A Company B

P150,000 at the end of 3 years P25,000 at the end of each quarter for the next
P300,000 at the end of 5 years 5 years

Find: fair market value of each offer

(1) Illustrate the cash flows of the two offers using time diagrams.

Suppose that selected focal date is the start of the term. Since the focal date is the start of the
term, compute for the present value of each other.

Company A offer:
The present value of three years from now is

The present value of five years from now is

Fair Market Value(FMV)

Company B offer: Compute for the present value of a general annuity with quarterly payments
but with semi-annual compounding at 8 %

Solve the equivalent rate, compounded quarterly, of 8\% compounded semiannually.

The present value of an annuity is given by

Therefore, Company B offer is preferable since its market value is larger.

Solved Problems
1. ABC Bank pays interest at the rate of 2% compounded quarterly. How much will Ken have in
the bank at the end of 5 years if he deposits P3,000 every month?

Given:

Find: F

Solution.
Convert compounded quarterly to its equivalent interest rate for monthly payment interval.

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193
Find the future value of an ordinary annuity using the computed equivalent rate

Answer:

2. A sala set is for sale at in cash or on monthly installment of for 6 months at

compounded semi-annually. Which is lower: the cash price or the present value of the
installment term?

Given: Cash price:

installment payments
Find: present value

Solution.
Convert compounded semi-annually to its equivalent interest rate for each monthly payment
interval.

Find the present value of an ordinary annuity using the equivalent rate .

Answer:

3. To accumulate a fund of P500,000 in 3 years, how much should Aling Paring deposit in her
account every 3 months if it pays an interest of 5.5% compounded annually.

Given:

Find: quarterly deposit R

Solution.

Convert compounded annually to its equivalent interest rate for quarterly deposit.

Find the periodic deposit of an ordinary annuity using the equivalent rate

Answer:

4. Nadine is the beneficiary of P1,000,000 insurance policy. Instead of taking the money as lump
sum, she opted to receive a monthly stipend over a period of 10 years. If the insurance policy
pays an interest of 5% compounded annually, what will be her monthly stipend?

Given:

Find: quarterly deposit R

Convert compounded annually to its equivalent interest rate for monthly interval.

Find the monthly stipend R of an ordinary annuity using the equivalent rate

Answer:

5. Kat received two offers for investment. The first one is 150,000 every year for 5 years at 9%
compounded annually. The other investment scheme is 12,000 per per month for 5 years with the
same interest rate. Which fair market value between these offers is preferable?

Solution: Let the focal point be the end of the term, and so, compute for the future value.

First Offer (Ordinary Annuity)

Given: i payments

Answer:
Second Offer: (General Annuity)

Convert compounded annually to its equivalent interest rate for monthly payment interval.

Find the future value of this investment.

Answer:

The two offers are almost similar but the first offer is preferable.

Lesson 29 Supplementary Exercises

A. Find the future value F of the following general annuities.

1. Monthly payments of 3,000 for 4 years with interest rate of 3% compounded quarterly
2. Quarterly payment of 5,000 for 10 years with interest rate of 2% compounded annually
3. Annual payments of P12, 500 with interest rate of 10.5% compounded semi-annually
for 6 years
4. Semi-annual payments of P 105,000 with interest rate of 12% compounded annually
for 5 years
5. Daily payments of P 20 for 30 days with interest rate of 20% compounded annually
B. Find the present value P of the following general annuities.
6. Monthly payments of 2,000 for 5 years with interest rate of 12% compounded
quarterly
7. Quarterly payment of 15,000 for 10 years with interest rate of 8% compounded
annually

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197
8. Annual payments of P20,500 with interest rate of 8.5% compounded semi-annually for
3 years
9. Semi-annual payments of P 150,000 with interest rate of 8% compounded annually for
10 years
10. Daily payments of P 54 for 30 days with interest rate of 15% compounded annually
C. Find the periodic payments of the following general annuities
11. Monthly payment of the future value of P50,000 for 1 year with an interest rate of
10% compounded quarterly
12. Quarterly payment of an accumulated amount of P80,000 for 2 years with interest rate
of 8% compounded annually
13. Annual payment for the present value of P100,000 for 2 years with an interest rate of
12% compounded semi-annually
14. Semi-annual payment of the loan P800,000 for 5 years with an interest rate of 9%
compounded annually.
15. Monthly installment of an appliance cash prize of P20,000 for 6 months with an
interest rate of 6% compounded semi-annually
D. Answer the following problems.
16. Teacher Kaye is saving P2,000 every month by depositing it in a bank that gives an
interest of 1% compounded quarterly. How much will she save in 5 years?
17. Vladimir purchased a new car for P99,000 downpayment and P15,000 every month.
If the payments are based on 7% compounded quarterly what is the total cash price of his
car?
18. In order to have a fund of 1,000,000 at the end of 12 years, equal deposits every six
months must be made. Find the semi-annual payment if interest is at 6% compounded
annually.
19. Which investment is preferable? (Hint: Compute for the market values) Investment in
Sunrise company 100,000 at the end of 5 years plus P 24,000 annually for 4 years
afterwards. Investment in XYZ company B offers P 50,000 semi-annually 15,000 every 6
months after 6 years . Assume that money is worth 9% compounded annually.
20. A motorcycle is for sale P 60,500 cash or on installment terms 3,000 per month for 2
years at 12% compounded annually. If you were the buyer, what would you prefer, cash
or installment?

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to calculate the present value
and period of deferral of a deferred annuity

Lesson Outline:
1. Deferred Annuity
2. Present Value of a Deferred Annuity
3. Period of Deferral of a Deferred Annuity

Definition of Terms

Deferred Annuity – an annuity that does not begin until a given time interval has passed

Period of Deferral – time between the purchase of an annuity and the start of the payments for
the deferred annuity.

To determine the present value of a deferred annuity, find the present value of all k + n payments
(including the artificial payments), then subtract the present value of all artificial payments.

Example 1. On his 40th birthday, Mr. Ramos decided to buy a pension plan for himself. This
plan will allow him to claim P10,000 quarterly for 5 years starting 3 months after his 60th
birthday. What one-time payment should he make on his 40th birthday to pay off this pension
plan, if the interest rate is 8% compounded quarterly

Given:
Find:

Solution.
The annuity is deferred for 20 years and it will go on for 5 years. The first payment is due three
months (one quarter) after his birthday, or at the end of the conversion period. Thus,
there are 80 artificial payments.

Number of artificial payments:

Number of actual payments:

Interest rate per period:

If you assume that there are payments in the period of deferral, there would be a total of
payments.
Time Diagram:

Therefore, the present value of these monthly pensions is P33,538.38.

Example 2. A credit card company offers a deferred payment option for the purchase of any
appliance. Rose plans to buy a smart television set with monthly payments of P4,000 for 2 years.
The payments will start at the end of 3 months. How much is the cash price of the TV set if the
interest rate is 10% compounded monthly?

Given: 0
Find:
Solution. The annuity is deferred for 2 months and it will go on for 2 years. The first payment is
due at the end of 3 months, or at the end of the 3 rd conversion period. Thus, there are 2 artificial
payments.

Number of artificial payments:

Number of actual payments:

Interest rate per period:

If you assume that there are payments in the period of deferral, there would be a total of
payments.

Time Diagram:

Thus, the present value of the deferred annuity can be solved as

Therefore, the present value of these monthly pensions is

In numbers 1 to 5, find the period of deferral in the deferred annuity

1. Monthly payments of P50,000 for 3 years that will start 8 months from now
Solution. The first payment is at time 8. The period of deferral is from time 0 to 7, which is
equivalent to 7 periods or 7 months.

2. Annual payments of P2,500 for 24 years that will start 12 years from now

Solution. The first payment is at time 12. The period of deferral is from time 0 to 1, which is
equivalent to 11 periods or 11 years.

3. Quarterly payments of 300 for 9 years that will start 1 year from now

Solution. The first payment is at time 4 because there are 4 quarters in 1 year. The period of
deferral is from time 0 to 3, which is equivalent to 3 periods or 3 quarters.

4. Semi-annual payments of 6,000 for 13 years that will start 4 years from now

Solution. The first payment is at time 8. The period of deferral is from time 0 to 7, which is
equivalent to 7 periods or 7 semi-annual intervals.

5. Payments of 10,000 every 2 years for 30 years starting at the end of 16 years

Solution. The first payment is at time 8 because there is one payment in every two-year period.
The period of deferral is from time 0 to which is equivalent to 7 periods or 7 two-year
intervals.

6. Melwin availed of a loan from a bank that gave him an option to pay monthly for 2
years. The first payment is due after 4 months. How much is the present value of the loan if the
interest rate is converted monthly?

Given:

Find:
Solution. The present value of the deferred annuity can be solved as

202
7. Mariel purchased a smart television set through the credit cooperative of their company. The
cooperative provides an option for a deferred payment. Mariel decided to pay after 2 months of
purchase. Her monthly payment is computed as P3,800 payable in 12 months. How much is the
cash value of the television set if the interest rate is 12% convertible monthly?

Given:

Find: P

Solution. The present value of the deferred annuity can be solved as

Therefore, the present value of these payments is

8. Mr. Quijano decided to sell their farm and to deposit the fund in a bank. After computing the
interest, they learned that they may withdraw yearly for 8 years starting at the end of
6 years when it is time for him to retire. How much is the fund deposited if the interest rate is
converted annually?

Given:
Find:

Solution. The present value of the deferred annuity can be solved as

Therefore, the present value of these withdrawals is

9. A group of medical students decided to invest the money they earned from the fund-raising
project. After 6 months from today, they want to withdraw from this fund quarterly for
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1 year to fund their medical mission. How much is the total deposit now if the interest rate is
converted quarterly?

Given:

203
Find: P
Solution. The present value of the deferred annuity can be solved as

Therefore, the present value of these payments is

10. Bella converted her loan to light payments which gives her an option to pay every
2 years for 6 years. The first payment is due 4 years from now. How much is the amount of the
loan if the interest rate is converted every 2 years?

Given:

period in every year)

Find: P
Solution. The present value of the deferred annuity can be solved as

Therefore, the present value of these payments is .

Lesson 30 Supplementary Exercises

A. Find the period of deferral in each of the following deferred annuity problem.

1. Monthly payments of P1,000 for 9 years that will start 9 months from now
2. Monthly payments of P200 for 6 years that will start at the end of 10 years
3. Semi-annual payments of P12,700 for 5 years that will start 2 years from now
4. Semi-annual payments of P8,500 for 8 years that will start 12 years from now
5. Withdrawals of P7,200 every 3 months for 9 years that will start at the end of 2 years
6. Payments of P13,000 every 3 months for 18 years that will start four years from now

B. Solve the following problems completely.

1. A loan is to be repaid quarterly for 5 years that will start at the end of 2 years. If
interest rate is 6% converted quarterly, how much is the loan if the quarterly payment is
P10,000?
2. A cash loan is to be repaid by paying P13,500 quarterly for 3 years starting at the end
of 4 years. If interest rate is 12% convertible quarterly, how much is the cash loan?
3. A car is to be purchased in monthly payments of P19,500 for 5 years starting at the end
of 3 months. How much is the cash value of the car if the interest rate used is 10%
converted monthly?
4. A school service van is available for purchase at P23,000 monthly payable in 4 years.
The first payment is due in 4 months. How much is the present value of the van if the
interest rate applied is 14% converted monthly?
5. A house and lot is to be purchased by paying P35,500 monthly for 25 years. The first
payment is due in 1 year. How much is the cash price of the house and lot if the interest
rate is 12% converted monthly?

6. A condominium unit is available at P29,000 monthly payable in 20 years. The first payment is
due in 2 years exactly the time when the condominium will be turned in to the buyers. How
much is the cash value if the interest rate is 10% convertible monthly?
7. A savings account may allow the owner to withdraw P30,000 semi-annually for 3 years
starting at the end of 3 years. How much is the savings if the interest rate is 4% converted semi-
annually?
8. Mr. Canlapan deposited his money from selling his old vehicle. The fund would allow him to
withdraw P45,000 semi-annually for 5 years starting at the end of 1 year. How much is the
amount deposited if the interest rate is 2% converted semi-annually?
9. A cellular phone may be purchased at P1,500 payable monthly for 18 months. The first
payment is due after 3 months. How much is the cellular phone if the interest rate is 12%
convertible monthly?
10. Ruben bought a laptop that is payable by monthly installment of P1,800 for 12 months
starting at the end of 2 months. How much is the cash value of the laptop if interest is at 10%
convertible monthly?

1. Mr. Reyes borrowed P50,000 from a lending firm to start a mini-store business. If the firm
charges simple interest of 5%, how much must Mr. Reyes pay in three years? [5]

2. Vlad opens a bank account that gives a simple interest of 2%. How much should Vlad invest
if he wants to save P20,000 after 2 years? [5]

3. In preparation for Marie’s college education, her parents want to save P400,000 after 12 years.
How much should they deposit in a bank providing an interest rate of 2% compounded
quarterly? [5]

4. How long should P50,000 be invested at 6% compounded semi-annually if it should earn an

interest of P10,000? [5]

5. Kat is choosing between two short term investments. She can invest at 10% simple interest per
year for 1½ years or 9.5% compounded monthly for the same term. Which investment should she
choose? Why? [10]

6. Shirl deposits P10,000 every 3 months in a time deposit account giving 2% interest rate
compounded quarterly. How much will she save at the end of 5 years? How much interest is
earned in all deposits? [10]

7. Mr. Bautista bought a car and gave an initial payment of P180,000 as down payment. The
remaining balance is to be settled by paying P18,000 at the end of each month for 5 years. If
interest is 10% compounded monthly, what is the cash price of his car? [10]

8. A teacher will be retiring in 15 years. At her retirement, she wants to save a fund of one
million pesos. He invested at a fund that gives 4% compounded semi-annually. How much
should she deposit every 6 months in order to have this amount upon retirement? [10]

9. Mr. Cama borrowed one million pesos from a bank to buy a house which he would pay in 15
years. How much is the monthly payment for this loan if 5% interest compounded annually is
charged against the loan? [15]

10. Reggie availed of a deferred payment scheme from a bank that gave her an option to pay
P5,500 monthly for 2 years. The first payment is due after 3 months. How much is the present
value of the loan if the interest rate is 12% converted monthly? [15]

1. Blad deposited P8,000 in a bank that gives 2.5% simple interest per year. How long will he
wait if he wants it to accumulate to P10,000? [5]

2. At what simple interest rate much P100,000 be invested so as to gain an interest of P10,000
after 5 years? [5]

3. James borrowed P16,000 from Nadine at an interest rate of 8% compounded semi-annually.

How much does he need to pay after 3 years? [5]

4. At what interest rate compounded quarterly will a certain amount double in 10 years? [5]

5. Angel has P100,000 which she plans to invest in 4 years. She is choosing between two offers.
Investment A gives 6.4% compounded semi-annually while investment B provides 6%
compounded monthly. Which investment should she choose? Why? [10]

6. A teacher will be retiring in 15 years. At her retirement, she wants to save a fund of one
million pesos. He invested at a fund that gives 4% compounded semi-annually. How much
should she deposit every 6 months in order to have this amount upon retirement? [10]

7. Cris is planning to buy a house and lot. The required down payment is P300,000. His balance
will be paid at P15,200 every month for 20 years. If money is 12% compounded monthly, how
much is the cash value of the house and lot? [10]

8. Christian wants to buy a new computer worth P35,000. He opted to pay it in equal monthly
payments for 3 months at 6 % compounded monthly. How much is his monthly payment? How
much is the total interest in all payments. [10]

9. Mrs. Paro invests P5,000 every 3 months at an interest rate of 6 % compounded annually.
How much will she have in this investment at the end of 6 years? How much interest is earned?
[10]

10. Roy purchased a house and lot by paying a down payment of P400,000 and P20,000 monthly
for 25 years. The first payment is due after one year. How much is the cash price of the house
and lot if the interest rate is 10% converted monthly? [10]

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to:
1. Illustrate Stocks and Bonds
2. Distinguish between Bonds and Stocks

Lesson Outline:
1. Definition of terms related to stocks
2. Definition of terms related to bonds

STOCKS12

Some corporations may raise money for their expansion by issuing stocks. Stocks are shares in
the ownership of the company. Owners of stocks may be considered as part owners of the
company. There are two types of stocks: common stock and preferred stock. Both will receive
dividends or share of earnings of the company. Dividends are paid first to preferred shareholders.

Stocks can be bought or sold at its current price called the market value. When a person buys
some shares, the person receives a certificate with the corporation’s name, owner’s name,
number of shares and par value per share.

BONDS13

Bonds are interest bearing security which promises to pay amount of money on a certain
maturity date as stated in the bond certificate. Unlike the stockholders, bondholders are lenders
to the institution which may be a government or private company. Some bond issuers are the
national government, government agencies, government owned and controlled corporations, non-
bank corporations, banks and multilateral agencies. Bondholders do not vote in the institution’s
annual meeting but the first to claim in the institution’s earnings. On the maturity date, the
bondholders will receive the face amount of the bond. Aside from the face amount due on the
maturity date, the bondholders may receive coupons (payments/interests), usually done semi-
annually, depending on the coupon rate stated in the bond certificate.

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208
Comparison of Stocks and Bonds 14

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209
Definition of Terms in Relation to Stocks

Stocks –share in the ownership of a company

Dividend – share in the company’s profit

Dividend Per Share –ratio of the dividends to the number of shares

Stock Market –a place where stocks can be bought or sold. The stock market in the Philippines
is governed by the Philippine Stock Exchange (PSE)

Market Value –the current price of a stock at which it can be sold

Stock Yield Ratio –ratio of the annual dividend per share and the market value per share. Also
called current stock yield.

Par Value –the per share amount as stated on the company certificate. Unlike market value, it is
determined by the company and remains stable over time

Example 1. A certain financial institution declared a P30,000,000 dividend for the common
stocks. If there are a total of 700,000 shares of common stock, how much is the dividend per
share?

Given: Total Dividend

Total Shares
Find: Dividend per Share

Solution.

Therefore, the dividend per share is

Example 2. A certain corporation declared a dividend on a stock with a par value of

Mrs Lingan owns 200 shares of stock with a par value of How much is the dividend she
received?

210
Given: Dividend Percentage

Number of Shares
Find: Dividend

Solution.
The dividend per share is:
since there are 300 shares, the total dividend is:
share shares
In summary,
Dividend=(Dividend Percentage)x(Par Value) x(No. of Shares)

Thus, the dividend is .

Example 3. Corporation A, with a current market value of P52, gave a dividend of P8 per share
for its common stock. Corporation B, with a current market value of P95, gave a dividend of P12
per share. Use the stock yield ratio to measure how much dividends shareholders are getting in
relation to the amount invested.

Solution.
Given: Corporation A:
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Dividend per share
Market value
Find: stock yield ratio

Stock yield ratio

211
Corporation B:

Dividend per share

Find: stock yield ratio

Stock yield ratio

Corporation A has a higher stock-yield-ratio than Corporation B. Thus, each peso would earn
you more if you invest in Corporation A than in Corporation B. If all other things are equal, then
it is wiser to invest in Corporation A.

As Example 3 shows, the stock yield ratio can be used to compare two or more investments.

Definition of Terms in Relation to Bonds

Bond – interest-bearing security which promises to pay (1) a stated amount of money on the
maturity date, and (2) regular interest payments called coupons.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Coupon –periodic interest payment that the bondholder receives during the time between
purchase date and maturity date; usually received semiannually

Coupon Rate –the rate per coupon payment period; denoted by r

Price of a Bond –the price of the bond at purchase time; denoted by P

Par Value or Face Value - the amount payable on the maturity date; denoted by F.

If P = F, the bond is purchased at par.

If P < F, the bond is purchased at a discount.
If P > F, the bond is purchased at premium.

212
Term of a Bond – fixed period of time (in years) at which the bond is redeemable as stated in
the bond certificate; number of years from time of purchase to maturity date.

Fair Price of a Bond –present value of all cash inflows to the bondholder.

Example 4. Determine the amount of the semi-annual coupon for a bond with a face value of
P300,000 that pays 10%, payable semi-annually for its coupons.

Given: Face Value

Coupon rate
Find: Amount of the semi-annual coupon
Solution.
Annual coupon amount: .

Semi-annual coupon amount:

Thus, the amount of the semi-annual coupon is .

Note: The coupon rate is used only for computing the coupon amount, usually paid semi-
annually. It is not the rate at which money grows. Instead current market conditions are
reflected by the market rate, and is used to compute the present value of future payments.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Example 5. Suppose that a bond has a face value of P100,000 and its maturity date is 10 years
from now. The coupon rate is 5% payable semi-annually. Find the fair price of this bond,
assuming that the annual market rate is 4%.

Given: Coupon rate payable semi-annually

Face Value
Time to maturity years

Solution: Amount of semi-annual coupon:

The bondholder receives 20 payments of each, and at

213
Present value of

Present value of 20 payments of each:

Convert to equivalent semi-annual rate:

Price

Thus, a price of P108,512.14 is equivalent to all future payments, assuming an annual market
rate of 4%.

Solved Examples
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
1. A financial institution declared a dividend of P75,000,000 for its common stock. Suppose
there are 900,000 shares of common stock, how much is the dividend per share?

Solution:
Given: Total Dividend
Total Shares

Find: Dividend per Share

Dividend per Share

Therefore, the dividend per share is

2. The ABC corporation gave out P38 dividend per share for its common stock. The market
value of the stock is Determine the stock yield ratio.

Solution:
Given: Dividend per share

Find: stock yield ratio

214

Stock yield ratio

Therefore, the stock yield ratio is 0.35 .

3. A bank declared a dividend of P27 per share for the common stock. If the common stock
closes at P93, how large is the stock yield ratio on this investment?

Solution:
Given: Dividend per share
Market value

Find: stock yield ratio

4. Find the amount of the semi-annual coupon for a P200,000 bond which pays 5% convertible
semi-annually for its coupons .

Solution:
Given: Face Value
Nominal yield

Find: Amount of the semi-annual coupon

Thus, the amount of the semi-annual coupon is .

5. Determine the amount of semi-annual coupon paid for a bond with a face value of
which matures after 8 years. How many coupons are paid?

Solution:
Given: vvFace Value

215
Nominal yield
Find: Number and Amount of each semi-annual coupon

In 8 years, there are payments.

Thus, each semi-annual coupon is paid 16 times every six months.

6. A certain bond pays coupons of every six months for

Given: Semi-annual coupons
Face Value
Time to maturity years

Solution:
The bondholder receives 16 payments of each, and at .

Convert to equivalent annual rate:

Present value of 16 semi-annual payments of each with interest per period:

Thus, the fair price of the bond isP137,585.54.

216
Lesson 31 Supplementary Exercises

1. Stockholder A got 4500 shares of stocks from XYZ Corporation. The par value is P 150. How
much is the dividend if the percentage is 3%?

2. Mr. Roman purchased 1000 shares of stocks at P25 par value. How much is his dividend if the
percentage declared by the company is 2%?

3. A certain land developer declared a dividend of P 23,000,000 for its common stock. Suppose
there are 500,000 shares of common stock, how much is the dividend per share?

4. A financial institution will give out a dividend of P57,000,000 for its common stock. Suppose
there are 700,000 shares of common stock, how much is the dividend per share?

5. A resort company gave out P11 dividend per share for its common stock. The market value of
the stock is P17. Determine the stock yield ratio.

6. A telecommunication company gave out P800 dividend per share for its common stock. The
market value of the stock is 1180. Determine the stock yield ratio.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
7. Find the amount of the semi-annual coupon for a P110,000 bond which pays 4.5% convertible
semi-annually for its coupons .

8. Find the amount of the semi-annual coupon for a P25,000 bond which pays 2.5% convertible
semi-annually for its coupons .

9. A bond promises to pay the bondholder equal payments of P6,000 in six-month intervals for
30 years. If the face amount is P450,000, what is the fair price of the bond? Assume that the
market rate is 2% compounded annually.

Lesson 32: Market Indices for Stocks and Bonds

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to describe the different
markets for stocks and bonds, and analyze the different market indices for stocks and bonds

Lesson Outline:
1. Market Indices for Stocks
2. Market Indices for Bonds

Definition: A stock market index is a measure of a portion of the stock market.

One example is the PSE Composite Index or PSEi. It is composed of 30 companies15 carefully
selected to represent the general movement of market prices.

15
http://www.pse.com.ph/stockMarket/home.html

217
The up or down movement in percent change over time can indicate how the index is
performing.

Other indices are sector indices, each representing a particular sector (e.g., financial institutions,
industrial corporations, holding firms, service corporations, mining/oil, property)16 .

The stock index can be a standard by which investors can compare the performance of their
stocks. A financial institution may want to compare its performance with those of others. This
can be done by comparing with the “financials” index.

Stock Index Tables

Stock indices are reported in the business section of magazines or newspapers, as well as online
(http://www.pse.com.ph/stockMarket/home.html). The following table shows how a list of index

Val – value of the index

Chg – change of the index value from the previous trading day (i.e., value today minus value
yesterday)

%Chg – ratio of Chg to Val (i.e., Chg divided by Val)

Stock Tables

Various information about stock prices can be reported. The following table shows how
information about stocks can be presented (values are hypothetical).

16
Ibid.

218
52-WK HI/LO – highest/ lowest selling price of the stock in the past 52 weeks

HI/LO – highest/ lowest selling price of the stock in the last trading day

STOCK – three-letter symbol the company is using for trading

DIV – dividend per share last year

VOL (100s) – number of shares (in hundreds) traded in the last trading day. In this case, stock
AAA sold 2,050 shares of 100 which is equal to 20,500 shares.

CLOSE- closing price on the last trading day.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
NETCHG- net change between the two last trading days. In the case of AAA, the net change is
0.10. The closing price the day before the last trading day is P57.29 – P0.10 = P57.19.

Buying or Selling Stocks

To buy or sell stocks, one may go to the PSE personally. However, most transactions nowadays
are done by making a phone call to a registered broker or by logging on to a reputable online
trading platform. Those with accounts in online trading platforms may often encounter a table
such as the following. Bid A

In the table, the terms mean the following:

● Bid Size – the number of individual buy orders and the total number of shares they wish
to buy
● Bid Price – the price these buyers are willing to pay for the stock
● Ask Price – the price the sellers of the stock are willing to sell the stock
● Ask Size – how many individual sell orders have been placed in the online platform and
the total number of shares these sellers wish to sell.

For example, the first row under Bid means that there are a total of 122 traders who wish to buy
a total of 354,000 shares at P21.60 per share. On the other hand, the first row under Ask means
that just one trader is willing to sell his/her 20,000 shares at a price of P21.80 per share.

219
Bond Market Indices

Definition: A bond market index is a measure of a portion of the bond market.

The main platform for bonds or fixed income securities in the Philippines is the Philippine
Dealing and Exchange Corporation (or PDEx). Unlike stock indices which are associated with
virtually every stock market in the world, bond market indices are far less common. In fact, other
than certain regional bond indices which have subindices covering the Philippines, our bond
market does not typically compute a bond market index. Instead, the market rates produced from

The Bond Market and Government Bonds

Government bonds are auctioned out to banks and other brokers and dealers every Monday by
the Bureau of Treasury. Depending on their terms (or tenors), these bonds are also called
treasury bills (t-bills), treasury notes (t-notes), or treasury bonds (t-bonds). The resulting coupon
rates and the total amount sold for these bonds are usually reported by news agencies on the day
right after the auction. Since these bond transactions involve large amounts, these bonds are
usually limited to banks, insurance firms, and other financial institutions. The banks may then re-
sell these bonds to its clients.

Although the coupon rate for bonds is fixed, bond prices fluctuate because they are traded among
investors in what is called the secondary market. These prices are determined by supply and
demand, the prevailing interest rates, as well as other market forces. As the price of the bond
may increase or decrease, some investors may choose to sell back to banks the bonds they
acquired before their maturity to cash in their gains even before maturity.

Despite the fact that bond investing is considered safer than stock investing, there is still some
risk involved. The most extreme scenario is default by the issuer. In this case, the investor can
lose not only the coupons, but even the money invested in the bond. Bond investors should thus
be aware of the financial condition of the issuer of the bond and of prevailing market conditions.

Solved Example

1. Consider the following listing on stocks and answer the questions that follow:
52 weeks

HI LO STOCK DIV YLD% VOL(100s) CLOSE NETCHG

120 105 GGG 3.5 2.8 4050 118.50 -0.50
16 12 HHH 0.9 1.1 1070 15.80 0.10

220
For Stocks GGG and HHH:

1. What was the lowest price of the stock for the last 52 weeks?
2. What was the dividend per share last year?
3. What was the annual percentage yield last year?
4. What was the closing price in the last trading day?
5. What was the closing price the day before the last trading day?
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Answers:
For Stock GGG:
1. Lowest Price = P 105.00
2. Dividend per Share = P3.50
3. YLD% = 2.8%
4. Closing Price = P 118.50
5. Closing Price (the day before the last trading day) = P 118.50 +P 0.50
= P 119.00

For Stock HHH:

1. Lowest Price = P 12.00
2. Dividend per Share = P0.90
3. YLD% = 1.1%
4. Closing Price = P15.80
5. Closing Price (the day before the last trading day) = P15.80 - P 0.10 = P 15.70

Lesson 32 Supplementary Exercises

Consider the following listing on stocks and answer the questions that follow:
52 weeks
HI LO STOCK DIV YLD% VOL(100s) CLOSE NETCHG
75 65 JJJ 2.5 2.8 1500 70 2
34 23 KKK 1.7 1.75 1200 28 -3

For Stock JJJ :

1. What was the highest price of the stock for the last 52 weeks?
2. What was the dividend per share last year?
3. What was the annual percentage yield last year?
4. What was the closing price in the last trading day?
5. What was the closing price the day before the last trading day?

221
For Stock KKK:
6. What was the lowest price of the stock for the last 52 weeks?
7. How many shares were traded in the last trading day?
8. What was the dividend per share?
9. What was the closing price in the last trading day?
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
10. What was the closing price the day before the last trading day?

Lesson 33: Theory of Efficient Markets

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to interpret the theory of
efficient markets.

Lesson Outline:
1. The Efficient Market Hypothesis
2. Different Types of Efficient Markets

Definition of Terms

Fundamental Analysis–analysis of various public information (e.g., sales, profits) about a stock

Technical Analysis –analysis of patterns in historical prices of a stock

Weak Form of Efficient Market Theory –asserts that stock prices already incorporate all past
market trading data and information (historical price information) only

Semistrong Form of Efficient Market Theory –asserts that stock prices already incorporate all
publicly available information only

Strong Form of Efficient Market Theory –asserts that stock prices already incorporate all
information (public and private)

The Efficient Market Hypothesis

The theory of efficient markets was developed by Eugene Fama in the 1970’s. It says that stock
prices already reflect all the available information about the stock.17 This means that stock prices
are “accurate”—they already give a correct measure of the value of a stock precisely because the
prices are already based on all information and expectation about the stock.

17
http://www.investopedia.com/terms/e/efficientmarkethypothesis.asp

222
The slogan “Trust market prices!” can sum up the theory. One can trust market prices because
they give an accurate measure of all possible information about the stock.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Since all stocks are “correctly priced” (because they are based on all available information), then
there is no such thing as discovering undervalued or overvalued stocks from which to gain
profits. Thus, the theory implies that investors cannot beat the market even if they do a lot of
research. In the end, investors will just find out that the correct price is what is already
published.

There are three form of efficient market, as discussed by Clarke, Jandik, and Mandelker18 .

For the weak form of the theory, stock prices already reflect all past market trading data and
historical information only. Thus, knowing past data will not give investors an edge. If the weak
form of the theory is true, then a technical analysis (an analysis of past prices) will not yield
new information and hence will not lead to systematic profits.

For semistrong form of the theory, stock prices already reflect all publicly available data,
including those involving the product, management team, financial statement, competitors and
industry. If the semistrong form of the theory is true, then doing a fundamental analysis
(gathering all public data) will still not lead to systematic profits.

For the strong form of the theory, all information (public and private) are incorporated in the
price. If the strong form of the theory is true, then investors still cannot gain systematic profits
even if they gather information that is not yet publicly known.

Solved Examples

Provide a counter-argument to the following statement.

1. We cannot beat the stock market because stock prices already reflect all the given information
about the stocks.

Sample counter-argument: Information about stocks can change quickly, and it takes time (and
high-speed computers) before a stock price can reflect all information.

2.We can beat the stock market because several people have already gained millions (or even
billions) from stock trading

18
Clarke, J., Jandik, T., & Mandelker, G. (n.d.) The efficient markets hypothesis. http://m.e-mh.org/ClJM.pdf

223

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Sample counter-argument: These people could just be lucky. By the theory of efficient
markets, investors cannot systematically gain from the stock market even if they do a lot of
research.

3. One can beat the stock market because stock prices fluctuate very often (every day, hour, and
minute), and they can be overvalued or undervalued.

Sample counter-argument: The theory of efficient markets states that all information is
incorporated right away and constantly. Thus stock prices tend to respond quickly.

4. One can beat the stock market by gathering more information about stocks to determine the
best place to invest.

Sample counter-argument: The theory of efficient market states that all the needed
information, public or private, are already incorporated in stock price.

5. One can beat the stock market by obtaining the services of financial analysts.

Lesson 33 Supplementary Exercises

True or False.

1. Stocks are shares in the ownership of a company.

2. The theory of efficient markets states that prices of investments reflect all available
information.
3. The weak form of the theory of efficient markets states that only all public information are
incorporated in the price of stocks.
4. The semistrong form of the theory of efficient markets states that only all past available
information are incorporated in the price.
5. The strong form of the theory of efficient markets states that all information (public and
private) are incorporated in the price.
6. Fundamental analysis is the analysis of historical prices.
7. Technical analysis is the analysis of past prices.
8. The theory of efficient market is developed by Eugene Fama.

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to illustrate business and
consumer loans, and distinguish between business and consumer loans.

Lesson Outline:
1. Business and Consumer Loans

Definition of Terms

Business Loan – money lent specifically for a business purpose. It may be used to start a
business or to have a business expansion

Consumer Loan –money lent to an individual for personal or family purpose

Collateral – assets used to secure the loan. It may be real-estate or other investments

Term of the Loan – time to pay the entire loan

In Examples 1-5, identify whether the following is a consumer or business loan.

Example 1. Mr. Agustin plans to have a barbershop. He wants to borrow some money from the
bank in order for him to buy the equipment and furniture for the barbershop.

Solution. Business loan

Example 2. Mr and Mrs Craig wants to borrow money from the bank to finance the college
education of their son.

Solution. Consumer loan

Example 3. Mr. Alonzo wants to have some improvements on their 10-year old house. He wants
to build a new room for their 13-year old daughter. He will borrow some money from the bank to
finance this plan.

Solution. Consumer loan

Example 4. Mr. Samson owns a siomai food cart business. He wants to put another food cart on
a new mall in the other city. He decided to have a loan to establish the new business.

Solution. Business loan

Example 5. Roan has a computer shop. She owns 6 computers. She decided to borrow some
money from the bank to buy 10 more computers.

Solution. Business loan

Identify the following whether the following illustrates a business loan or a consumer loan.

1. Mr. Lim wants to have another branch for his cellphone repair shop. He decided to apply for a
loan that he can use to pay for the rentals of the new branch.
2. Mr. Trillas runs a trucking business. He wants to buy three more trucks for expansion of his
business. He applied for a loan in a bank.
3. Mrs. Alonzo decided to take her family for a vacation. To cover the expenses, she decided to
apply for a loan.
4. Glenn decided to purchase a condominium unit near his workplace. He got a loan worth
P2,000,000.
5. Mr. Galang renovated her house forP80,000. This was made possible because of an approved
loan worth P75,000.

Lesson 35: Solving Problems on Business and Consumer Loans (Amortization and
Mortgage)

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to solve problems on
business and consumer loans (amortization and mortgage).

Lesson Outline:
1. Definition of terms
2. Loan Repayment
3. Interest Amount
4. Mortgage and Amortization
5. Outstanding Balance.

Definition of Terms

Amortization Method – method of paying a loan (principal and interest) on installment basis,
usually of equal amounts at regular intervals

Mortgage – a loan, secured by a collateral, that the borrower is obliged to pay at specified terms.

Chattel Mortgage – a mortgage on a movable property

Collateral – assets used to secure the loan. It may be a real-estate or other investments

Outstanding Balance – any remaining debt at a specified time

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226
Example 1. Mr. Garcia borrowed for the expansion of his business. The effective
rate of interest is The loan is to be repaid in full after one year. How much is to be paid after
one year?

Solution.
Given:

Find F.

Solution.

An amount of must be paid after one year.

Example 2 (Chattel mortgage). A person borrowed P1,200,000 for the purchase of a car. If his
monthly payment is on a 5 -year mortgage, find the total amount of interest.

Given: Monthly payment

Solution.
The total amount paid is given by

Thus, the total interest is the difference between the total amount paid and the amount of the
mortgage;

Total Interest = 1,860,000 – 1,200,000

= 660,000

Example 3. If a house is sold for P3,000,000 and the bank requires 20% down payment, find the
amount of the mortgage.

Solution.
Down payment = down payment rate x cash price
= 0.20(3,000,000)
= 600,000

Amount of the Loan = cash price - down payment

= 3,000,000 – 600,000
= 2,400,000

The mortgage amount is P2,400,000.

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227
Example 4. Ms Rosal bought a car. After paying the downpayment, the amount of the loan is
P400,000 with an interest rate of 9% compounded monthly. The term of the loan is 3 years. How
much is the monthly payment?

Solution

Given:
Find: the regular payment R

The regular payment is P12,719.89.

Outstanding Balance
Recall that the outstanding balance of a loan is the amount of the loan at this time.
Note: In this case, the house itself is used as the mortgaged property. Also please take note that
the other way to solve this is to directly compute the mortgaged amount by multiplying the
cash value of the property by the percentage of the financed amount, which in this case, 100%-
20%=80%. Thus, the amount of the loan is given by (0.80)(P3,000,000)= P2,400,000.

One method to compute the outstanding balance is to get the present value of all remaining
payments. This method is called the prospective method.

We use the symbol Bk to denote the outstanding balance after k payments. In other books, pOBk is
used (the “p” stands for “prospective”).

Example 5. Mrs. Se borrowed some money from a bank that offers an interest rate of 12%
compounded monthly. His monthly amortization for 5 years is P11,122.22. How much is the
outstanding balance after the 12th payment?

Given:

number of payments paid

only 48 payments remain
Find: present value of 48 future payments (since there are 48 payments left)

The outstanding balance is

Example 6. Mr. and Mrs. Banal purchased a house and lot worth P4,000,000. They paid a down
payment of P800,000. They plan to amortize the loan of P3,200,000 by paying monthly for 20
years. The interest rate is 12% convertible monthly.
(a) How much is the monthly payment?
(b) What is the total interest paid?
(c) What are the principal and interest components of the 51st payment?

Solution.

(a) Given:

Find: regular payment R

Using the formula

Then

Therefore, the monthly payment is

(b) Given:
Find: total interest paid
There are 240 payments of . The total payment is

The principal is only 3,200,000.

Interest Amount = Total Payments- Principal

The interest amount is

Note: You may be surprised to learn that much of what is being paid is for the interest. This is
particularly true if a loan is being paid over a long period of time.

c) Given:

Find: principal and interest components of the 51 st payment

The 51 st payment of is partly used to pay for the principal, and partly to pay for
the interest.

Step 1: Get the outstanding balance after the 50 th payment (the balance after the 50th payment
is what the .

Since 50 payments have been paid already, there will be 190 remaining payments.

The outstanding balance after the 50 th payment is:

Step 2: After the 50th payment, the outstanding balance is P2,991,477.63.

Since the interest rate per period is j = 0.01, then the remaining balance of P2,991,477.63 will be
charged an interest of .0( 01)( ,2 991,477.63) 29,914.78

The 51st payment of P35,234.76 will be used to pay for this interest. Thus, the interest
component I51 of the 51st payment is P29,914.78.

The remaining portion of the 51 st payment is the principal component, denoted by is:

Thus, for the 51 st payment, the part that goes to pay the interest is and the part that
goes to pay the principal is .

Solved Examples
1. A loan of is to be repaid in full after 2 years. If the interest rate is per annum.
How much should be paid after 2 years?

Solution.
Given:
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Find

230

The amount to be paid is .

2. If a car loan of requires a downpayment. How much is the mortgage?

Solution.
Down payment down payment rate cash price

Amount of the Loan = cash price - down payment

The mortgage is .

3. A person borrowed for the purchase of a car. If his monthly payment is

on an 8 -year mortgage, find the total amount of interest.

Solution.
The total amount paid is given by

Thus, the total interest is the difference between the total amount paid and the amount of the
mortgage;

The total interest is

4. A consumer loan worth is to be repaid in 12 months at convertible monthly.
How much is the monthly payment?

Solution.

Given:
Find: the regular payment R

231
5. A business loan worth P250,000 is to repay in quarterly installment for 1 year. How much is
the quarterly payment if money is worth 8% converted quarterly?

Solution.

Given
Find: the regular payment R

The quarterly payment is

6. Mr. Baldonado is considering to pay his outstanding balance after 6 years of payment. The
original amount of the loan is P500,000 payable annually in 10 years. If the interest rate is 10%
per annum and the regular payment is P81,372.70 annually, how much is the outstanding balance
after the 6th payment?

Solution.
Given:

Find: outstanding balance after 6 payments (or present value of the remaining 4 payments)

The outstanding balance after the payment is

7. Mrs. Tan got a business loan worth She promised to pay the loan semi-annually in
5 years. The semi-annual payment is if money is worth converted semi-
annually. How much is the outstanding balance after the third payment?

Solution.

Given:

Find: outstanding balance after 3 payments (or present value of the remaining 7 payments)

The outstanding balance after the payment is

8. Alana and her family acquired a loan amounting to Her monthly amortization is
for 25 years. The interest rate is convertible monthly. Find the amount of
interest and the amount of principal paid on the payment.

Solution.

Given:

(monthly for 25 years) payments have been made already)

Find: interest and principal components of the 121 st payment

We first need to find the outstanding balance after 120 payments. After the 120 th payment, there
will be 180 remaining payments.

Thus, for the 121st payment, the part that goes to pay the interest is P17,551.28 and the part that
goes to pay the principal is P3,513.20.

9. A loan amounting to P10,000 is to be paid annually for 4 years with an interest rate of 5%
compounded annually. The annual amortization is P2,820.11. Complete the following table, and
be guided by the questions below.

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233
A. How much is the amount of the loan? (outstanding balance at period 0)
B. How much is the first annual payment?
C. How much is the total amount of payment?
D. How much is the total interest paid?
E. How much is the total payments for the principal?
F. For the second payment, how much goes to pay the interest?
G. For the second payment, how much goes to pay the principal?
H How much is the outstanding balance after the 3rd payment?
I. How much should be the entry in the outstanding balance after the last payment

Solution.
A. The amount of the loan is and this is the outstanding balance at time
B. All payments are the same, so the answer isP2,820.11.
C. The total amount paid is
D. The total interest paid is Total paid Total payment

E. The total payments for the principal must be equal to the loan amount .
F. The outstanding balance after one payment is given in the table(P7,679.56). This amount will
be charged interest:

G. The amount of the second payment that goes to pay the principal is

H. since, after the third payment, there is only 1 remaining payment. The outstanding balance
after the third payment is given by

I. Since all payments are made already, the outstanding balance should be 0.

1. A business loan of P1,000,000 is to be repaid in full after 3 years. If the interest rate is 7% per
annum. How much should be paid after 3 years?

2. Mr. Espiritu obtained a P470,000 car loan that will be paid in full after 2 1/2 years. If interest
is at 12% compounded every 6 months, how much is to be paid after 2 ½ years?

3. Ms. Newman had a P55,000 business loan that is to be paid in 8 months. If interest rate is 12%
compounded monthly, how much should be paid after 8 months?

4. A consumer loan of P80,000 is obtained that is due 3 months from now. If interest rate is 8%
compounded quarterly, how much should be paid?

5. For the purchase of an SUV worth P1,200,000, the bank requires a minimum amount of 20%
down payment, find the mortgaged amount.

6. For the purchase of a farm , the bank requires a 30% down payment . How much is the
mortgaged amount if the cash value of the farm is P3,500,000?

7. Suppose that a condominium unit is purchased for P2,800,000 and the bank requires 30%
down payment, how much is the mortgaged amount?

8. A house and lot has a cash value of P600,000. The bank offers a minimum amount of 25%
down payment. How much is the loan or the mortgaged amount?

9. A family obtained a P4,500,000 mortgage. If the monthly payment is P50,000 for 12 years,
how much is the total interest paid?

10. For a purchase of a P700,000 car, the monthly amortization is P20,500 for 4 years. How
much is the total interest?

11. Ms. Santos obtained a condominium unit loan worth P2,700,000. If the monthly payment is
P29,100 for 15 years, how much is the total interest?

12. Mr. Morales obtained a 5-year mortgage for P1,700,000. If his monthly payment is P47,500 ,
how much is the total interest?

13. A consumer loan worth P75,000 is to be repaid in 18 months at 12% convertible monthly.
How much is the monthly payment?

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
14. Mr. Oclarit got a P90,000 loan to be repaid semi-annually in 3 ½ years. If interest rate is 14%
compounded semi-annually, how much is the semi-annual payment?

15. A loan of P50,000 is to be amortized by paying quarterly in 1 year. If money is worth 10%
compounded quarterly, how much is the monthly installment?

16. Mr and Mrs Avila decided to purchase a P5,000,000 house and lot. After deducting the
downpayment, the mortgage amount is P4,000,000. If interest is at

235
10% compounded monthly, how much is the monthly installment if they plan to amortize the
loan in 20 years?

17. Mr and Mrs Ramos had a housing loan payable monthly for 25 years. After paying for 12
years, how many payments are left?

18. Mr. Ramos got a business loan worth P100,000 payable quarterly for 3 years. In 1 ½ years,
how many payments are left?

19. Ms. Castillo got a business loan worth P850,000. She promised to pay the loan quarterly in 4
years. The quarterly payment is P65,109.14 if money is worth 10% converted quarterly. How
much is the outstanding balance after the second year?

20. A loan is being amortized by paying P12,000 monthly for 36 months. If money is worth 9%
compounded monthly, how much is the outstanding balance after 12 payments?

21. Gabby is paying P1,000 monthly for the payment of his loan for 2 years now. At the moment,
he still has 6 remaining payments. How much is the outstanding now if i(12) = 0.06?

22. Ms. Lim pays P3,500 quarterly for a loan for 1 year now. She still needs to pay quarterly for
another 3 years. How much is the outstanding balance now, if i(4) = 0.12?

23. A consumer loan has a scheduled payment of P2,000 every quarter for 3 years. If money is
worth 9% compounded quarterly, how much of the 5th payment goes to pay the interest?

24. A business loan is to be amortized monthly by paying P10,000 in 4 years. How much is the
interest paid on the last payment if interest rate is 12% monthly?

25. Mr. Bainto has a loan that is to be amortized by paying monthly payments of P3,200 for 1
year. After paying for 6 months, he decided to pay off the loan. How much of the 6th payment
goes to pay the principal if money is worth 12% compounded monthly?

26. Ms.Lachica got a car loan that requires a monthly payment of P13,000 for 5 years. She plans
to pay off the loan after paying for 3 years. How much of the 13th payment goes to pay the
principal if the interest rate is 10% compounded monthly?

27. Study the amortization schedule and fill in the blanks.

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28. A loan amounting to P100,000 is to be paid annually for 4 years with an interest rate of 10%
per annum. The annual amortization is P31,547.08.

236

A. How much is the amount of the loan?

B. How much is the payment on the first period?
C. For the second payment, how much goes to pay the interest?
D. For the second payment, how much goes to pay the principal?
E. How much is the outstanding balance after the 4th payment?

Topic Test 1:
Answer the following problems completely. [5 POINTS each]

1. How much is the dividend for 1,000 shares of common stock at a par value of P20 if the
dividend percentage is 2%?

2.If the declared dividend is P50,000,000 and if there are a total of 500,000 shares of common
stock, how much is the dividend per share?

3. A financial institution declared a 2.5% dividend on a stock with a par value of P800. Mrs
Lingan owns 1000 shares of stock with a par value of P800. How much is the dividend she
received?

4. A bank showed that for a certain trading day, its opening price for its common stock is P 60
while its closing price is P 62.5. What is the percent change on this trading day?

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
5. If the annual earnings per share in stocks (dividend) of a certain company is P80 and
yesterday’s closing price is P130, what is the price-to-earnings ratio?

6. What is the current yield of a bond with a face value of P50,000 that pays coupons at 5%
converted semi-annually and bought at face value?

7. What is the current yield of a bond with a face value of P200,000 that pays coupons at 4%
converted semi-annually and bought at P 210,000?

8. What is the amount of the semi-annual coupon for a bond with a face value of P100,000 that
pays 8% convertible semi-annually for its coupons?

For nos. 9-12, given the following listing on stocks, answer the questions that follow:

237
52 weeks
HI LO STOCK DIV YLD% PE VOL(100s) CLOSE NETCHG
50 35.8 AAB .40 1.2 10 2000 57.29 1.3
43.5 37 BBA .35 1.9 5.7 1200 40.70 -0.5

9. What was the dividend per share last year for stock AAB?
10. What was the annual percentage yield last year for stock BBA?
11. What was the closing price in the last trading day for stock BBA?
12. For stock AAB, what was the closing price the day before the last trading day?
For nos. 13-16, refer to the following listing on bonds:

52 weeks
WEEKLY
HIGH LOW NAME CUR SALES HIGH LOW LAST NET
YLD (1000) CHG
101 88 XXY 5 21 3.1 20 100 98 100 -1
104 100 YYX 4 22 27 30 102 97 101 1

13. What is the current yield of the bond XXY?

14. What is the maturity year of the bond YYX?
15. What is closing price of the bond XXY in the last trading day?
16. For a P1,000 YYX bond ,what is the closing price last week?
17. If a house is sold for P5,000,000 and the bank requires 20% down payment, find the amount
of the mortgage.
For nos 18-20, refer to the following problem: A loan of P1,000 is repaid by paying P263.80
annually for 5 years. If interest rate is 10% annually,
18. How much of the 1st payment goes to pay the interest?
19. How much of the 1st payment goes to pay the principal?
20. After 4 years, how much is the pay off for the loan?

Answer the following problems completely.

1. What is the current yield of a bond with a face value of P90,000 that pays coupons at 6%
converted semi-annually and bought at [15]
a) face value?
b) at a discount worth P 88,000?
c) at a premium worth P 95,000?

2. What is the amount of the semi-annual coupon for a bond with a face value of P30,000 that
pays 6% convertible semi-annually for its coupons? [5]

3. How much is the dividend for 5,000 shares of common stock at a par value of P200 if the
dividend percentage is 5%? [5]

4. If the declared dividend is P20,000,000 and if there are a total of 100,000 shares of common
stock, how much is the dividend per share? [5]

5. A realty declared a 5% dividend on a stock with a par value of P3000. Mrs Abad owns 2000
shares of stock with a par value of P3000. How much is the dividend she received? [5]

6. A financial institution showed that for a certain trading day, its opening price for its common
stock is P 105 while its closing price is P 98. What is the percent change on this trading day? [5]

7. If the annual earnings per share in stocks (dividend) of a certain company is P78 and
yesterday’s closing price is P95, what is the price-to-earnings ratio? [5]

8. A loan is to be amortized by paying 5000 annually for 7 years. If interest rate is 6% annually,
[15]
a) how much is the outstanding balance after 5 payments?
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b) how much of the 6th payment goes to pay the interest?
c) how much of the 6th payment goes to pay the principal?

239
Lesson 36: Propositions

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to illustrate a proposition,
symbolize propositions, and distinguish between simple and compound propositions

Lesson Outline:
1. Define proposition. Give examples and non-examples
2. Define simple and compound propositions. Distinguish simple and compound propositions.
3. Group work.

Definition: A proposition is a declarative sentence that is either true or false, but not both. If a
proposition is true, then its truth value is true, which is denoted by T; otherwise, its truth value is
false, which is denoted by F.

Propositions are usually denoted by small letters. For example, the proposition
p: Everyone should study logic
may be read as
p is the proposition “Everyone should study logic.”

If a sequence of propositions is considered, we denote the propositions by P1,P2,...

Example 1. Determine whether each of the following statements is a proposition or not. If it is a

proposition, give its truth value.

p: Mindanao is an island in the Philippines.

q: Find a number which divides your age.
r: My seatmate will get a perfect score in the logic exam.
s: Welcome to the Philippines!
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is a rational function.
v: What is the domain of the function?
w: I am lying.
It is not the case that is a rational number.
Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.
If you are a Grade 11 student, then you are a Filipino.

240
p4 : If you are more than 60 years old, then you are entitled to a Senior Citizen’s card, and if you
are entitled to a Senior Citizen’s card, then you are more than 60 years old.

Solution. Recall that for a statement to be a proposition, it must be a declarative sentence, and it
should have a truth value of either true or false, but not both true and false at the same time.

p. This is a declarative sentence, and Mindanao is an island in the Philippines. Hence p is a

proposition.

q. This is an imperative sentence, and so it is not a proposition.

r. The statement is a declarative sentence, but its truth value will only be known after the logic
exam. Nonetheless, it can either be true or false, but not both. Hence r is a proposition.

s. This statement is exclamatory, and hence it is not a proposition.

t. The given equation is a mathematical sentence. Translated into English, the equation reads “the
sum of three and two is five”, which is a declarative sentence. It is also a true statement. Hence t
is a true proposition.

u. This is a declarative statement. Since the numerator of the function is not a polynomial
function, the function f is not rational, so the statement is false. It is therefore a false proposition.

v. This is an interrogative sentence. Hence it is not a proposition.

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w. Although w is a declarative sentence, it is not a proposition because it can neither be true nor
false. Suppose w is true—that is, it is the case that I am lying. Since I am lying, my statement is
not true, and so w must be false. The same conclusion can be drawn if w is assumed to be false.

While this is a declarative sentence, it can be shown that cannot be expressed as a

quotient of two integers. Thus, is a false proposition.

This is a declarative sentence, which is true, since students may find logic either fun or
boring. Hence is a true proposition.

This is a declarative sentence, but it is not true. There are also Grade 11 students of other
nationalities.

We know that it is a true proposition. This is also known as a biconditional statement, since
we can rewrite it as "You are more than 60 years old if and only if you are entitled to a Senior
Citizen's card."

241
Definition. A compound proposition is a proposition formed from simpler proposition using
logical connectors or some combination of logical connectors. Some logical connectors
involving propositions p and/or q may be expressed as follows:

not p
p and q
p or q
If p, then q

where <.> stands for some proposition. A proposition is simple if it cannot be broken down any
further into other component propositions.

Example 2. For each of the propositions in Example 1, determine whether it is a simple or a

compound proposition. If it is a compound proposition, identify the simple components.

Solution. The propositions p, r, t, and u are all simple propositions. On the other hand, the
following are compound propositions:

It is not the case that is a rational number.

Either logic is fun and interesting, or it is boring.
If you study hard, then you will get good grades.
If you are more than 60 years old, then you are entitled to a Senior Citizen's card, and if you
are entitled to a Senior Citizen's card, then you are more than 60 years old.
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Furthermore, we can determine the simple propositions that make up the propositions
and We do so in the following table.

The compound propositions can thus be expressed as follows:

not
and or
if then
and (if s then a)

242
Solved Examples

1. Determine whether the following statements are propositions. If it is a proposition, determine

its truth value if possible.
a: Is the traffic heavy along Katipunan Avenue today?
b: Please close the door.
c:
d: 144 is a perfect square.
e: Keep right while passing through the corridor.
f:
g: The year 2016 is a leap year and the equation has no real solutions.
h: If a triangle has a right angle, then the triangle is called a right triangle.
i: Either a student takes a mathematics elective next semester, or he takes a business elective next
year.
j: What is in simplest form?
k: This is a false statement.

Solution.

a: This is not a proposition since it is a question.

b: This is not a proposition since it is an imperative statement.
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c: While this is a proposition (in English, it can be read as "x plus 2 is equal to , which is
declarative), its truth value cannot be ascertained since the value of is unknown.
d: This is a true proposition, since it is declarative and we know that
e: This is an imperative statement, and hence it is not a proposition.
f: This is a proposition, since it can be translated as "2 is less than or equal to negative but it
is false.
g: This is a compound proposition, whose simple components are "The year 2016 is a leap
year" and "The equation has no real solutions". since both and are both
true, then the compound proposition is true. The reason why the compound proposition is true
will be explained in the next lesson.
h: This is the definition of a right triangle, and is hence a true proposition. Observe also that it is
a compound proposition: If a triangle has a right angle, then the triangle is a called right triangle.

243
i: This is a compound proposition using the logical connector or. Its truth value cannot be
determined since we do not know information about which elective the student took.

j: This is not a proposition, because it is a question.

k: While this is a declarative statement, it can neither be true nor false. If we suppose that the
statement is false, then it consequently justifies that the statement is true. Hence, it is not a
proposition.

2. For each of the following compound propositions, identify the simple components and the
logical connectors used.

a: You went to the rock concert and your ears hurt.

b: It is not the case that it is Monday today.
c: Either today is a rainy day or today is a sunny day.
d: If fewer than 10 persons are in attendance, then the meeting will be cancelled.
e: Carlos will not fail the course if his final exam score exceeds 50%.

Solution.
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a: For this compound proposition, we have the following simple components: "You went to
the rock concert" and "Your ears hurt." The logical connector used with and is and.

b: The simple component here is "It is Monday today." The compound proposition is formed
as not

c: Using the simple components : "Today is a rainy day." and : "Today is a sunny day.", the
compound proposition is formed with the logical connector or.

d: This compound proposition is of the if-then form; in particular, we have "If then ," where
: "Fewer than 10 persons are in attendance" and : "The meeting will be cancelled."

e: This is also another if-then statement, but it is written in reverse order. The given statement
may also be expressed as "If his final exam score exceeds then Carlos will not fail the
course." Symbolically, we have "If then not ", where :
"His final exam score exceeds " and "Carlos will fail the course."

244
Lesson 36 Supplementary Exercises

Determine whether the following statements are propositions. If the proposition is a compound
proposition, identify the simple components and the logical connectors used.

1. Define a polynomial function.

2. Justin Bieber has over one million followers on Twitter and Instagram.
3. If Ted’s score is less than 50, then Ted will fail the course.
4. What time is it?
5. Either it is sunny in Metro Manila or its streets are flooded.
6. Dinner is served with coffee or tea.
7. If and denote the lengths of the legs and the hypotenuse of a right triangle, then

8. Timothy's average is at least 92 and he is getting an for the course.

is not a negative number.
10. A password must be at least 6 characters long or it must be at least 8 characters long.
11. If Jerry receives a scholarship, then he will go to college.
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12. If you fix my computer, then I will pay you Php 2,000 and if I pay you Php 2,000 , then you
will fix my computer.
13. If you do not run 1 kilometer a day or do not eat properly, then you will not be healthy.

245
Lesson 37: Logical Operators

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to perform different types of
operations on propositions.

Lesson Outline:
1. Introduce how to construct a truth table.
2. Define the logical operators: negation, conjunction, disjunction, conditional and biconditional.
3. Class activity.

Definition: Given a proposition, its truth table show all its possible truth values.

Example 1. since a proposition has two possible truth values, a proposition would have the
following truth table.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Truth tables can also be used to display various combinations of the truth values of two
propositions and . The rows of the table will correspond to the each truth value combination
of and so there will be rows. The truth table for propositions and are as follows.

Similarly, suppose and are propositions. Then the truth table involving the given
propositions has rows, as shown below.

In general, a truth table involving n propositions has 2n rows.

246
Definition. The negation of a proposition is denoted by

and is defined through its truth table

Example 2. State the negation of the following propositions.

is a polynomial function.
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
is an odd number.
The tinikling is the most difficult dance.
Everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano.

Solution.
is not true that is a polynomial function" or simply
is not a polynomial function".
is not true that 2 is an odd number", or is an even number."
"The tinikling is not the most difficult dance."
"Not everyone in Visayas speaks Cebuano."

Definition. The conjunction of the propositions and is denoted by

and is defined through its truth table

The propositions and are called conjuncts.

The conjunction is true only when both conjuncts and are true, as shown in its truth
table.

Example 3. Let and be the propositions

Angels exist.

247
Express the following conjunctions in English sentences or in symbols, as the case may be.

1.
2.
3. "Angels do not exist and ."
4. "While angels do not exist, ."

Solution.
1. "Angels exist and ."
2. "Angels exist and " or "Angels exist, yet ."
3.

Definition. The disjunction of two propositions and is denoted by

and is defined through its truth table

The propositions and are called disjuncts.

The above truth table shows us that the disjunction is false only when both disjuncts and
are false.

Example 4. Let and be the following propositions:

Victor has a date with Liza.
Janree is sleeping.
Eumir is eating.

Express the following propositions in English sentences or in symbols, as the case may be.
1.
2.
3.

248
4. "Either Victor has a date with Liza or Janree is sleeping, or Eumir is eating."
5. "Either Victor has a date with Liza and Janree is sleeping, or Eumir is eating."
6. "Either Victor has a date with Liza, or Janree is sleeping, and Eumir is eating."
7. "Either Victor has a date with Liza and Janree is sleeping, or Victor has a date with Liza and
Eumir is eating."

Solution. The corresponding English sentences or symbols are given below.

1. "Victor has a date with Liza or Janree is sleeping."
2. "Either Janree is sleeping or Eumir is not eating."

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
3. "Either Victor has a date with Liza, or Janree is sleeping, or Eumir is eating."
4.
5.
6.
7.

It will be shown later that and are logically equivalent statements, so we

can write Likewise, it will also be shown that and are
logically equivalent, so we can write .

Example 5. Suppose , and are the propositions defined above. Consider the scenario that
one Friday night, Victor and Janree are studying for their Logic exam. Meanwhile, Eumir just
tweeted a picture of himself eating crispy pata and sisig. What is the truth value of the
proposition

Solution. From the given scenario, it follows that and are false proposition, and is a true
proposition. Therefore, the conjunction is false. Also, is true since is false. Hence,
the disjunction is true since at least one of its disjuncts is true.

The above discussion may also be summarized in the following table:

Definition. The conditional of the propositions and is denoted by

and is defined through its truth table

249

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
The conditional may also be read as "p implies ". The proposition is called the
hypothesis, while the proposition is called the conclusion.

Example 6. Suppose that Geebee is a Grade 11 student. Consider the following conditionals.
If Geebee is in Grade then she is a senior high school student.

If Geebee is in Grade 11 , then she is working as a lawyer.

If Geebee has a degree in computer science, then she believes in true love.

Analyze the truth value of these conditionals.

Solution.

The hypothesis and the conclusion are true. Thus, is true (from the first row of the truth
table for the conditional statement).

While the hypothesis is true, the conclusion is not (a Grade 11 student is not qualified to be a
lawyer). From the definition of the conditional (second row of its truth table), the conditional
statement is not true.

The hypothesis is not true since Geebee is still in Grade On the other hand, we cannot
determine the truth value of the conclusion "she believes in true love." From the last two rows of
the truth table, regardless of the truth value of the conclusion, the conditional statement is true.

Example 7. One day, Richard tweeted: "If I get promoted, then I will stop posting selfies on
Facebook." Let be the statement "Richard gets promoted," and let be the statement, "Richard
stops posting selfies on Facebook." Determine whether the conditional is true given the
following scenarios.

Scenario Richard got the promotion and promptly stopped posting selfies on Facebook.

Scenario Richard got promoted, but then he realized that posting selfies has become a habit
he cannot break easily.

Scenario Richard stopped posting selfies, but he did not get the promotion.

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250
Solution.
Scenario A: Both the hypothesis and conclusion are true, so the conditional is true.

Scenario In this scenario, the hypothesis is true and conclusion is false. By definition, the
conditional is false.

Scenario : The hypothesis is false, hence regardless of the truth value of the conclusion, the
conditional is false. In this case, he did not break his promise since he was not promoted
in the first place.

Example 8. Determine the truth values of the following propositions.

(a) If then there are 100 million Filipinos.
(b) If then there are only 5 languages in the Philippines.
(c) If then it is more fun in the Philippines.

Solution.
(a) The hypothesis and the conclusion are both true. Hence the conditional is true.
(b) The hypothesis is true, but the conclusion is wrong because there are more than 5 languages
in the Philippines! In fact there are more than 100 languages in the country. Thus, the conditional
is false.
(c) Because the hypothesis is false, the conditional is true whether it is indeed more fun in the
Philippines or not.

Definition. The biconditional of propositions and is denoted by

and is defined through its truth table:

The proposition may also be written as " iff The propositions and are the components of
the biconditional.

Example 9. Suppose that Geebee is a Grade 11 student. Let us now consider the following
biconditionals.

Geebee is in Grade 11 if and only if she is a senior high school student.

Geebee is in Grade 11 if and only if she is working as a lawyer.

Solution.
Again, both simple components of are true. Therefore, the biconditional statement is true.
It is true that Geebee is in Grade but it is not true that Geebee is working as a lawyer.
Therefore, the biconditional is not true, referring to the second row of its truth table.
The first simple proposition, that Geebee has a degree in Computer Science, is false. The
truth value of the entire biconditional depends on the truth value of the second simple
component,that she believes in true love. If this is true, then the biconditional is false (referring
to the third row of the truth table); otherwise, the biconditional is true.

Solved Examples
1. State the negation of the following propositions.

a: Mary received a text message from her friend.

b:
c: Eden teaches high-level mathematics to college students.
d: James was not able to fetch his sister from school today.
e: The student brings at most two bags with him every school day.

Solution.
Mary did not receive a text message from her friend.

Eden does not teach high-level mathematics to college students.

James was able to fetch his sister from school today.
The student brings more than two bags with him every school day.

2. Let and be the propositions "Annie has a stomach ache.", "Annie misses the
exam." and "Annie receives a passing grade for the subject." Express the following in English
sentences or in symbols, as the case may be.

a. "Annie does not have a stomach ache, yet she misses the exam."
b. "If Annie has a stomach ache, then she misses the exam and does not receive a passing grade
for the subject."

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
252
c. Either Annie has a stomach ache and misses the exam, or she does not miss the exam and she
receives a passing grade for the subject.
d.
e.
f.

Solution.
a.
b.
c.
d. "If Annie misses the exam, then she does not receive a passing grade for the subject."
e. "If Annie has a stomach ache, then she does not receive a passing grade for the subject, or if
she misses the exam, then she does not receive a passing grade for the subject".
f. "Annie does not miss the exam if and only if she receives a passing grade for the subject."
3. Let and be the propositions : "Bea drives over the speed limit along the highway.",
"Bea is pulled over by the traffic enforcer." and "Bea receives a speeding ticket." Express
the following propositions in English sentences or in symbols, as the case may be.
a. "Bea does not drive over the speed limit and does not receive a speeding ticket."
b. "Whenever Bea drives over the speed limit, she is pulled over by the traffic enforcer."
c. "Bea receives a speeding ticket only if she drives over the speed limit along the highway or if
she is pulled over by the traffic enforcer."

Note. Propositions of the form " only if can be represented symbolically as . This
follows from the definition of a biconditional statement.

d.
e.
f.
Solution.
a.

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253
b.
c.
d. "If Bea is pulled over by the MMDA traffic enforcer, then either she drives over the speed
limit and she receives a speeding ticket, or she does not receive a speeding ticket."
e. "Bea receives a speeding ticket if and only if she drives over the speed limit and she is pulled
over by the MMDA traffic enforcer."
f. "If Bea does not drive over the speed limit and she is pulled over by the MMDA traffic
enforcer, then she does not receive a speeding ticket."
4. Suppose is a true proposition, is a false proposition, and is a true proposition. Determine
the truth value of the following propositions.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.
f.

Solution.
a. since is false, then is false. Thus, is false.
b. At least one of the disjuncts of is true, so the disjunction is true Therefore,
is true.
c. Note that is true since is false. Therefore, is true. since both the hypothesis
and the conclusion in the conditional is true, then the statement is true.
d. since is true, then is true. since is true, is false. Therefore, is
false.
e. Given that is true, which is the hypothesis, is false. Therefore, regardless of the truth
value of the conditional is true.
f. since and do not have the same truth value, is false. Likewise, is true
since and are both false. Therefore, the disjunction is true.
5. Determine the truth values of the propositions and that will make the following statements
false.

Solution.
a. For this conditional to be false, must be true and must be false. since must be
false, then is true, and so the disjunction is automatically true. Therefore, the
conditional is false if and only if is false and has any truth value.
We require that is false while is true. For to be false, at least one of and
must be false. We take cases.

Suppose is false. Then for to be true, must be true, or must be false.

Therefore, if and are both false, then is false.

Suppose is true. Then must be false (for to be false). If is false, then is true, and
so is true. Thus, if is true and is false, then is false.

Therefore, we have two sets of truth values that will make the proposition true:

Lesson 37 Supplementary Exercises

1. State the negation of the following propositions.

Mathematics is easy to study.
Nellie's favorite song is "Hero" by Mariah Carey.
o: Logic is not taken up in junior high school.

There are at least three people in the meeting room at the moment.
2. Let and be the propositions "Rena eats at the Spanish restaurant.", "Rena orders
the restaurant's special paella.", "Rena has dessert." Express the following statements in
English sentences or in symbols, as the case may be.
a. "Rena orders the restaurant's special paella, but she does not have dessert."
b. "Whenever Rena eats at the Spanish restaurant, either she orders the restaurant's special paella
or she has dessert."
c. "If Rena eats at the Spanish restaurant, she orders the restaurant's special paella if and only if
she does not order dessert."

3. Consider the propositions "Pam works as a sales associate." : "Bryan has a temporary
position in the office." and "Pam and Bryan are co-workers." Express the following
propositions in English sentences or in symbols as the case may be.
a. "Pam and Bryan are co-workers, but Pam works as a sales associate and Bryan does not have a
temporary position in the office."
b. "Pam and Bryan are co-workers, but if Bryan has a temporary position in the office, then Pam
does not work as a sales associate."
c. "Pam and Bryan are co-workers if and only if either Pam works as a sales associate or Bryan
has a temporary position in the office."
d.
e.
f.

4. Suppose and are true propositions and is a false proposition. Determine the truth value of
the following compound propositions.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

5. Determine the truth values of and that will make the following propositions false.
a.
b.

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to determine the possible
truth value of a given compound proposition using truth tables and identify tautologies and
contradictions.

Lesson Outline:
1. Constructing truth tables.
2. Define a tautology and contradiction.
3. Class activity.

Example 1. Let and be propositions. Construct the truth table for the compound

Solution. Note that there are two propositions, and , involved in the compound proposition.
Thus, the truth table will contain 4 rows, the first two columns of which
Are

Using the truth table for the definition of the conditional statements and we add
two more columns to indicate the truth values of and

In the final column, we add the truth value of which is a conjunction

involving and as disjuncts.

257
Solution. There are three primitive propositions involved, and so the truth table for the
compound proposition has 8 rows.

We first consider the truth table pertaining to , the hypothesis of the entire
conditional.

Next we consider the conclusion of the conditional. For this, we require the truth
value of and which will be appended to the table above.

Lastly, we consider the truth value of the proposition which we define to be

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Note that regardless of the truth values of and proposition is always true. Such
propositions are called tautologies.

Definition. A proposition that is always true is called a tautology, while a proposition that is
always false is called a contradiction. We denote tautologies by and contradictions by

258
Example. Let and be propositions. Using truth tables, show the following:
a. is a tautology.

is a contradiction
c. is a tautology.
d. is a contradiction.

Solution.
a. Note that is always true. Hence in the disjunction there is at least one true disjunct.
Therefore, is a tautology since regardless of the truth value of , is true.

b. since is always false, then the second column of the truth table we will be constructing will
contain Fs. We have the following truth table

Regardless of the truth value of is always false. Hence, it is a contradiction.

c. We have the following truth table

d. We have the following truth table

259
We note that is false for any combination of truth values of and
Therefore, is a contradiction.

Solved Examples
1. Construct the truth table for the following compound propositions. Assume all variables
denote propositions.

a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

Solution.
a.

We note that is a contradiction.

c. Let denote the proposition .

Hence, is a tautology.

260
d. Let denote the proposition

e. Let denote the proposition

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2. Show that the following statements are tautologies by constructing the truth table for each.
a.
b.
c.
d.

Solution.
a. Let denote the proposition

Hence, is a tautology.
b. Let denote the proposition .

261
Hence, is a tautology
C.

d. Let denote the proposition

Therefore, is a tautology.

Lesson 38 Supplementary Exercises

1. Construct the truth table for the following compound propositions. Assume all variables
denote propositions.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

2. Show that the following statements are tautologies by constructing the truth table for each.
a.
b.
c.
d.
e.

262
Lesson 39: Logical Equivalence and Conditional Propositions
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to identify logically
equivalent propositions, and illustrate different forms of conditional propositions.

Lesson Outline:
1. Define a logical equivalence.
2. Define different forms of conditional proposition.
3. Seatwork.

Definition. Two propositions and qare logically equivalent, denoted by , if they have the
same truth values for all possible truth values of their simple components.

Logical equivalence can also be expressed in terms of a biconditional statement. Two

propositions and are logically equivalent if the proposition is always true (or is a
tautology).

Example 1. Show that . We shall call this logical equivalence the

Switcheroo law .

Solution. We need to show that and have the same truth values using a truth
table.

Notice that the third and fifth columns of the truth table above contains the same truth values in
the same sequence. Thus

19
Waner, C. & Costenoble, S.R. (2001). Supplementary chapters to accompany Finite Mathematics, 2nd ed. Brooks/Cole.
(http://www.zweigmedia.com/RealWorld/logic/logicintro.html)

263
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The table below shows the different logical equivalences that are used when manipulating
compound propositions.

Theorem (Table of Logical Equivalences). Let and be propositions. We have the

following logical equivalences

Note: In the previous lecture, it was shown that has the same truth table as
Therefore, we can say that

Example 2. Show that using logical equivalences.

Solution. One way to do this is to construct a truth table for each logical expression then show
that they have the same truth values. Another method is to use the logical equivalences to
transform into .
Reason
Given
Switcheroo
De Morgan’s Law
Double Negation

Example 3. Let and be propositions. Construct the truth tables for each of the

Solution. We construct a single truth table containing each of the conditionals:

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264
Note that the fifth and eighth columns are the same, so we have shown that
Likewise, since the sixth and seventh columns are identical, it follows
that

The conditionals that we considered in the previous example are the different forms of
conditional propositions.

Definition. Suppose and are propositions. From the conditional proposition we

derive three other conditional statements, namely its

a. Converse:
b. Contrapositive:
c. Inverse:

Note that a conditional and the corresponding contrapositive are logically equivalent. Likewise
for a given conditional statement, its converse and inverse are logically equivalent.

We can also show that using logical equivalences in the

following manner.

Reason

Switcheroo
Commutative Law
Double Negation
Switcheroo

Likewise, we can also show that by means of logical

equivalences:
Reason

Switcheroo
Commutative Law
Double Negation
Switcheroo

Example 4. Consider the following true conditional

"If Geebee is in Grade 11 , then she is a senior high school student."

State its (a) converse, (b) contrapositive, and (c) inverse and determine whether each statement is
also true.

Solution.

a. Converse "If Geebee is a senior high school student, then she is in Grade 11 ." This
is not necessarily true.

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265
b. Contrapositive "If Geebee is not a senior high school student, then she is
not in Grade 11 ." This is true.

c. Inverse "If Geebee is not in Grade 11 , then she is not a senior high
school student." This is not necessarily true.

Example 5. Let be the political slogan: "If there are no corrupt people, then there are no
poor people." State the converse, contrapositive, and the inverse of

Solution.
Converse "If there are no poor people, then there are no corrupt people."

Contrapositive "If there are poor people, then there are corrupt people."

Inverse "If there are corrupt people, then there are poor people."

Solved Examples

1. Determine the converse, contrapositive and the inverse of the following conditional
propositions.

a. "If it is consumed in large volumes, then chocolate can be harmful to one's health."
b. "Whenever she will be given the chance to perform on stage, Whitney will sing all her classic
songs."
c. "If Sheila will decide to enter through the front door, then she will be greeted by a large group
of press people."
d. "Dana studied for the exam alone if her boyfriend decided to go home early to sleep."
e. "If at least one student slept in class, then Lyn gave a difficult quiz to wake the students."

Solution.

a. Note that the given proposition is of the form where "It (chocolate) is consumed in
large volumes" and "Chocolate can be harmful to one's health."

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266
We can write the given proposition as, "If she will be given the chance to perform on stage, then
Whitney will sing her classic songs." It is now of the form , where "She will be given
the chance to perform on stage." and "Whitney will sing her classic songs.

c. The given conditional is of the form , where "Sheila will decide to enter through the
front door" and "she will be greeted by a large group of press people"

d. Note that we can write the given conditional as "If her boyfriend decided to go home early to
sleep, then Dana studied for the exam alone," which is now of the form , where "Her
boyfriend decided to go home early." and "Dana studied for the exam alone."

e. The given proposition is of the form , where "At least one student slept in class" and
"Lyn gave a difficult quiz to wake the students."

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
267
2. Verify the following logical equivalences using (a) the known logical equivalences, and (b)
truth tables.

a.
b.
c.
d.

Solution. We will verify these logical equivalences using the known logical equivalences. The
construction of truth tables to prove the equivalence will be left to the student as an exercise.

a. We can start with the right-hand side of the equivalence.

Reason
Given
De Morgan's Law
Double Negation
B.
Reason
Given
Switcheroo
Double Negation
Switcheroo

Associative Law and

Switcheroo

c. For this exercise, we will use the fact that conditionals are logically equivalent to their
respective contrapositives.

Reason
Given
Logical equivalence for
biconditionals
` Conditionals are logically
equivalent to their contrapositives
Commutative Law
Logical equivalence for
Biconditionals

Distributive Law

Idempotent Law and

Inverse Law

Identity Law

Absorption Law

Lesson 39 Supplementary Exercises

1. Determine the converse, contrapositive, and inverse of the following conditional propositions.
a. "If the clothes are neatly stacked and pressed, then the house help arrived today."
b. "If it did not flood yesterday, then the streets are dry today."
c. "Whenever Nico studied alone, he got the highest score in the class."
d. "Her parents gave her monetary allowance if Bianca accompanied her parents to the PTA
meeting."
e. "If Mariah hit the high whistle note, then the audience gave her a standing Ovation."

2. Verify the following logical equivalences using (a) the known logical equivalences and (b)
truth tables.

a.
b.
c.
d.

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to illustrate different types of
valid arguments and fallacies, and establish the validity of arguments.

Lesson Outline:
1. Introduction.
2. Define argument.
3. Define valid argument.
4. Define fallacy.
5. Define sound argument.

Definition. An argument is a compound proposition of the form

The propositions are the premises of the argument, and is the conclusion.
Arguments can be written in propositional form, as in above, or in column or standard form:

P1
P1
.
.
.

Example 1. Explain why the following set of propositions is an argument.

If General Antonio Luna is a national hero, then he died at the hands of the Americans in 1899 .

General Luna is a national hero.

Therefore, General Luna died at the hands of the Americans in 1899 .

Solution. The set of propositions is an argument. The first two propositions are the premises of
the argument, while the last proposition, marked by the word "therefore", is the conclusion of the
argument.

Example 2. Write the following argument in propositional form and in standard form:
If there is a limited freshwater supply, then we should conserve water.
There is a limited freshwater supply.

Solution. The premises of this argument are

If there is a limited freshwater supply, then we should conserve water.
There is a limited freshwater supply.
The conclusion is
We should conserve water.
In symbols, we can write the whole argument in propositional form and in
standard form

_____
q

Example 3. Consider the arguments A and A1 given below.

If my alarm sounds, then I If my alarm sounds, then I

will wake up. will wake up.
My alarm sounded. I woke up. Therefore, my alarm
Therefore, I woke up. sounded.

We can analyze the arguments separately by looking at its validity.

Definition. An argument is valid if it satisfies the validity condition:

Is it logically impossible for the premises to be true and the conclusion false?

If the answer is affirmative, we say that the argument satisfies the validity condition, and is
hence valid.

Solution. For argument we ask: can and be both true and be false? To answer this,
we look at the truth table for :

The highlighted row shows that both and are true if and only if is true. Based on the
truth table, it is not possible for and to be true and to be false. Hence, argument is
valid.

For argument we ask: can and be both true and be false? Looking at the same truth
table, we ask: can and be both true and be false? Looking at the same truth table,

the highlighted row shows that it is possible for and be both true and be false. Hence,
argument does not satisfy the validity condition and so it is not a valid argument. and
be both true and be false. Hence, argument does not satisfy the validity condition and so it is
not a valid argument.

Definition. A valid argument satisfies the validity condition; that is, the conclusion is true
whenever the premises are all true. Alternatively, the argument is valid if the
conditional is true whenever the premises are all true. Alternatively, the
argument is valid if the conditional

is a tautology.

Example 4. Prove that the argument is valid. This argument is known as

Modus Ponens (or Rule of Detachment). is valid. This argument is known
as Modus Ponens (or Rule of Detachment).

Solution. We only need to show that is a tautology. We can do this by

constructing a truth table. is a tautology. We can do this by constructing a
truth table.

since is a tautology, then the argument is valid. is a

tautology, then the argument is valid.

Example 5. Consider the arguments in the previous examples:

Argument
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If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up.
My alarm sounded.
Therefore, I woke up.

Argument
If there is a limited freshwater supply, then we should conserve water.
There is a limited freshwater supply.

272
Therefore, we should conserve water.

Argument
If General Antonio Luna is a national hero, then he died at the hands of the Americans in

General Luna is a national hero.

Therefore, General Luna died at the hands of the Americans in 1899 .

Note that they are all of the form or in standard form

_____
q

Hence, by Modus Ponens, all three arguments are valid. However, this does not mean that the
conclusions are true. Asserting that an argument is valid simply means that the conclusion
logically follows from the premises.

Theorem (Rules of Inference). Let and be propositions.

If Antonio and Jose are friends, then they are Facebook friends.

Antonio and Jose are not Facebook friends.

Therefore, they are not friends.

Solution. Let "Antonio and Jose are friends." and "Antonio and Jose are Facebook
friends." Then the given argument is of the form

_________

This is valid by Modus Tollens.

Example 7. Determine which rule is the basis of each argument below.

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a. Antonio Luna and Jose Rizal like Nelly Boustead.
Therefore, Antonio Luna likes Nelly Bousted.
b. Antonio Luna is a scientist.
Therefore, either Antonio Luna or Jose Rizal is a scientist.
c. If the Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna, then he will repent and not join the revolution.

If Antonio Luna regrets not joining the revolution, then he will go to Belgium to study the art of
war.

Therefore, if the Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna, then he will go to Belgium to study the art of
war.

Solution.
a. Let "Antonio Luna likes Nelly Boustead." and "Jose Rizal likes Nelly Boustead." The
given argument is of the form

By the Rule of Simplification, the argument is valid.

b. Let "Antonio Luna is a scientist." and : "Jose Rizal is a scientist." The argument is of the
form

By the Rule of Addition, the argument is valid.

274
c. Let "The Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna.", "Antonio Luna regrets not joining the
revolution", and "Antonio Luna goes to Belgium to study the art of war."The argument is of
the form "The Spaniards imprison Antonio Luna.", "Antonio Luna regrets not joining the
revolution", and "Antonio Luna goes to Belgium to study the art of war."The argument is of
the form

_____

The argument is valid, by the Law of Syllogism.

Definition. An argument which is not valid is called a fallacy. In a

fallacy, it is possible for the premises to be true, while the conclusion is false.
In this case, the conditional is not a tautology.
which is not valid is called a fallacy. In a fallacy, it is possible for the

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
premises to be true, while the conclusion is false. In this case, the conditional
is not a tautology.

Example 8. Prove that the argument is a fallacy. This is known as the

Fallacy of the Converse.

Solution. We show that is a fallacy by means of a truth table.

since is not a tautology, the argument is invalid and is hence a fallacy.

Note that it is sufficient to find truth values of and that will make the premises
simultaneously true but the conclusion false. We call such set of values a counterexample. In this
case, the counterexample is the case when is false and is true (see the third row of the truth
table above).

Example 9. Show that the following arguments are fallacies.

A": If my alarm sounds, then I will wake up.

I woke up.
Therefore, my alarm sounded.

If there is a limited supply of freshwater, then I will conserve water.

I will conserve water.
Therefore, there is limited supply of freshwater.

275
Solution. Each of the arguments has the form

Similar to the previous example, each argument is a fallacy of the converse.

Example 10. Determine whether the given is a valid argument or a fallacy.

a. Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina.
Alvin sang with Nina. Therefore,
Alvin did not dance with Nina.

b. Either Alvin sings or dances with Nina.

Alvin did not dance with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin sang with Nina.

c. It is not true that Alvin sings and dances with Nina.

Alvin did not sing with Nina.
Therefore, Alvin danced with Nina.

276
Solution. Let "Alvin sings with Nina." and : "Alvin dances with Nina."

a. The given argument is of the form

This is the fallacy of Affirming the Disjunct.

Alternate Solution: We can prove that the argument is not valid by finding a
counterexample (i.e., truth values for and that make the propositional form of the tautology
false). This happens when both and are false, as the following table shows.

b. The given argument is of the form

The first premise can be written as by the Commutative Law, and so we can write

Which adheres to the Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism, the argument is valid.

c. In symbols, the argument is of the form

This is the fallacy of Denying a Conjunct.

Alternate Solution: We can find a counterexample to show that the argument is not valid. If both
and are false, then the propositional form of the argument is false.

277
ENRICHMENT: Valid and Sound Arguments

Definition. An argument is said to satisfy the truth condition if its premises are generally true.20

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Definition. A sound argument is a valid argument which also satisfies the truth condition. An
argument which does not satisfy either the validity condition or the truth condition is called a
bad argument. 21

Example 11. The following arguments were already shown to be valid.

a. Antonio Luna and Jose Rizal like Nelly Boustead. Therefore, Antonio Luna likes Nelly
Boustead.
b. Antonio Luna is a scientist.

Therefore, either Antonio Luna or Jose Rizal is a scientist.

A simple history verification will show that the premises of both arguments are true. Nelly
Boustead was the object of affection of Antonio Luna and Jose Rizal while they were in Spain.

Moreover, Luna is known as a brilliant general, but he is also a scientist. He studied Chemistry at
the University of Santo Tomas, and went to Spain where he obtained his license and doctorate in
pharmacy.

Hence, these arguments satisfy both truth and validity conditions, so they are sound arguments.

Example 12. Determine whether each of the following arguments is valid, and if each is sound.

a. If I was born poor, then I cannot serve my country. I was born poor. Therefore, I cannot serve
my country.

b. If I study every day, then I will develop a good work ethic. I study every day

Therefore, I will develop a good work ethic.

Solution. By Modus Ponens, both arguments are valid. We then check for soundness through the
truth condition.

a. Note that being poor does not prevent one from serving one’s country (you can probably think
of some examples). Hence, the given argument is a bad argument.
b. It is accepted as true that if one studies every day, then a good work ethic will be developed.
However, it cannot be assumed true that “I study every day”. If it is true, then the argument is
sound. Otherwise, the argument is bad.

20
deLaplante, K. (2013). What is a good argument? The truth condition (https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9mk8RWTsFFw).
21
Ibid.

278
Solved Examples

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
1. Determine whether the following arguments are valid. If it is valid, then identify the rule of
inference which justifies its validity. Otherwise, state a counterexample or identify the type of
fallacy exhibited by the argument.

a. If it rains today, then It rained today. Therefore,

b. Either Lina or Lino will take the trash to the recycling center. Lina did not take the trash to the
recycling center. Hence, Lino must have taken the trash to the recycling center.

c. If Joe makes a reviewer for his class and studies it well, then he will get a high grade in his
exam. Joe did not get a high grade in his exam. Therefore, either Joe did not make a reviewer for
his class or he did not study it well.

d. If is a polynomial function, then it is also a rational function. Therefore, if is a rational

function, it is also a polynomial function.

e. If then It holds that Therefore, .

f. It is not the case that is an odd number and is a prime number. Furthermore, is not an odd
number. Therefore, is a prime number.

g. If Leona wins the singing competition, then she will land a recording contract with a famous
company. She landed a recording contract with a famous company. It follows that Leona won the
singing competition.

h. If Michael sleeps early tonight, then he will wake up early tomorrow. If he does not play with
his pet dog, then he will wake up early tomorrow. Therefore if Michael sleeps early tonight or
does not play with his pet dog, then he will wake up early tomorrow.

Solution.

a. Let "It rains today" and In proposition form, the argument assumes the
form . Hence, the argument is valid by virtue of Modus Ponens.

b. Let "Lina will take the trash to the recycling center." and lino will take the trash to the
recycling center." In propositional form, the argument is Thus, the
argument is valid by the Rule of Disjunctive Syllogism.

c. Let "Joe makes a reviewer for his class.", "Joe studies the reviewer well.", and "Joe
will get a high grade in the exam."

In proposition form, the argument is Note that

the conclusion can also be written in the form and so the argument is

This is valid by Modus Tollens.

279

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
d. Let is a polynomial function" and is a rational function." In standard form, the
argument is

This is the Fallacy of the Consequent.

e. Let and Then the argument is of the form

_______

This is the Fallacy of the Inverse.

f. Let is an odd number," and is a prime number." The argument is of the form

_____

This exhibits the fallacy of Denying a Conjunct.

g. Let "Leona wins the singing competition." and "Leona lands a recording contract with a
famous company." The argument takes the form

_______

This is invalid as this is an example of the Fallacy of the converse.

h. Let "Michael sleeps early tonight.", "Michael plays with his pet dog.", and "Michael
will wake up early tomorrow." The argument is of the form

_________

This is valid due to the Rule of Proof by Cases.

2. Determine whether each of the following arguments is (a) valid and (b) sound.

a. If triangle and are congruent, then they are similar. Triangles and are congruent.
Therefore, triangles and are similar.

b. The set of natural numbers is finite or the set of negative integers is finite. It is known that the
set of negative integers is infinite. Therefore, the set of natural numbers is finite.

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280
c. Quadrilateral is a square or a parallelogram. It is known that is a
parallelogram. Therefore, it is not a square.

d. If then We know that Therefore,

e. If is a real number with then Suppose Then

f. If 9 is less than then 9 is not a prime number. 9 is a prime number. Therefore, 9 is not less
than 4

Solution.

a. The argument is valid by Modus Ponens. Furthermore, we know from the geometry of
triangles that congruent triangles are also similar (but similar triangles are not necessarily
congruent). If it is taken to be true that and are congruent, then the argument satisfies the
truth condition. Hence, the argument is sound.

b. The argument is valid by Disjunctive Syllogism. However, it is not sound because there are
infinitely many natural numbers and negative integers, and this points to the falsity of the first
premise.

c. The argument is invalid as it exhibits the fallacy of Affirming the Disjunct, and hence it is
unsound.

d. The argument is valid by Modus Ponens. But the premise is not true, so the argument
is not sound.

e. The argument is valid by Modus Tollens. The first premise is true by the monotonicity of the
function If the second premise is taken to be true, then the argument is sound.

f. The argument is valid by Modus Tollens, but the second premise not true; 9 has factors other
than 1 and itself. Hence, the argument is not sound.

Lesson 40 Supplementary Exercises

1. Determine whether the following arguments are valid. If it is valid, then identify the rule of
inference which justifies its validity. Otherwise, state a counterexample or identify the type of
fallacy exhibited by the argument.

a. If is an odd integer, then is also an odd integer. If is an odd integer, then

is an odd integer. Therefore if is an odd integer, then is an odd integer.

b. If is even and is odd, then is even. It is found that is even. Therefore, is even and
is odd.

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281
c. If quadrilateral is a square, then it is also a rectangle. Quadrilateral is not a
rectangle. Therefore, it is not a square.

d. If Delight publishes a dissertation with original results, then she will earn a Ph.D. She did not
publish a dissertation with original results. Therefore, she did not earn a Ph.D.

e. If Jason has a Ph.D. and has done a considerable amount of research, then he is qualified for
the research professor position. He was informed that he is qualified for the research professor
position. Therefore, Jason has a Ph.D. and has done a considerable amount of research.

f. If the housing market crashes, then all of my investments will suffer. My investments have not
suffered. Therefore, the housing market has not crashed.

g. Either Derrick was not informed about the meeting or he made the decision not to attend.
Derrick was not informed about the meeting. Thus, he did not decide not to attend the meeting.

h. It is known that is a polynomial function and it is a one-to-one function. Therefore, is a

one-to-one function.

2. Determine whether each of the following arguments is (a) valid and (b) sound.

a. If is a real number with then Suppose Then

b. If is a positive number, then Suppose Then is a positive number.

c. If is a rational number, then for some integers and . It is not true that
for some integers and . Therefore, is not a rational number.

d. If the polygon is a quadrilateral, then the sum of its interior angles is The sum of the
interior angles of the polygon is not Therefore, the polygon is not a quadrilateral.

e. If at least one of two numbers is divisible by then the product of the two numbers is
divisible by 5. Neither of the two numbers is divisible by 5. Therefore, the product of these two
numbers is not divisible by

Learning Outcome(s): At the end of the lesson, the learner is able to illustrate different methods
of proof.

Lesson Outline:
1. Introduction.
2. Proof and proving validity of arguments in propositional form.
3. Proof and proving validity of arguments in real-life situations.
4. Disproof.
5. Indirect proofs.
6. Proof and proving validity of arguments in mathematics.

Basic Idea of Proofs. The goal of the proof is to show that the conclusion logically follows from
the given propositions (or premises).

As for the content of the proof, each proposition must be a valid assertion: they must be based
on a given statement (i.e. a premise), or they must follow from the premise via logical
equivalences or rules of inferences.

Example 1. Prove the validity of the following argument:

_________

Solution. Thinking process: We assume that all propositions over the line are true. From these
two propositions, the goal is to establish a logical sequence of propositions to arrive at the
conclusion

A common strategy is to start with the statement not involving a conditional (i.e., start with
). Now think, if is true, how can we reach

To do that, we can use Modus Tollens on but first we need to establish that
is true. since is true, then by the Rule of Addition, is true. It
follows that by De Morgan's Law.

The actual proof is written as follows:

_______

Solution. Observe that the Law of Syllogism can be applied to the first two premises:
that is, and imply that This is a new proposition that
we can assume to be true.

Also, since is true, then is true by Modus Tollens. The actual proof is written
below.

An alternative proof goes without starting from the conditional premise.

Example 3. Prove the validity of the following argument.

_____

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Solution. We can start with the simple proposition Then must be false since is taken to
be true. By Disjunctive Syllogism it follows that is true. Applying
Disjunctive Syllogism again with it follows then that is true.

The actual proof is written below.

284
Alternatively, it is also valid to transform the premises and to
and respectively, using the Switcheroo Law. Then we can use Modus Tollens and the
Law of Syllogism, as shown below:

Example 4. Analyze the validity of the following argument:

If you start your own business, then you will earn right away. If you go to college, then you will
get a college degree after a few years. However, you either start your own business, or you go to
college. Therefore, either you earn right away, or get a college degree after a few years.

Solution. We transform the given argument in symbols. Define the propositions :

"You start your own business.", : "You earn right away.", : "You go to college.", and "You
get a college degree after a few years." In standard form, the argument is

_____

This is a valid argument, as shown in the following proof:

______

is valid. This form is called the constructed dilemma.

Example 5. Show that the following argument is invalid: "I would like a career in either teaching
or diplomacy. If I teach, then I would want to study abroad. Therefore, if I would like a career in
diplomacy, then I will study abroad."

Solution. We first write the argument in symbolic form using the following propositions:

I would like a career in teaching.

I would like a career in diplomacy.

I would want to study abroad.

Thus, the argument can be written in standard form as

_____

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
To show that an argument is not valid, we need to find truth values for each proposition such that
the premises are true, but the conclusion is false.

For to be false, then must be true and must be false. If is false, then is true and
are both true. Since there is such a combination of truth values for and that makes
the conclusion false but the premises true, the argument is invalid.

This is an example illustrating that producing a counterexample is sufficient to show that an

argument is invalid.

Another method is through the use of an indirect proof or a proof by contradiction. In these
proofs, we show that the assumption that the premises are true but the conclusion is false
leads to a contradiction.

Example 6. Prove the following argument using three methods: (a) via the rules of inference, (b)
via truth tables, and (c) via an indirect proof.

~q
______

286
Solution.

a. Via rules of inference

b. Via truth tables

since is a tautology, the argument is valid.

c. Via indirect proof

We assume the conclusion is false, while the premises are true, and show that these lead to a
contradiction.

Suppose (the conclusion) is false. Based on the premise, is true, and so is false.
Therefore, is false, which is a contradiction of the premise that is true.
Therefore, the conclusion must be true.
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We now apply the rules of logic to prove basic results in mathematics. Before we proceed, we
state the following important idea:

Definitions in mathematics are always "if and only if" statements.

Consider the following examples.

287
Example 7. Prove the validity of the following argument.

An even number is a number than can be written as where is an integer. The

numbers and are even. Therefore, is even.

Solution. since is even, then the first premise ensures that can be written as where
is an integer. Similarly, since is even, then we can write where is an integer.

We compute for :

since is an integer, then is even. This is the conclusion when Modus Ponens is
applied to the first premise.

Example 8. Prove that the following argument is valid.

If a quadrilateral has three right angles, then it is a rectangle. In quadrilateral ,

and Then, is not a rectangle.

Solution.

Thinking process: The only way for to be a rectangle is if so that there

would be three triangles. We will prove that this is not the case.
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
Proof: The sum of the interior angles in a rectangle is Therefore,

Substituting the values given, we have which simplifies to

Therefore, has only two right angles. This also means that is
not a rectangle (using Modus Tollens on the definition stated in the first premise).

Indirect Proof: Assume that is a rectangle. Then it has three right angles. But since
is not a right angle, then the three right angles must be and .

Solving for in the equation (given

we find that This contradicts the fact
that which is the given. Therefore, is not a rectangle.

Solved Examples

Determine whether the following arguments are valid using rules of inference. If the argument is
invalid, provide a counterexample.

1. An odd integer is a number that can be written in the form , where is an

integer. It is known that and are odd integers. Therefore, is even.

288
2. Mary is studying computing or Mary is not studying math. If Mary is studying math, then
Mary is not studying computing. Therefore, Mary is studying computing.

3. An odd integer is a number that can be written in the form where is an

integer. We know that is odd. Therefore, is odd.

4. If the machine is cheap or is energy efficient, then it will not make money for the
manufacturer. If the machine is painted red, then it will make money for the manufacturer. The
machine is cheap. Therefore, it is not painted red.

5. If monsters roam the Earth, then all people will buy weapons. If Earth experiences tremors
from beneath the surface, then all people will evacuate. Monsters roam the Earth and people are
evacuating. Therefore, all people bought weapons, and the Earth experienced tremors from
beneath the surface. (Invalid: true, true, . false, D true)

6. If Cherry's song is loud or tedious, then it is not long and not cacophonous. Cherry's song is
tedious. Therefore, Cherry's song is not long.

7.
pVq

______

________

289
Solution.

1. The first premise is a definition, and can thus be interpreted as an if-and-only-if statement.
Suppose and are odd. Then we can write and for some integers
and Thus,

since is an integer, then by Modus Ponens on the definition of even numbers,

is even.

2. Let "Mary is studying computing." and "Mary is studying math."

In propositional form, the argument is Validity can

be checked with a truth table.

The argument is not valid since is not a tautology. A counterexample is when and are both
false.

3. Suppose is odd. Then we can write for some integer . Furthermore,

4. Let "The machine is cheap.", "The machine is energy efficient.", "The machine will
make money for the manufacturer.", and "The machine is painted red." In standard form, the
argument is

______

Proof:

290
5. Suppose "Monsters roam the Earth.", "All people will buy weapons.", :
"Earth experiences tremors from beneath the surface.", and "All people will evacuate."
Constructing a truth table shows that the case and are true and is false is a
counterexample. The argument is invalid.

6. Let "Cherry's song is loud.", "Cherry's song is tedious.", "Cherry's song is long.", and
"Cherry's song is not cacophonous." The argument, in standard form is

___

291
9.

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10. This is invalid. A counterexample is when all propositions involved are false.

Prove each of the following statements.

1. If is even and is odd, then is odd.
2. Suppose and are divisible by Then is also divisible by
3. If is odd, then is odd.

Solution.

1. Suppose is even and is odd. Then for some integers and , we can write and
Therefore,

since is also an integer, then is odd (as it has the form of an odd number).

2. Suppose and are divisible by Then for some integers and we can write
and Therefore,

since is an integer, then is also divisible by 3 .

3. (By contradiction) Suppose the conclusion " is odd" is false; that is, suppose is even.
Therefore, we can write for some integer This means that

We note that is also an integer, implying that is even. This contradicts the premise that
is odd. Therefore, must be odd.

292
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Lesson 41 Supplementary Exercises

A. Determine whether the following arguments are valid using rules of inference. If the argument
is invalid, provide a counterexample.

1. An odd integer is a number that can be written in the form where is an

integer. It is known that and are odd integers. Therefore, is odd.

2. Noel is not cooking or Noel is watching a television show. If Noel is not watching a television
show, then Noel is cooking. Therefore, Noel is not cooking.

3. An even number is a number than can be written as where is an integer. It is

given that is an even number. Therefore, is also even.

4. If Michelle wakes up early or does not sleep, then she will get to class on time. If she
commutes to school, then she will not get to class on time. Michelle did not sleep. Therefore, she
did not commute to school.

5. If lightning strikes a tree on the farm, then all the animals will make sounds of horror. If
thunder booms in the sky, then all the animals will run back to the stables. Lightning struck a tree
and all the animals ran back to the stables. Therefore, all animals made sounds of horror and
thunder boomed in the sky.

6. It is not the case that Joe plays both piano and violin. If Joe does not play piano and he does
not play violin, then he plays both clarinet and drums. If he plays drums, then he plays the
clarinet. Therefore, Fred plays clarinet.

________

______

B. Prove each of the following statements.

1. If is odd and is even, then is even.

2. If and are divisible by then is also divisible by 4
3. If is even, then is even.

Topic Test 1
1. Prove that is logically equivalent to using
a. the known logical equivalences
b. a truth table

2. Determine whether the following argument is valid using rules of inferences. If it is invalid,
give a counterexample

Jim works at a paper company, but he does not get paper cuts. Either Jim gets a paper cut, or he
makes deliveries to his clients. Therefore, if he does not make deliveries to his clients, he works
at a paper company.

3. Determine whether the following argument is sound. Otherwise, explain why it is not sound.

If the equation has a real solution, then the solution set of the inequality
is the interval If 59 is divisible by then the solution set of the inequality
is not the interval Therefore, if the equation has a real solution, then 59 is
not divisible by 7 .

4. Prove or disprove: the sum of any three consecutive integers is divisible by 3 .

Topic Test 2

1. Write the following argument in symbols: If the pot is hot, then Caleb cannot carry it. If Caleb
was able to carry the pot, then he can serve it on the table. Caleb was able to carry the pot.
Therefore, the pot is not hot and he can serve it on the table.

2. Prove that the proposition

“If Jude wears a black shirt, then if he wears jeans then he will look like me.”

"If Jude wears a black shirt and jeans, then he will look like me."

are logically equivalent using known logical equivalences.

3. Determine whether the following argument is valid using rules of inference. Otherwise,
provide a counterexample to show that the argument is invalid.

_______

4. Prove: If is an integer, then is not divisible by (Hint: Argue using a contradiction).

Lesson 1 (a) gross income

for selling bags
1. (b) profit or net
income from selling bags
3. and
Lesson 4
5.
1
(a) 3
7 (b) -1
(c) 12
(d) 3
3
Lesson 2
(a)
1
(b)
(a) -128 The marketing office gets twice that amount
(b) 125 which is while the other offices
(c) 3 receive each.
(d) -4 is not in the domain of
Lesson 5
3.
1. Rational function
(a) 1
3. None of these
(b) 5. None of these

Lesson 6
5. and

Lesson 3 3. The solution set is

1
5. The solution set is given by
(a)
(b)
(c) 7. 6 liters

(d)

(e)
3

(e)

(f)
(g)
(h)

5. The graph is shown at the right (calculus is

needed to determine the maximum height. At
the level of Grade 11, it suffices to check that
the graph approaches the horizontal
The lake seems to be able to support only asymptote, and is above the x-axis.)
1000 fishes.
The horizontal asymptote is y = 0. In the long
Lesson 8 run, the concentration in the bloodstream
1. Horizontal asymptote: decreases and becomes almost negligible.

Vertical asymptotes:

3. The -intercept is . The -intercept is .

The vertical asymptotes are and
. The horizontal asymptote is .
The domain is The

function is -intercept is . The -intercept is

. The vertical asymptotes are and

. The horizontal asymptote is .
The domain is The
function is
above the -axis in the intervals
and . The function is below the Lesson 9
-axis in the intervals and
The graph is shown below. The 1. k = 2.4 or 6.
range is -axis in
3. Yes, the function is one-to-one
the intervals and . The
function is below the -axis in the intervals
and The graph is
shown below. The range is

Lesson 10 5.
7.
1 9.
(a) Has an inverse 11.14 .536 days
(b) Has an inverse
(c) Has no inverse Lesson 15
(d) Has no inverse
(e) Has no inverse 1.

Lesson 11

1. Domain:
Range:
3. (5,5)
5. The function with restricted domain
is one-to-one. The inverse function is

. If
then

Lesson 12

1.
3.

Lesson 13 Domain: All real numbers; Range: All

positive real numbers; y-intercept: 1;
1. Exponential Equation horizontal asymptote: y = 0
3. Transformation of an Exponential Function
5. Exponential Inequality 3.

Lesson 14

1.
3.

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
298
Transformations: Shift the graph of h(x) 1 unit
to the right, reflect about the x-axis, then
stretch 2 units.

Domain: All real numbers; Range: All

positive real numbers; y-intercept: 1;
horizontal asymptote: y = 0
Domain: All real numbers Range:
Lesson 16 -intercept: Horizontal Asymptote:

1. Base function: f(x) = 3x

Lesson 17

3. -2

11. basic

Lesson 18

1. Logarithmic Inequality
3. Logarithmic Function
5. Logarithmic Equation
Transformation/s: Stretch the graph of
by 2 units.

Domain: All real numbers

Range:
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
-intercept: (0,2)

Horizontal Asymptote:

3. Base function:

299
Lesson 19 Vertical Asymptote:

x-intercept: (4,0)
3. 0
5.3 3. The graph of is a shift of 1 unit to the
right and 2 units upward from the graph of
Lesson 20

3.
5.

9. Domain:
Range: all real numbers
Lesson 21 Vertical Asymptote:
-intercept: (1.25,0)
1.
3. or Lesson 24
7. lumens
A.
Lesson 22 1. 300
3.
1. The graph of is a shift of 3 units to 5.60,000
the right from the graph of
B.
7.11 .840
9.1,000

C.
11.
13.
15. 5 years

19. P 90.909.09

Domain:
Range: all real numbers

A. A.
1. 9,109.02 1. 4
3. 5,224.05
5.4,836.85
7.23,551.13 7.0 .004939 or
9.288,882.945 9. 0.121204 or

B. B.
11 . 11.4
13. 13. 0.003979 or
15. P 78,849.32 15. 800
17. 17.0 .055 or
19. 19. 2.34 periods

Lesson 26 C.
21 . or
1. 2 or
3. or 0.06 23. periods
5. or 0.01 year or
7.16 25 . or
9. 32,094.13
11. or 0.1 Lesson 28
13.
15 . A.
17. (a) 281,789.94 1.152,793.63
(b) 512,687.70 3.201,867.57
(c) 230,898.26 5.661 .78
19. Bank
B.
Bank
7.410,332.19
9.1,006,512.21

D. 1.
17. 3.
19. 5.
7.
Lesson 29 9.

A. Lesson 31
1. 1. Dividend=20,250
3. P98,352.04 3. Dividend per Share
5. 5. Stock yield ratio
7.
В. 9.
7.
9. Lesson 32
1. Php 75
C. 3.
11. 5. Php 68
13. 7.12,200
15. 9. Php 28

D. Lesson 33
17. 1. True
19. Sunrise Investment: 109,755.10 3. False
(larger) 5. True
Investment: 106,542.70 7. True

Lesson 30 Lesson 34
1. Business Loan
A. 3. Consumer Loan
1. 5. Consumer Loan
3.

1. 1. This is not a proposition.

3.
5. 3. This is a compound proposition of the form
7. if then where "Ted's score is less
9. than and :
11 . "Ted will fail the course".
13.
15 . 5. This is a compound proposition of the form
17. 156 or , where "It is sunny in Manila"
and "Its streets are flooded."
19.
21.
7. This is a compound proposition of the form
23. P326.12
if then where and denote
25 .
the lengths of the legs and the hypotenuse of a
27. A.
right triangle" and
B. Php31,547.08
9. This is a compound proposition of the form
not where is a negative
C.
number".
D. 11. This is a compound proposition of the
form if then where "If Jerry
E. 0 receives a scholarship" and :
"he will go to college".

13. This is a compound proposition of the

form if , then (not
where "You run 1 kilometer a day",
"You eat property", and "You will be
healthy."

1
Mathematics is not easy to study.
o: Logic is taken up in junior high school.
There are more than three people in the meeting room at the moment.

2
a. c.
e. "If Rena eats at the Spanish restaurant, then if she does not order the restaurant's special paella
then she has dessert."

3
a. c.
e. "Pam works as a sales associate if and only if Bryan does not have a temporary position in the
office, and if Bryan does not have a temporary position in the office, then Pam and Bryan are co-
workers."

4
a. False; c. False;
e. True
5
a. and must be false.

Lesson 38

This shows that is a tautology.

2.
a.

Therefore, is a tautology.
c. Let denote the proposition

e. Let denote the proposition

Hence is a tautology.

305
Lesson 39

1
a. The given proposition is of the form , where "The clothes are neatly stacked and
pressed" and "The house help arrived today".

C. We can rewrite the given conditional as "If Nico studied alone, then he got the highest score
in the class". This is now of the form , where "Nico studied alone" and "He got the
highest score in the class".

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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
e. The given proposition is of the form , where : "Mariah hit the high whistle note" and
'The audience gave her a standing ovation".

2. The solutions presented below make use of known logical equivalences. Proofs via truth tables
will be left as an exercise to the student.

a. We can start with the right-hand side of the equivalence.

306
Reason

Given

De Morgan's Law

Double Negation

c. We can start with the right-hand side of the equivalence.

Reason

Given

Switcheroo

Lesson 40
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mechanical including photocopying – without written permission from the DepEd Central Office. First Edition, 2016.
1
a. This is valid by the Law of Syllogism.
c. This is valid by Modus Tollens.
e. This is not a valid argument as it exhibits the Fallacy of the Converse.
g. This exhibits the affirmation of the disjunct, and so it is not a valid argument.
2
a. The argument is invalid, as it exemplifies the Fallacy of the Inverse. Hence, the argument is
unsound.
c. By Modus Tollens, the argument is valid. The first premise follows from the definition of a
rational number (i.e. a number is rational if it can be expressed as the ratio of two integers). It
can also be shown that there are no integers and that satisfy Therefore, the
argument satisfies the truth condition and is hence sound.
e. This argument is invalid, by the Fallacy of the Inverse. Therefore, it is not sound.

Lesson 41
A.
1. Suppose and are odd integers. Then for some integers and , we can write
and Therefore,

since is an integer, then is of the form where is an integer. By

Modus Ponens on the definition of odd numbers (the first premise), is also an odd
integer.

307
3.Suppose is even. Then from the first premise, it follows that for some integer
Therefore, since is an integer, then has the form for
some integer Modus Ponens with the first premise leads to the conclusion that is even.
5. Let "Lightning strikes a tree on the farm", "All the animals will make sounds of horror",
"Thunder booms in the sky", and "all the animals will run back to the stables" It can be
shown that a counterexample is formed when and are true and is false. Hence, the

1. Suppose is odd and is even. Then we can write and for some
integers and . Thus,

We note that since is an integer, then is even, by the definition of even

numbers.

3. (By contradiction) Suppose is odd. Then we can write for some integer
Therefore,

Note that since is an integer, then is also an integer. Therefore, is odd, which
contradicts the premise that is even. We conclude our assumption is wrong and that is even.

308
Bibliography

Barnett, R.A., Ziegler, M.R., Byleen, K.E., & Sobecki, D. (2008). Precalculus (7th ed). New
York: McGraw Hill.

Bonds Basics Tutorial, Accessed from http://www.investopedia.com/university/bonds/

Crauder, B., Evans, B., & Noell, A. (2008). Functions and change: A modeling approach to
college algebra and trigonometry. Boston: Houghton Mifflin.

De Laplante, K. (2013). What is a good argument? The truth condition

Schulz, K. (2015). The really big one.

http://www.newyorker.com/magazine/2015/07/20/thereally-big-one

Stewart, J., Redlin, L., & Watson, S. (2012). Precalculus: Mathematics for calculus (6th ed).
Belmont, CA: Brooks/Cole, Cengage Learning.

Waner, C. & Costenoble, S.R. (2001). Supplementary chapters to accompany Finite

Mathematics, 2nd ed. Brooks/Cole.
(http://www.zweigmedia.com/RealWorld/logic/logicintro.html)

Weisstein, Eric W. "Catenary." From MathWorld--A Wolfram Web Resource.

Young, C. (2012). College algebra (3rd ed). Hoboken, NJ: John Wiley & Sons.

https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=9mk8RWTsFFw

http://m.e-m-h.org/ClJM.pdf

http://newsinfo.inquirer.net/623749/philippines-welcomes-100-millionth-baby

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http://www.periodictable.com/Isotopes/030.71/index.p.full.html

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309

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