FIRST TERM WORK

INTRODUCTION TO CHEMISTRY

Chemistry is one of the three main branches of pure

science, the other two being biology and physics.

Chemistry is the study of matter, its composition,

properties and uses.

Matter as used in the definition, is anything that has

weight/ mass and occupies space/volume. So chemistry is the study of

the composition, properties and uses of things around us, because

almost everything around us has weight and occupies space.

Career Prospect Tied To Chemistry

The following are the various careers in chemistry which one who

studied chemistry can do to earn a living:

i. Teaching in schools: Secondary, polytechnics, colleges of

education and universities.

ii. Medical service: Pharmacists, biochemists, botanists, dieticians,

doctors, nurses, medical laboratory assistants and dispensers.

iii. Food Processing: Food technologists and research chemists.

iv. Petroleum and petrochemical industries: Application chemists,

research chemists, chemical engineers and laboratory assistants.

v. Manufacturing industry: Research chemists and chemical

engineers.

vi. Extractive industry: Chemists, mining engineers and geologists.

vii. Agriculture: Agricultural scientists, chemists, biochemists and

physiologists.

viii. Forestry: scientists, also engage in forestry to preserve and

improve forests and forestry products.

Applications (Uses) of Chemistry

The study of chemistry has helped man in many ways and these

include:

i. Agriculture:

The production of artificial fertilizers like N.P.K, pesticides

and herbicides with the knowledge of chemistry has helped to

increase crop yield.

ii. Transportation:

The knowledge of chemistry has helped in the fractional

distillation of crude oil to get the fractions like bitumen (use for

road construction), petrol (used as fuel for automobiles and electric

plants), kerosene (for jet engines), etc. It has also helped in the
extraction of metals from their ores which are used for construction

of the bodies of cars and aeroplanes.

iii. Medicines:

Chemistry has helped in the production of drugs that are

used to treat illnesses, x-rays used in treating cancer, etc.

iv. Building:

It has also helped in the production of tiles, cement,

glass, polyvinyl chloride (PVC) i.e., ceiling and extraction of

metals used for the construction/building of houses, offices, etc.

v. Clothing:

The knowledge of chemistry has helped in the production

of synthetic textiles (clothing materials) like nylon, rayon,

polyester, etc.

vi. Chemistry has also helped in the extraction of metals used

for producing cooking utensils and also helped in the

production of plastic materials, polyethene bags, body creams

used by man in his day to day activities.

vii. Being one of the science subjects, chemistry has helped in

acquiring the necessary knowledge for travelling in space.

Adverse Effects of Chemistry

Although chemistry has helped man in so many ways, it has some

adverse effects which includes:

i. Drug Abuse:

Hard drugs like cocaine, heroine, etc that are used in trace

amount for the production of simple drugs for the treatment of

illnesses, are now being sold by greedy people to youths causing

nuisance in our community.

ii. Pollution:

In the course of producing useful materials like clothes,

cement, plastics, drugs, extracting metals, etc, industries

release harmful substances into the environment (land, water

and air) as pollutants leading to various health disorder.

iii. Corrosion:

The transportation of chemical substances like acids, bases

and salts via pipes made of metals and alloys e.g., steel by

industries leads to the corrosion of the metals / alloys.

iv. Poisoning:
 Chemistry has also led to the knowledge of the

production of some harmful chemical substances (poisons)

which wicked people use in poisoning others.

SCIENTIFIC METHOD

Chemistry like every other science subject has

developed through series of discoveries. The step by step means of

discovering new things/doing research in science is called scientific

method. The method include:

- Asking questions

- Observation

- Hypothesis (Guess work)

- Experiment

- Recording of results

- Verification of results

- Conclusion.

Exercises:
1. Define Chemistry.

2. Write three(3) career prospect tied to chemistry.

3. Write out four (4) importance of chemistry to man.

4. State two (2) adverse effects of chemistry to man.

5. What is scientific method? List the method.

CHEMICAL INDUSTRY

A chemical industry is defined as an industry that

uses the knowledge of chemistry to make chemicals from

other chemical substances. Such chemical substances used to

make other chemicals with the knowledge of chemistry are

called raw materials.

Divisions of the Chemical Industry

The chemical industry is founded on a variety of

raw materials. Amongst the most important are coal,

molasses, salt, mineral ores, water, air and fats and oils of

animal and plant origin. Petroleum is a fairly recent addition

to the list.

With the various raw materials mentioned above,

chemical industry produces a variety of products and is

therefore classified on the basis of its products:

Heavy Chemicals: These are chemicals produced by

industries in a very large quantity without considering the

purity of the chemical substance. They include:

tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid used for pickling (cleansing) of

steel, sodium hydroxide (caustic soda) used for making soap,

ammonia used for making fertilizers as well as explosives,

sodium trioxocarbonate (iv) for making glass, detergents,

paper, and removing hardness in water, etc.

Fine Chemicals: These are chemical substances produced by

industries in relatively small amount with a very high degree

of purity and in batch processes. They include: drugs, sugar,

dye, etc.

Fertilizers: The fertilizer industry is an important one.

Fertilizers are needed to increase crop yield.

 Three important elements have to be provided in

suitable form in fertilizers. They are nitrogen, phosphorus and

potassium (commonly referred to as N. P.K). Nitrogen is

supplied mainly in form of ammonia which in turn is

obtained from fossil fuels. Ammonium trioxonitrate (v) and

even ammonium tetraoxosulphate (iv), recovered as a by –

product from the conversion of coal into coke are also used as

sources of nitrogen.

Plastics: The starting raw material in plastic industries is

ethene obtained by the fractional distillation of crude oil or

petroleum.

Metallurgy: This is the science of extracting metals from

their ores and preparing them for practical and commercials

use. Metallurgy processes include the refining of metals and

the manufacture of alloys for special purposes. The

manufacture of steel is especially important because of its

wide application.

Pharmaceuticals: This is the production of drugs for treating

illnesses. The majority of the drugs manufactured nowadays

are synthetic. Some of them are identical to natural

substances found in plants and animals, while others are

entirely new.

Glass: Sand appropriately blended with various other

substances gives us glass.

There are many kinds of glass. They may be

transparent, translucent or coloured, depending on the

purpose for which they are used, Glass used in oven ware has

to be heat resistant. The Glass used in test-tubes and beakers

must be resistant to chemicals. To produce these different

properties, the composition of Glass and the heat treatment

have to be varied.

Ceramics: The art of processing earthy materials into useful

or ornamental objects through the application of high heat is

known as ceramics.

The raw materials used are silica and oxides of

magnesium, aluminium, zirconium, thorium, titanium and

boron. Some artificial carbides and nitrides are also used

nowadays.

Paints: Paint is a fluid mixture which contains suspended

colouring material. When it is applied as a thin layer on a

surface, it produces an opaque solid film. Although its early

use was chiefly decorative, protection against weathering and

corrosion it equally has an important use in the modern times.

Cement: Cement is made by heating a mixture of powdered

lime (calcium oxide) and clay. When mixed with water, it can

be used to fasten stones and bricks together. The mixture

(called mortar) hardens like stone when it dries.

The most popular cement known as Portland cement

is made by heating a mixture of limestone and clay and

grinding the products. It consists of calcium silicates (as a

result of the reaction between silica and calcium oxide) and

calcium aluminates (formed by the reaction between calcium

oxide and aluminium oxide present in clay). Complex

chemical changes occur during setting, resulting in a hard

mass.

Soap and Detergents: Soap is defined as a chemical

compound or a mixture of chemical compounds resulting

from the reaction between fatty oils, or fats, and alkalis.

It is manufactured by introducing melted fats into an

excess of sodium hydroxide solution and boiling the mixture.

 The pasty boiling mixture is then treated with brine

(concentrated sodium chloride solution). This causes the

contents to separate into two layers (this is called salting out

of soap). The upper layer contains impure soap which is

washed to remove the excess alkali and salt and treated in

various ways to give the desired product.

Note: In the absence of sodium hydroxide, potassium

hydroxide can be used.

Detergents are synthetic cleansing products made from

petrochemicals.

Soaps and detergents have the property of reducing the

surface tension of water. They are able to lift dirt from greasy

surfaces thereby reducing the spread of germs.

Foods and Drinks: Chemical and biochemical processes

are used in preserving, flavouring and enriching the nutrient content

of food and drinks. The production of alcoholic drinks such as beer

involves fermentation processes with the raw materials being starchy

foodstuffs like potatoes, cereals (e.g. rice, millet, maize, etc ), malt

and yeast, which have to be carefully controlled.

 In the preparation of food and drinks, certain specified

standards have to be met. Chemists analyze samples of food and

drinks routinely to ensure that these standards are met.

Major Factors to be Considered in Siting a Chemical Industry:

The following factors are to be considered when siting a chemical

Industry:

i) Nearness to raw material(s);

ii) Energy supply and transport;

iii)Use of by-product and recycling; and

iv)Supply and demand.

Importance of Chemical Industries in Nigeria:

The following are importance of chemical industry in

Nigeria:

i. provision of income from foreign trade;

ii. provision of employment for youths; and

iii. improve the standard of living by providing many materials

for domestic use (which would be too expensive if they are

imported).

Exercises:

1.Define a chemical Industry.

2.State one adverse effects of chemical Industries on the community.

3. State two major factors to be considered when siting a chemical

Industry.

4.Define metallurgy and give two products of metallurgical activities.

5.Differentiate between cement and mortar.

6.State the reaction conditions for the production of plastics and

polymers.

7a. Name any four divisions of chemical Industries.

b. Mention one major chemical Industry in each case which requires

the following as raw materials:

i. petrochemicals

ii. cellulose

iv. palm Oil

v. limestone

vi. silica

vi. scrap iron

8a. Give one example of:

i. heavy chemicals

ii. fine chemicals

b. Name the major raw material used in the manufacture of the

following:

i. polyethene

iii. magarine

vii. cement

viii. glass.

Project:

Explain the following Industrial processes in detail:

i. Contact process

ii. Solvay process and

iii. Haber process.

NATURE OF MATTER

What is matter?

Matter is anything that has mass/weight and occupies

space/volume. According to the definition, it means that everything in

the universe is made up of matter since almost everything in the world

has weight and occupies space. Examples of matter include: plants,

animals, food, water, air, etc.

Mass as used in the definition above, is the quantity of

matter an object contains and is the same everywhere. The basic S.I

unit (standard International unit) for the measurement of mass is the

mole, but for practical purpose, mass is measured in kilogram.

In general, matter is made/built up of one or more of the

following elementary particles: atoms, molecules and ions. The

following are scientific evidence that proved that matter is made up of

tiny particles:

i. Shapes of crystals

ii. Dissolution of salts in liquids

iii. Tyndal effects

iv. Brownian movement

v. Diffusion and

vi. Osmosis.

States of Matter:

Matter can exist in three states. They are: Solids, liquid

and gaseous state of matter.

 1. Solid State of Matter:

Solid state of matter has definite shape and volume.

The particles of solids are held by a strong force of cohesion as

a result, they can only vibrate, rotate and remain at a fixed

position.

2. Liquid State of Matter:

Liquid state of matter has a definite volume but no shape.

They take the shape of their containing vessel/container. The particles

of liquids are held by weak forces of attraction called Van der Waals

force. They can vibrate, rotate and still translate (moving from one

place to another).

3. Gaseous State of Matter:

A gas has neither volume nor shape. They fill the entire

container. Gas particles has negligible force of attraction between

them. They are free to move about in zig-zag and random manner.

Changes in State of Matter

the common example of a substance that undergo a change of state

is water.

Heat Heat

00C 1000C
Ice Water Steam

Cool Cool

Generally, a given substance changes in state when it is

heated or cooled. Example, candle wax and margarine liquefy on

warming and solidify on cooling. Solid iron melts into a liquid at

15400C. When it is poured into mould and allowed to cool, it

solidifies, taking the shape of the mould.

The following are the changes in state of matter that we have:

a. Condensation

b. Sublimation

c. Evaporation

d. Liquefaction/melting and

e. Solidification/freezing

a. Condensation:

This is the change in state of matter from gaseous state to

liquid state due to cooling. Example, water vapour turning into

liquid water on cooling.

b. Sublimation:
 This is the change of matter from solid state to gaseous state

and vice versa directly without passing through an intermediate

liquid state. Examples of substances that exhibit such phenomenon

are ammonium chloride (NH4Cl), Iodine, Sulphur, Naphthalene,

Camphor, etc.

c. Evaporation:

This involves changing from liquid state to gaseous state.

Example, liquid water turning to water vapour (steam) on

heating.

d. Liquefaction/Melting:

It is the change in state of matter from solid to liquid

state. Example, ice turning into liquid water on melting.

e. Solidification/Freezing:

This is when a liquid state of matter turns or changes to

solid. Example, water freezing or solidifying to ice on cooling.

Properties of Matter:

Substances can be identified by the characteristics they

possess. These characteristics are called properties. Example,

sugar is a white solid which dissolves in water and taste sweet,

while iron has a metallic lustre, can be magnetized and rust with

the formation of a reddish deposit.

These properties can be grouped into two:

a. Physical properties and

b. Chemical properties.

a. Physical properties:

These are properties associated with physical changes.

Examples are: boiling point, melting point, freezing point,

hardness, malleability, crystalline from a swell as properties

which may be detected by the senses such as colour, odour and

taste.

b. Chemical properties:

These are properties associated with chemical changes.

That is, those properties which are involved when matter

undergoes a change to form a new substance. Examples are:

rusting of iron, fermentation and decay of substances, etc.

Physical and Chemical Changes of Matter:

 Matter undergoes changes. These changes may be

temporary and easily reversible or they may be permanent and

difficulty to reversed.

a. Physical Change:

A physical change is one which is easily reversible

and in which no new substances are formed. Examples, changes

in state of matter, separation techniques, etc.

b. Chemical Change:

A chemical change is one which is not easily

reversed and in which new substances are formed. Examples,

dissolution of metals and limestone in acids, burning of substances,

rusting of iron, fermentation and decay of substances, addition of

water to quicklime, i.e, the slaking of lime, the changes in

electrochemical cells, etc.

Exercises:

1a. What is matter?

b. Matter is of three states. Mention them and differentiate between

them.
 c. List the scientific evidence that support the particulate nature of

matter.

2. Explain briefly the following changes in states of matter with

examples of substances that undergo such changes:

i. Sublimation

ii. Evaporation

iii.Condensation

iv.Solidification/freezing and

v.Liquefaction/melting.

3.Classify each of the following changes as either a physical or a

chemical change:

a. The addition of water to quicklime (i.e., slaking of lime).

b. Melting of candle wax.

c. Change in colour of zinc oxide from white to yellow and vice versa

during heating and after cooling respectively.

d. Dissolution of copper in concentrated trioxonitrate(v) acid.

e. Dissolution of common salt in water.

f. Hardening of cement by the absorption of carbon(iv) oxide.

4. Differentiate between the characteristics of physical and chemical

changes.
5. Write out four physical and chemical properties of matter.

ELEMENTS, COMPOUNDS AND MIXTURES.

Matter may be classified further into elements, compounds

and mixtures.

Element:

What is an element?

An element is a substance which cannot be split into

simpler units by an ordinary chemical process. Over hundred

elements has been discovered by scientists which include familiar

ones like iron, tin, gold, oxygen and iodine, as well as unfamiliar ones

like rubidium, actinium, xenon, etc.

Elements constitute the building block (units) of substances

called compounds.
 There are over hundred elements as stated earlier. Ninety of

them occur naturally; the rest are made artificially in the laboratory by

nuclear fission and fusion. Abbreviations or symbols are used to

represent elements. Example “O” for oxygen, “H” for hydrogen,

“Mg” for magnesium, “Na” for sodium, “Cl” for chlorine, “K” for

potassium and so on.

Elements can be grouped in form of a periodic table and its of

six types:

i. Reactive metals

ii. Transition metals

iii. Lanthanides and actinides

iv. Poor metals (metalloids)

v. Non- metals

vi. Noble gases.

Elements can also be grouped as:

i. Metals

ii. Semi-metals

iii. Non-metals.

Table 1: The Three Major Classes of Elements with their

Properties and Examples.

 Element Property Example

1. Metals Conductors of heat Iron, Copper, Tin,

and electricity. etc.

2. Metalloids Poor conductor of Silicon, germanium,

(semi- heat and electricity. etc.

conductors)

3. Non-metals Non-conductors of
Oxygen, chlorine,
heat and electricity.
Sulphur, etc.

Compound:

A compound is a substance which contains two or more

elements chemically combined together. A compound is as a result of

a chemical change. It is a new substance entirely different from those

of:

a. the substance(s) from which it was formed, or

b. its component elements.

The component elements of a given compound are

present in a fixed ratio by mass. For example,

 ⁎ Water is a compound formed as a result of a chemical reaction

between the component elements, hydrogen and oxygen in the of

2:1 respectively.

⁎ Carbondioxide is a compound in which the component elements

carbon and oxygen, are in the ratio of 1:2.

Table 2: Examples of compounds with their component elements

and formula.

Compound Component Elements Formula

a.Sand Silicon and oxygen. SiO2

b.Limestone Calcium, carbon and CaCO3

oxygen.

c.Sodium chloride Sodium and chlorine NaCl

d.Ethanol Carbon, hydrogen and C2H5OH

oxygen

Mixture:

A mixture contains two or more constituents which can be

separated by physical methods. The constituents of mixture can be

elements, or compounds or both. In samples of a given mixture, the

constituents may be present in different proportion, e.g. different

samples of cement contain variable proportions of calcium and

aluminium trioxosilicate(iv). The constituents of a mixture retain their

individual identities because their physical and chemical properties

are not changed by simple mixing. Hence, air which is a mixture of

gases, retains the properties of each of the component gases.

Table 3: Examples of mixtures with their constituents.

a. Air Oxygen, carbon(iv)oxide,

nitrogen, rare gases, moisture and

dust.

b. Soil Sand, clay, humus, water, air

and mineral salts.

c. Urine Urea, water and mineral salts.

d. Brass Copper and zinc.

e. Bronze Copper and tin.

f. Coca- Water, sugar, carbon(iv)oxide and

cola cola.

Table 4: Comparison of Mixtures and Compounds.

a. It may be homogeneous or It is always homogeneous.

heterogeneous.

b. The constituents are not The component elements are

chemically bound together chemically bound together and

and can therefore, be easily cannot be separated by physical

separated and recovered by means.

physical means.

c. The constituents can be The component elements are

added together in any ratio present in a fixed ratio by mass.

by mass. Hence, a mixture Hence, a compound can always

cannot be represented by a be represented by a chemical

chemical formula. formula.

d. The properties of a mixture The properties of a compound

are the sum of those of the differ entirely from those of the

individual constituents. component elements.

SEPARATION TECHNIQUES
 A mixture contains two or more different

substances and each of these substances in a mixture still

retains its individual properties. We take advantage of this

characteristics to separate mixtures. Thus, the techniques

employed in separating mixtures make use of the physical

properties of their constituents.

The techniques used to separate the components of

mixtures include:

a.)Decantation b.) filtration c.) evaporation d.) distillation

e.) fractional distillation f.) crystallization g.) fractional

crystallization h.) sublimation i.) chromatography

j.) separating funnel method k.) sieving l.) magnetic

separation m.) precipitation n.) frostation and

o.) centrifugation.

a.)Decantation: This technique is used to separate an

insoluble solid particles that can settle at the bottom of a

container from an clearer upper liquid layer by carefully

running off/ decanting the liquid using a glass rod.

This is a quick but an inaccurate method of

separating the components of a mixture.

b.)Filtration: This is used to separate an insoluble solid from

a liquid using filter paper. Example a suspension of chalk

dust in water, etc.

Industries such as water purification plants and

breweries use this technique to remove solid particles from

liquids. The liquid that passes through the filter paper

during filtration is called filtrate and the solid particles left

on the filter paper after filtration is called residue.

c.)Evaporation: This method is used to separate dissolved

(soluble) solids that can withstand high temperature from

liquid solvents. It is carried out in an evaporating

dish(basin). The solvent molecules escape either when the

solid particles are left to stand or when it is heated, leaving

the less volatile solid particles behind. Example of a

mixture that can be separated using this technique is

sodium chloride salt from water.

d.) Distillation: This method is used to separate miscible

liquids. It is employed when a liquid solvent is to be

recovered. The solution to be distilled may be a mixture of

a solid solute in a liquid solvent or of two or more liquids,

 in solution. For this technique to be effective, the liquids

must have widely different boiling points.

Distillation is used in gin distilleries and water

distilleries to manufacture gin and distilled water

respectively.

e.)Fractional Distillation: This is the same thing with simple

distillation except that, the liquids to be separated have

very close range of boiling points. It is used to separate

crude oil or petroleum or get fractions of petroleum such

as kerosene, petrol, diesel, heavy oil, natural gas and

bitumen.

f.) Crystallization: This is used to obtain a solid from its

solution. It is preferred to evaporation if the crystals of the

solid need some water of crystallization to form well or if

a high temperature will change its composition. Such a

solution is first concentrated by evaporation, before being

cooled. Crystals separate out of the concentrated solution,

and are collected by filtration. Salts obtained in this way

are pure and usually contain water of crystallization e.g.,

copper(ii)tetraoxosulphate(vi)-pentahydrate
 (CuSO4.5H2O), Sodiumtrioxocarbonate(iv)-decahydrate

(NaCO3.10H2O), etc.

Crystallization is used in industries where

purity of the product is important as in the manufacture of

drugs and sugar.

g.) Fractional Crystallization: This is used to separate two or

more solid solutes which are present in the same solution

in roughly equal amount. The solubility of the solids in

one liquid solvent must be widely different at different

temperatures. Here, as mixture in a common solvent is

heated and cooled, the component with the lowest

solubility crystallizes out first and is filtered off, leaving

others behind which are still within their limits of

solubility.

h.) Precipitation: Precipitation involves forcing out a solid

solute out of a solution. Its applicable in separation of

mixtures of solids in two miscible liquids that has different

solubility in the two miscible liquids. The solid, dissolved

in one of the two miscible liquids in which it is more

soluble, is precipitated (forced out of solution) by the

 addition of the second liquid in which it is less soluble.

Example, recovering of iron(ii)tetraoxosulphate(vi) salt

from its solution by adding ethanol.

i.) Sublimation: This is used to separate a solid mixture from

a component that sublimes (i.e., changes into the vapour

state without first becoming liquid). This involves heating

the solid mixture and collecting the vapour of the

component that sublimes.

The vapour re-solidifies on a cold surface above the heated container.

Only very few substances sublimes. They include ammonium

chloride, iodine, Sulphur and naphthalene. Thus, this method of

separation is therefore of limited application.

j.) Chromatography: Separation by chromatography makes

use of the different rates of movement of the constituents

in a mixture over an adsorbent medium. The adsorbent

medium may be a sheet of adsorbent paper or a column

packed with alumina, silica or other such materials.

It is suitable for the separation of components

in a mixture, which are present in very small amounts.

Many variations of this technique are presently in use now

in the field of analytical chemistry. The separated

constituents are identified by various means, the

commonest being by development into different coloured

bands. Each coloured band is composed of a particular

chemical compound.

k. Magnetic Separation: This is a method used to separate

magnetic substances (i.e., substances that gets attracted to

the magnet) from non-magnetic substances using a

magnet. This method is used in the steel industry and to

remove magnetic impurities from tin ore.

l. Sieving: Sieving is a method used to separate solid

particles of different sizes using a sieve or mesh. The

mixture is placed on a sieve with a mesh of a particular

size. Particular size. Particles smaller than the mesh size of

the sieve will pass through the sieve while the bigger

particles remain on the sieve.

Mining industries, such as those involving

diamond and gold, use this method extensively.

m. Separating Funnel Method: This method is used to

separate immiscible liquids with different densities using

an apparatus called separating funnel. The liquid that is

more dense stays at the bottom of the separating funnel

while the less (lighter) liquid stays on top. The lower

denser liquid layer is tapped off, leaving the upper less

dense liquid layer in the funnel.

n. Centrifugation: This is a method of separating

suspended solid particles from a liquid using a machine

called a centrifuge. The machine spins the test-tube

containing the suspensions at high speed. The spinning

causes heavier solid particles in the suspension to be

thrown to the bottom of the test-tube. They settle there

while the clear liquid separates out as an upper layer which

can easily be decantated.

o. Frostation/Floatation: This separation technique is used

by mining industries to separate metallic substances from

earthily impurities. This is done by grinding the mixture to

be separated and mixing it with oil and water. The metallic

substances being heavier than the earthily impurities sinks

at the bottom of the separation container while the earthily

impurities, being lighter forms a frost and floats on top and

can now be scooped off.

PURIFICATION OF SUBSTANCES

An impure substance is a mixture, so the

impurities may be removed by using any suitable

separation technique.

TEST OF PURITY OF A SUBSTANCE

Certain properties of chemical substance

change when there are impurities in them, but remain

constant if the substances are pure. Two of such properties

that are often used to characterize substances are melting

point (for solids) or freezing point and boiling point (for

liquids). When there are impurities in a solid substance,

the melting point of that substance is lowered and the

presence of dissolved impurities raises the boiling points

of liquids.

Table 1: Melting and Boiling Points of some Pure

Substances.

Substance Melting Point Boiling Point (oC)

(oC) at atm. Pressure.

Water 0 100

Ethanol -117 78

Benzene 5.5 80

Iron 153.5 3000

Sodium 98 890

Sulphur 115 445

Naphthalene 80.2 218

Sodium chloride 801 1467

Exercises:
1a.) Define the terms:

i. Element

ii. Compound and

iii.Mixture.

b.) Classify the following substances as an element, a compound or

a mixture.

i. Limestone

ii. Diamond

iii.Sand

iv.Soil

v. Urine

vi.Bronze

Vii. Sugar

viii.Gold

ix. Clay

x. Urea

xi. Antimony

xii. Soap

xiii. Milk

xiv. Air
 xv. Neon

xvi. Iron

2a). How would you separate a mixture of salt and sand? List out

the steps.

b.) You have a mixture of four substances P, Q, R and S. P is a

soluble salt. Q is also soluble but can also sublime. R is

magnetic, has a high melting point and is insoluble. S is

insoluble, does not sublime and is non-magnetic with a high

melting point. Describe how you will separate and collect each

of P, Q, R and S. Give your steps in the right order.

c.) A chemist prepared a compound in his laboratory and finds it

to melt between 178-182oC. What can you say about the purity

of this compound?

ATOMS, MOLECULES, FORMULAE AND EQUATIONS.

Matter is made up of discrete particles, the main ones

being atoms, molecules and ions.

 Atom:

An atom is the smallest particle of an element which can

take part in a chemical reaction. OR an atom is the smallest part of an

element that can ever exist and still possess the chemical properties of

that element.

The Greeks were the first to use the word, atom which

means indivisible, to describe the smallest particle of any substance.

John Dalton an English chemist, was the first person to put

up a theory to describe the nature of atom in nineteenth century

(1808).

Dalton’s Atomic Theory:

The theory goes beyond merely stating that matter is made

up of particles. The ideas of Dalton’s atomic theory are expressed in

the following statements:

1. All matter is composed of tiny particles called atoms.

2. Atoms cannot be sub-divided.

3. Atoms of the same element are alike in the same respect,

especially in mass, but differ from atoms of other elements.

4. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed.

 5. Atoms combine in small whole number ratios to form

compounds.

Atomic Structure:

Dalton’s atomic theory has undergone drastic

modifications with the advance of modern instruments and

technologies.

Towards the end of the nineteenth century, J.J. Thompson

produced experimental evidence for the existence of sub-particles

known as electrons in the atom of every element. He found that the

electron has a charge of -1 and a mass of 1/1837 of the mass of hydrogen

atom. At the beginning of the twentieth century, Lord Rutherford

demonstrated the nuclear structure of the atom. He showed that the

atom consisted of a small positively charged nucleus surrounded by a

negatively charged electron cloud.

Nucleus (positively charged)

Electron (negatively charged)

Rutherford’s structure of an Atom

 Further experiments showed that the nucleus contained

two particles of approximately equal mass. These are the proton

which has a charge of +1 and the neutron which has no charge. The

proton is responsible for the positive charge of the nucleus. The

proton and neutron has a mass of 1 atomic mass unit (a.m.u) each.

The mass of the atom is concentrated in the nucleus, as the electron

has a negligible mass. The mass of the atom is therefore

approximately equal to the sum of the nucleus. The charges and

masses of the three fundamental particles of an atom are summarized

in the table below.

Table 2: Charges and masses of the three fundamental particles of an

atom.

Particle Position in the Mass (in a.m.u) Charges

atom (relative to

electron).

Electron Shells 1
/1837 (negligible) -1

Proton Nucleus 1 +1

Neutron Nucleus 1 Zero

Electrons are located within shells around the nucleus

starting with the nearest to the nucleus, the shells are named as K, L,

M, N,….. These labels correspond to the principal quantum numbers

1, 2, 3, 4…. Respectively as illustrated below:

 nucleus

Where, K=1, L=2, M=3 and N=4.

Modern Atomic Structure

The maximum number of electrons each shell can contain

is specified by the formula 2n2, where n is the shell number or

principal quantum number. The table below gives the maximum

number of electrons each shell can contain.

 Table 3: The maximum Number of electrons in K, L, M, N,

…….Shells.

Shell Number Shell Symbol Maximum Number of

electrons

1 K 2

2 L 8

3 M 18

4 N 32 etc

Representing the shells with circles, we arrive at the following

structures for the first and simplest two elements:

1. Hydrogen 1
H
1 Electron

Nucleus (1 proton)

1st or K shell

2. Helium 4
He
2 2 protons, 2 Neutrons
 A short-hand form of indicating the atomic structures is to

represent the shells with the letters K, L, M, N,….. and to write the

number of electron(s) in each shell in that order. This is called the

electronic configuration of elements. The table below gives the

electronic configuration of the first twenty elements using K, L, M, N,

…. and s, p, d, f electronic configurations.

Table 4 :The Electronic Configuration of the First Twenty Elements

Using K, L, M, N,…..and s, p, d, f electronic configurations.

Element Atomic No Shells

K L M N s p d f

Hydrogen 1 1 1s1

Helium 2 2 1s2

Lithium 3 2 1 1s2 2s1

Beryllium 4 2 2 1s2 2s2

Boron 5 2 3 1s2 2s2 2p1

Carbon 6 2 4 1s2 2s2 2p2

Nitrogen 7 2 5 1s2 2s2 2p3

Oxygen 8 2 6 1s2 2s2 2p4

Fluorine 9 2 7 1s2 2s2 2p5

Neon 10 2 8 1s2 2s2 2p6

Sodium 11 2 8 1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s1

Magnesium 12 2 8 2 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2

Aluminum 13 2 8 3 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p1

Silicon 14 2 8 4 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p2

Phosphorus 15 2 8 5 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p3

Sulphur 16 2 8 6 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p4

Chlorine 17 2 8 7 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p5

Argon 18 2 8 8 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6

Potassium 19 2 8 8 1 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s1

Calcium 20 2 8 8 2 1s2 2s2 2p6 3s2 3p6 4s2

Atomic Number

We have seen that each atom is characterized by a given

number of protons. The number of protons and electrons in each

atom are equal. All atoms are electrically neutral because the number
of protons and electrons are equal in each atom. When the number of

electrons is not equal to the number of protons, we have an ion. This

is obtained by increasing or decreasing the number of electrons in a

neutral atom.

The number of protons in an atom is equal to its atomic

number, and it is a constant. The atomic number characterize the atom

of every element. The elements hydrogen, carbon and oxygen which

have one, six and eight protons in their nuclei have atomic numbers of

1, 6 and 8 respectively. The atomic numbers of the first 20 elements

correspond to the number of protons in each element.

Mass Number

It has been mentioned earlier that the mass of the atom is

due to the protons and neutrons in the nucleus. The numerical sum of

the masses of the protons and neutrons in the nucleus of an atom is

equal to the mass number. Since each of these particles is of mass

equal to 1 a. m. u, the mass number (in a. m. u) is in effect equal to

the total number of protons and neutrons in the nucleus. For example,

carbon which has 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its nucleus has a mass
number of 12; Aluminum which has 13 protons and 14 neutrons has a

mass number of 27.

Isotopy

Dalton’s atomic theory postulated that all atoms of an

element were alike in all respects including the possession of equal

masses. The use of modern instruments (mass spectrometer) has

revealed that there are atoms of the same element whose atomic

masses are different. Such atoms are called isotopes and the

phenomenon, isotopy. These atoms have the same number of protons

but different numbers of neutrons. Hydrogen, the highest element, has

three isotopes. They are listed in the table below with their neutron

number, proton number and mass number.

Table 9: Isotopes of Hydrogen with their neutron number, proton

number and mass number.

Isotope Number of Number of Mass Number

Protons Neutrons

Protium 1 ------ 1

Deutrium 1 1 2
Tritium 1 2 3

When writing the isotope of an element, the symbol of the

element is written with the number and mass number indicated as

shown below, for protium.

Mass number
1
H
1 Symbol of atom

Atomic number

The subscript is the atomic number, while the superscript is the mass

number. For example, 11H, 21H, 31H respectively represents protium,

deuterium and tritium, the isotopes of hydrogen. When the element

under reference is obvious, the subscript may be omitted. Thus, we

may simply write 1H, 2H, and 3H for isotopes of hydrogen.

There are only a few elements which exhibit isotopy. The

isotopes of some common elements are shown below.

Table 5: Isotopes of some common elements.

Element Atomic Number of Mass Isotope

Number Neutrons Number

Oxygen 8 8 16 16
8O
 8 9 17 17
O
8

8 10 18 18
O
8

Carbon 6 6 12 12
C
6

6 7 13 13
C
6

6 8 14 14
C
6

Neon 10 10 20 20
10 Ne

10 11 21 21
10 Ne

10 12 22 22
10 Ne

Chlorine 17 18 35 35
17 Cl

17 20 37 37
17 Cl

Relative Atomic Mass

The 126C isotope has 6 protons and 6 neutrons in its

nucleus with a mass number of 12 atomic mass units. It is used as a

standard for the comparison of the masses of other atoms as the actual

masses of atoms of different elements are too small to be determined.

The relative atomic mass of an element is therefore

defined as the number of times the mass of one atom of the element is

as heavy as one-twelfth of the mass of one atom of carbon-12 (126C).

 Relative atomic mass has no unit. It is a ratio but for

practical purpose however, a unit of measurement is needed. Chemist

often want to know the masses of the elements taking part in a

chemical reaction. They have added the gram to the standard of

reference, i.e., 12C =12g, and found that 12g of 12C isotope contains

6.02×1023 atoms. This number of atoms called the Avogadro’s

number, is known as the mole. The relative atomic mass of an

element expressed in grams contains one Avogadro’s number of

atoms and is a mole of the element.

For atoms that exhibit isotopy, the relative atomic mass is

the weighted average of the atomic masses of its different isotopes.

For example, naturally occurring chlorine contains 75% by weight of

35
Cl and 25% of 3717Cl. These percentages, called the relative
17

abundance of isotopes, is constant for every sample of chlorine. The

relative atomic mass of chlorine is found by calculating the relative

average of the atomic masses thus:

Relative atomic mass of chlorine = (75×35) + (25×37)

100

= 35.5
Similarly, lead which contains 24% of lead-206, 23%of lead-207 and

53% of lead-208 has a relative atomic mass of

= (24×206) + (23×207) + (53×208)

100

= 207.29

The existence of isotopes which are not present in the

same proportion is responsible for the relative atomic masses of

elements being fractional and not whole numbers. The mass numbers

of the different isotopes are however whole numbers.

Molecules

Most atoms cannot exist alone. They get bonded to other atoms to

form molecules. The molecules formed could be made up of atoms of

the same elements (homonuclear) or atoms of different elements

(heteronuclear).

The number of atoms in a molecule of an element is called

the atomicity of that element and the number is usually small. Most

gaseous elements like oxygen and chlorine are diatomic i.e., the

molecule is made of two atoms. Others like phosphorus and Sulphur

are polyatomic, i.e., their molecules are made of many atoms. The

molecules of helium and argon are monoatomic, i.e., they can exist

singly or independently.

All compounds exist as molecules. The smallest particle

possessing the chemical properties of a given compound is its

molecule. The number of atoms in the molecule of a compound may

be small or large, e.g., a hydrogen chloride molecule contains only

two atoms, while a starch molecule contains thousands of atoms.

Therefore, a molecule is defined as the smallest particle of

a substance that can normally exist alone and still retain the chemical

properties of that substance, be it an element or a compound.

Relative Molecular Mass

The relative molecular mass of one molecule of an element

or compound, like the relative atomic mass of one atom of an element

is a ratio based on the 12C isotope.

The relative molecular mass of a compound is defined as

the number of times one molecule of the compound is as heavy as

one-twelfth of the mass of an atom of 12C isotope. Like relative atomic

mass. Relative molecular mass has no unit since it is a ratio. It is

equal to the sum of the relative atomic masses of all the atoms making

up one molecule of the element or compound. Given that one

molecule of hydrogen chloride, HCl has one atom of hydrogen and

one atom of chlorine combined together, then the relative molecular

mass of hydrogen chloride is (1+35.5) =36.5. Similarly, given that

carbon(iv)oxide, CO2, has one atom of carbon (relative atomic mass

of 12), joined to two atoms of oxygen (relative atomic mass of 16),

the relative molecular mass of carbon(iv)oxide is 12 + (16×2) +44.

The Avogadro’s number of molecules of a compound is

one mole of the compound. The mass of one Avogadro’s number of

molecules, or one mole of any compound is numerically equal to the

relative molecular mass of the compound expressed in grams. Thus,

44g of carbon(iv)oxide contains 6.02×1023 molecules; 4.4g contains

6.02×1022 molecules and 0.44g contains 6.02×1021 molecules.

Modifications of Dalton’s Atomic Theory

Consider the statements of Dalton’s atomic theory. Which of them is

still true in the light of modern atomic structure? To answer this

question we shall re-examine these statements one by one.

1. All matter is made up of tiny particles called atoms. This

statement is still true. The only addition is that atoms are

themselves made up of smaller particles called electrons,

protons and neutrons.

2. Atoms cannot be sub-divided. Certainly, this is no longer

accepted. Some atoms with unstable nuclei disintegrate

spontaneously, emitting radioactive rays and forming lighter

atoms.

3. Atoms of the same element are alike in all respects, especially in

mass. This has been disproved by the phenomenon of isotopy.

However, atoms of the same element have the same atomic

number and react alike. Chemical reactions depend on the

electronic configurations of atoms, which are similar for atoms

of the same element. But their masses depend on the number of

neutrons in each atom. These are not always equal for different

atoms of the same element.

4. Atoms cannot be created or destroyed. This statement is no

longer acceptable. A number of new elements have been made

by man- the trans-uranium elements. Also, the disintegration of

 unstable nuclei yields atoms of lighter elements; that is, these

lighter atoms are ‘Created’ from the unstable heavier ones.

A large amount of energy is released during the

disintegration of unstable nuclei. This energy comes from some of the

mass of the atom which is converted to energy. The energy derived

from atomic reactions usually comes from one lost mass. Small mass

different sometimes occur between reactants and products. This mass

difference is changed to energy. For such reactions the law of

conservation of mass which states that in any chemical reaction the

total mass of reactants is always equal to the total mass of products,

does not hold, and cannot be destroyed in the course of a chemical

reaction. The loss of mass implies the possibility of destruction of

matter.

5. Atoms combine in small whole number ratios. To a large extent

this statement still holds, Polymeric carbon compounds however

exist, in which the ratios of combining atoms is far from being

simple.

Ions
 Some substances are not built up of atoms or

molecules, but are made up charged particles called ions. There are

two types of ions:

i. The positively charged ions or cations. e.g., Ca2+, Mg2+, K+,

etc and

ii. The negatively charged ions or anions. e.g., Cl-, F-, OH- ,etc.

An ionic substance has the same number of positive and negative

ions, so that it is electrically neutral.

Therefore, we can define an ion as any atom or group of

atoms which possess an electric charge.

Symbols of Elements

An important consequence of the atomic theory is that it

became possible to represent an element with a symbol, a compound

with a formula and reaction with an equation. Since atoms of an

element were said to be alike, a symbol could represent any atom of a

particular element. Dalton invented symbols which were later found

unsuitable. In 1814, Berzelius suggested a simple system of

representing elements with symbols. The first letter of the name of an

element was taken as the symbol for that element: H for hydrogen, S
for Sulphur, O for oxygen and C for carbon. Such symbols are written

in capital letters. Where the first letter had already been adopted, the

initial letter, in capital, together with a small letter from its name was

used: Ca for calcium, Cl for chlorine, Al for aluminum, He for helium

and Sr for strontium. The symbols for some metals were derived from

their Latin names in a similar way.

Table 6: Symbols of Elements from Latin names.

Element Latin Name Symbol

Copper Cuprum Cu

Gold Aurum Au

Iron Ferrium Fe

Lead Plumbium Pb

Mercury Hydragyrum Hg

Potassium Kallium K

Sodium Natrium Na

Silver Argentium Ag

Tin Stannium Sn

The symbols of most of the known elements are given in

the periodic table.

 EMPIRICAL AND MOLECULAR FORMULAE

While a symbol represents an atom of an element, the molecular

formula of a compound represents the smallest unit of the compound

that is capable of independent existence. A formula can also say to be

a collection of symbols that gives information about the chemical

composition of a molecule/compound combined in correct proportion

or valencies.

The empirical formula of a compound is the simplest

formula that shows the ratio of the number of atoms of the different

elements in the compound. Most formulae of compounds exist in their

simplest form. Examples CaO, NaCl, CaCO3. The empirical formula

shows the ratio of the number of moles of each atom of the elements

in combination. It may not indicate the actual number of atoms of

each element in a molecule of the compound. It is thus not always the

same as the molecular formula of the compound. For example, as the

empirical formula of magnesium oxide is MgO the molecular formula

may be MgO, Mg2O2, Mg3O3, etc. The ratio of the number of moles of

the combining elements remains 1:1.

To find the formula of a compound, we must know the

relative molecular mass of the compound in addition to the empirical

formula. We can then calculate the actual number of atoms per

molecule, to obtain the molecular formula.

Given the percentage composition of a compound or the

names of the atoms in a given mass of the compound the empirical

formula can be calculated.

Example:

1. A compound contains 28.8% of magnesium, 14.20% of carbon

and 57.0% of oxygen. What is its empirical formula?

Solution:

Symbols: Mg C O

Relative atomic masses: 24.3 12 16

Mass of the atom in 100g of the compound: 28.8g 14.2g 57.0g

Number of moles: 28.8 14.2 57.0

24.3 12 16

Mole ratios: 1.185:1.183:3.563

Dividing with the lowest number: 1.185 1.183 3.563

1.183 1.183 1.183

1: 1: 3

Therefore, the empirical formula of the compound is MgCO3.

2. An organic compound on analysis was found to contain 2.40g of

carbon, 0.408g of hydrogen and 3.204g of oxygen. The relative

molecular mass (R.M.M) of the compound was determined to be

60. Calculate the molecular formula of the compound (C=12,

H=1, O=16).

Solution:

Symbols of the elements: C H O

Relative atomic masses: 12 1 16

Reacting masses: 2.40 0.408 3.204

Number of moles: 2.40 0.408 3.204

12 1 16

Mole ratios: 0.200 0.408 0.200

Dividing with the smallest number: 0.200 0.408 0.200

 0.200 0.200 0.200

1 2 1

Therefore, the empirical formula is CH2O

The molecular formula (M.F) = (E.F) n

Where,

n = 1, 2, 3…….

But (E.F) n = R.M.M). i.e., relative molecular mass).

Thus, (CH2O) n = 60.

(12 + (1×2) +16) n = 60.

30 n = 60 2

30 30

n=2

M.F of the compound = (CH2O) n = C2H4O2.

Rearranging it, we have CH3COOH (i.e., ethanoic acid).

Chemical Equation
 Chemical equation is the “shorthand language” of

chemistry. It can also be defined as the representation of information

about a reaction using formulae for compounds and symbols for

atoms of elements. In a chemical equation, the reactants are placed on

the left hand side of the arrow while the products are placed on the

right.

Reactants Products

The reactants and products may be elements or

compounds. The equation tells us how many moles of

reactant(s) react to give a given number of moles of product(s).

The conditions under which the reaction occurs may be written

on top of the arrow. The physical states of the reactants and

products are at times indicated with the notations, (s), (l), (g) or

(aq) written to the immediate right of the symbols or formulae

of the reactants and products. For example:

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

s = solid l = liquid aq = aqueous (dissolved in water) g = gas.

A chemical equation does not give information on the rate of

chemical reaction.

Things that must be known to be able to write balanced equations.

To be able to write balanced equations, the student should know:

i. The symbols and names of at least the first twenty elements

of the periodic table, as well as those of other common

elements.

ii. The combining powers of common ions and radicals.

iii. The names of common compounds.

iv. How to write the formulae of compounds using the

knowledge of the combining powers of the constituent

elements or ions.

v. Common types of chemical reactions and their usual

products.

Combining Powers of ions and radicals

The symbols and names of common elements of the periodic

table has been treated in our previous lesson.

The combining power of each of these elements is

equal to the number of electrons gained lost by the atom in ionic

bonding, or contributed by each atom for sharing in covalent

bonding.
 Elements in group1 of the periodic table have one

electron in their outermost shells which they readily lose during

chemical bonding to form ions. So they have combining powers

of +1. Examples are sodium ion, Na+, and potassium ion, K+.

Group II metals lose two electrons, hence the ions of beryllium,

Be2+, magnesium, Mg2+ and calcium, Ca2+, have combining

powers of +2. Metallic ions usually have positive combining

powers and are called cations.

Non-metals usually gain electrons during chemical

bonding to form ions. They have negative combining powers

and are called anions. Non-metals of group VII (fluorine,

chlorine, bromine, iodine), gain one electron in chemical

bonding and thus have combining powers of -1. Oxygen and

Sulphur have combining powers of -2.

A list of the combining powers of common elements and

radicals is given in the table below.

Table 1: The combining powers of some common ions and

radicals.

Cations

Hydrogen H+ +1
Sodium Na+ +1

Potassium K+ +1

Ammonium NH4+ +1

Magnesium Mg2+ +2

Calcium Ca2+ +2

Zinc Zn2+ +2

Copper(i) and Cu+ and Cu2+ +1 and +2

Copper(ii)

Iron (ii) and Iron(iii) Fe2+ and Fe3+ +2 and+3

Mercury(i) and Hg+ and Hg2+ +1 and +2

Mercury(ii)

Lead(ii) and Lead(iv) Pb2+ and Pb4+ +2 and +4

Tin(ii) and Tin(iv) Sn2+ and Sn4+ +2 and +4

Silver Ag+ +1

Aluminum Al3+ +3

Barium Ba2+ +2

Anions

Fluoride F- -1

Chloride Cl- -1

Bromide Br - -1
Iodide I- -1

Hydride H- -1

Hydroxyl OH- -1

Oxide O2- -2

Sulphide S2- -2

Dioxonitrate(iii) NO2- -1

Trioxonitrate(v) NO3- -1

Hydrogen HSO4- -1

tetraoxosulphate(vi)

Tetraoxosulphate(vi) SO42- -2

Hydrogen HSO3- -1

trioxosulphate(iv)

Trioxosulpate(iv) SO32- -2

Hydrogen HCO3- -1

trioxocarbonate(iv)

Trioxocarbonate(iv) CO32- -2

Nitride N3- -3

Trioxophosphate(iii) PO33- -3

Tetraoxophosphate(v) PO43- -3
Writing the Formulae of Compounds by using the Combining Powers

of Elements, Ions and Radicals

In the formation of ionic compounds, the number of

cations and anions which combine to form one molecule of the

compound must be such as to confer electrical neutrality on the

compound. To achieve this, the total number of positive charges on

the cations must balance that of the negative charges on the anions.

Examples:

a. To write the formula of calcium chloride

Symbols: Ca2+ Cl- (cross-multiply

Combining powers: +2 -1 each atom with

The combining

power of the other

atom. Do not add

the charge).

Ca1 Cl2 (Delete 1 as it is not

Necessary to write

this).
 CaCl2

b. Formula of aluminum oxide

Symbols: Al3+ O2-

Combining powers: +3 -2

Al2O3

The formula of aluminum oxide is Al2O3

c. Formula of sodium tetraoxosulpate(vi)

Symbols: Na+ SO42-

Combining powers: +1 -2

Na2SO4

The formula of sodium tetraoxosulphate (vi) is Na2SO4.

 d. Formula of calcium Oxide

Symbols: Ca2+ O2-

Combining powers: +2 -2

Ca2O2 (divide the numbers to

get the simplest formula. i.e.,

CaO)

The formula of calcium Oxide is CaO, etc.

Some Common Chemical Reactions

a. Metal + Oxygen Metallic Oxide

b. Metal + Sulphur Metallic Sulphide

c. Metal + Halogen Metallic Halide

d. Metal + Acid (dilute) Salt + Hydrogen

e. Non-metal + Oxygen Non-metallic Oxide

f. Alkali metal + Water Alkali hydroxide + Hydrogen

g. Acidic Oxide of a non-metal + Water Acid

h. Alkali metal Oxide + Water Alkali hydroxide

i. Hydroxide + Acid Salt + Water

j. Metallic Oxide + Acid Salt + Water

k. Trioxocarbonate(iv)+Acid Salt + Water + Carbon(iv)oxide

Writing and Balancing of Chemical Equations

When writing chemical equations, symbols of atoms

and molecules should be written to denote the way the

elements or compounds occur in nature. For example,

oxygen, hydrogen, fluorine, chlorine, bromine, iodine and

nitrogen which are all diatomic should be written as O2, H2,

F2, Cl2, Br2, I2 and N2 respectively. Metals are all monoatomic

and noble gases are also monoatomic.

The correct formulae of the reactants and products

are first written. The equation is then balanced by ensuring

that the number of atoms/ions of each element in the reactants

is equal to the number of its atoms/ions in the products. This

may be achieved when necessary, by multiplying the

symbol(s) or formula(e) of one or more elements or

compounds with appropriate small whole numbers to increase

 the number of atoms of particular element(s) in the

reactant(s) or product(s). The numbers are written directly in

front of the symbols or formulae.

Examples:

a. Metal + Oxygen Metallic Oxide

Na + O2 Na2O (correct formula of

Reactants and products).

4Na + O2 2Na2O (balancing- by multiplying

the number of sodium atom in

the reactant by four and the

moles of the products by two.

b. Metal + Sulphur Metallic sulphide

Zn +S ZnS (correct formula; balanced)

c. Metal + halogen Metallic halide

Cu + Cl2 CuCl2 (correct formula; balanced).

d. Metal + Acid (dilute) Salt + Hydrogen

Al + HCl AlCl3 +H2 (correct formula)

2AL + 6HCl 2AlCl3 + 3H2 (balanced equation), etc.

Exercises:
1. If the atomic number of an element M is 19 and that of nitrogen

is 7, the most likely formula of the nitride of M is?

2. MO and X2O represent the formulae of oxides of elements M

and X respectively. If M and X should combine together to form

a separate compound, what would be the formula of the

compound?

3. If 3 moles of electrons are required to deposit 1 mole of metal,

M, during the electrolysis of its molten chloride, the empirical

formula of the metallic chloride is?

4. The correct equation for the reaction:

CuO(s) + H2SO4(aq) is?

5. The numerical coefficients in a balanced equation gives

the……………?

6. The empirical formula of a hydrocarbon containing 0.12 mole of

carbon and 0.36 mole of hydrogen is?

7. C=O
 O –H

What is the molar mass of the compound above?

8. A compound contains 85% carbon and 15% hydrogen. Find the

empirical formula (C=2, H=1).

9. 1.12g of iron was heated in a stream of hydrogen chloride to a

constant mass of 2.54. What is the formula of the product if it is

known to be a binary compound of iron and chlorine (Fe =56, Cl

= 35.5)?

10. What is the molecular formula of a compound whose

empirical formula is CH2O and molar mass is 180?

11a. Write the electronic configuration of element Y whose atomic

number is 15.

e. Give the formulae of two oxides of Y.

f. Would you expect the oxides above to be acidic, basic or

amphoteric? Give reasons for your answer.

LAWS OF CHEMICAL COMBINATION

 There are four laws of chemical combination which describe the

general features of chemical change. Although research has shown that these

laws are only approximately correct, they still form the basis of chemistry.

1. The law of Conservation of Mass:

The atomic theory proposed by John Dalton states that

atoms can neither be created nor destroyed but change from one form

to another. Since matter is made up of atom, matter too can neither be

created nor destroyed. This is stated in the law of conservation of

mass or matter which is now accepted as the basis of all chemical

reactions.

The law of conservation of mass which is also called the

law of indestructibility of matter states that in any chemical reaction,

the total mass of reactants is always equal to the total mass of

products. It can also be stated as matter can neither be created nor

destroyed during a chemical reaction but changes from one form to

another. These can be seen when dilute tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid

react with barium chloride solution. When the clear solutions of

tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid and barium chloride are mixed, a white

curdy precipitate is formed. A reaction has taken place. But the total

mass of the reagents bottle before and after the reaction are the same.

A similar result is obtained when the experiment is repeated with

silver trioxonitrate (v) solution and dilute hydrochloric acid. This

shows that mass is conserved in the course of a chemical reaction.

Dalton explained this and the other laws of chemical

combination when he put up his atomic theory. A chemical reaction is

the rearrangement of the particles (atoms) of matter. It involves the

breaking and making of bonds between these particles. Since these

atoms are neither created nor destroyed, mass must be conserved in

the course of a chemical reaction.

Burning of wood is a chemical reaction in which it seems

that mass is not conserved. However, if we collect all the smoke,

carbon(iv)oxide and water vapour produced during the burning as

well as the ashes left behind, and weigh these, their total mass will be

equal to the mass of the wood before burning. For ordinary chemical

reactions the law holds because very little amount of energy is

involved. In nuclear reactions where a large amount of energy is

involved, mass is not conserved.

1. The Law Constant Composition (Definite Proportion)

The constant composition of pure compounds was

discovered quite early and expressed as a law known as the law

 of constant composition. The law of constant composition states

that:

All pure samples of the same compound contain the same

elements combined in a fixed proportion by mass.

The second law of chemical combination which is

supported by the atomic theory in the following statements:

1. Atoms of the same element are alike especially in mass and

2. Atoms combine in small whole number ratio to form

compounds (molecules), was proposed by Proust (1755-

1826), known as the law of definite proportions or constant

composition, is based on the fact that when elements combine

to form a given compound, they do so in fixed proportion by

mass so that all pure sample of that compound are identical in

composition by mass.

Consider water for example, chemical analysis showed

that as long as it is pure, its composition is in the ratio of one mole of

oxygen molecules (i.e.,32g) is to two moles of hydrogen molecules

(i.e.,4g), irrespective of whether the water comes from the river, sea,

rain, or any other source.

3. The Law of Multiple Proportions

 The law deals with compounds formed by atoms that have

variable combining powers. It states that if two elements A and B,

combine to form more than one chemical compound, then the various

masses of one element, A, which combine separately with a fixed

mass of the other element, B, are in a simple multiple ratio. Some

examples of paired elements that form more than one compound are

as follows:

i. Iron and oxygen combine to form brown iron (iii)oxide, Fe2O3

and black iron(ii)oxide, FeO.

ii. Copper and oxygen combine to give black copper(ii)oxide, CuO

and red copper(i)oxide, Cu2O.

iii. Iron and chlorine combine to give brownish-yellow

iron(iii)chloride, FeCl3 and green iron(ii)chloride, FeCl2.

iv. Lead and Sulphur combine to give black lead(ii)sulphide, PbS

and lead (iv)sulphide, PbS2.

Any of the above listed pairs of compounds can be used

to verify the law in the laboratory. It can also be verified by

comparing the formulae of their compounds as illustrated for the

chlorides of iron(ii) and iron(iii) below:

Compounds iron(ii)chloride iron(iii)chloride

 Formulae FeCl2 FeCl3

Iron atoms

(Fixed mass in mole) 1 1

Chlorine atoms

(Variable masses in mole) 2 3

Ratio of the various masses

of chlorine in the chloride

of iron 2 : 3

4. The Law of Reciprocal Proportion

The fourth law of chemical combination is known as

the law of reciprocal proportions and it states that the masses of

several elements A, B, C, which combine separately with a fixed

mass of another element, D, are the same as, or simple multiples of

the masses in which A, B, C themselves combine with one another.

 CHEMICAL BONDING

Atoms of elements undergo chemical bonding in order to attain a

complete outermost electronic configuration similar to that of the

noble gases. The reason is that with the exception of the noble

gases which have a duplet (two, for helium) or octet (eight, for

other noble gases) number of electrons in their outermost shells, all

other atoms have less than the octet number of electrons in their

outermost shells and as a result are not stable.

The following are the types of chemical bonding that

elements undergo to attain the noble gas electronic configuration or

becomes stable:

1. Electrovalent(ionic) bonding:

Electrovalent bonds are formed when an atom gain or

loses one or more electrons in a chemical reaction. For example,

in the reaction between sodium and chlorine to form sodium

chloride, an atom of sodium loses one electron to the chlorine

atom.

Na + Cl Na+ + Cl-
 (2,8,1) (2,8,7) (2,8) (2,8,8)

(stable neon (stable argon

configuration) configuration)

The number of protons in the nucleus of sodium atom is now more

than the number of electrons. This gives a positively charge ion.

Metals usually form such positively charged ions when they

undergo ionic bonding. The chlorine atom gains one electron and

becomes negatively charged because it has more electrons than

protons. Non-metals usually form negatively charged ions in ionic

bonding. The sodium ion has a charge of +1 and the

chlorine(chloride)ion a charge of -1.

In general, each atom involved in the bonding acquires a

noble gas structure. The number of electrons lost or gained by each

atom in ionic bonding is equal to the charge on the ion formed.

Ionic bonding occurs between metals and non-metals.

Another example of ionic bonding is the formation of

magnesium chloride and magnesium nitride:

Mg + Cl2 Mg2+ 2Cl-

(2,8,2) (2,8,7) (2,8) (2,8,8)

Mg + N2 3Mg2+ 2N3-
(2,8,2) + (2,5) (2,8) (2,8)

Properties of Ionic Compounds

1. They contain ions in either the solid solution or molten states.

When in the solution or molten state, they conduct electricity

because they contain mobile ions. They are therefore called

electrolytes.

2. They are usually ionic solids with high melting and boiling

points. This is because the oppositely charged ions hold each

other very firmly by electronic force of attraction.

3. They are insoluble in organic solvents like kerosene but soluble

in polar solvents like water.

2. Covalent Bonding:

In covalent combination, there is no transfer of electrons

between the atoms. Instead, there is a sharing of a pair of electrons

between the two reacting atoms so that both can attain the stable octet

structure. This pair of electrons is known as the shared pair. Each

reacting atom contributes one member of a shared pair. Sometimes,

more than one pair of electrons may be shared between two reacting
atoms. The shared electrons may be regarded as revolving in orbits

controlled by both nuclei, thereby forming the covalent bond. Thus,

molecules and not ions are formed in covalent combination. Covalent

compounds have no charge on them because each atom has not lost or

gained any electron.

Diatomic molecules of elements are formed by covalent

combination. Examples are the chlorine, hydrogen, oxygen, Nitrogen,

fluorine molecules. Organic compounds are also formed by this

method, e.g., the formation of methane.

Conventionally, the shared pair is represented by stroke

between the two atoms in the association, e.g., H-H and Cl-Cl. In

covalent bonding the pair of electrons shared are called shared pair

while the electrons not used in bonding are called lone electron pairs.

The formation of covalent molecules is illustrated here with the

formation of molecules of hydrogen, oxygen, water and hydrogen

chloride.
 Properties of Covalent Compounds:

1. Covalent compounds are made up molecules and not ions thus,

they do not conduct electricity in solution or molten state. They

are non-electrolytes.

2. They are either gases, volatile liquids or solids of low melting

and boiling points. This is because the molecules are joined to

one another by weak van der waals’ forces. However, some

giant covalent molecules like diamond have high melting points.

3. Covalent compounds are usually soluble in organic solvents like

kerosene, petrol, tetrachloromethane and benzene, but insoluble

in polar solvents like water.

N/B: Some covalent compounds like hydrogen chloride produce

ions when dissolved in water and therefore can conduct electric

current. Such covalent compounds which when dissolved in

water ionize to produce mobile ions are called polar covalent

compounds.

Co-ordinate Covalent(datie) Bonding:

The word dative means ‘I give’ in Latin. Co-ordinate or dative

bond is a special type of covalent bonding. It is similar to

covalent bonding in that atoms share electrons to form

molecules. However, it is different from covalent bonding

because the co-ordinate covalent bonding is formed by one atom

donating a lone pair of electrons to another atom which has a

vacancy to accommodate the lone pair of electrons. The two

atoms then share the lone pair of electrons.The co-ordinate

covalently bonded compounds has the properties of covalent

compounds. The formation of co-ordinate covalent bonding is

illustrated with the formation of ammonium and hydroxonium

ions.
 OTHER BINDING FORCES

Besides the ionic and covalent forces, other attractive

forces also bind atoms and molecules together. The most important of

these are the metallic bond, the van der waals forces and the hydrogen

bond.

METALLIC BONDING

Metallic bonding is found only in metals. Metallic bonding

involves the loosely held electrons in the outermost shells of metals

and the positively charged proton in the nucleus of an atom. This

gives metals most of their characteristic properties.

Metallic bonds do not have strong directional character. This

is why many metals can be bent or deformed without shattering their

crystal structure when subjected to strong pressure, like hammering.

Metals are thus malleable and ductile. Metals are good conductors of

heat and electricity because the electrons in the outermost shells are

loosely held and are free to move throughout the solid. This is

because they are far removed from the attractive force of the solid. It

is these electrons which carry the heat energy when the metal is

heated, or electric charge when a potential difference is created.

Because electrons in the outermost shells of metallic atoms are

loosely held, they are easily lost during chemical reactions. This is

why metals easily undergo chemical bonding by electron loss. In the

metal lattice these loosely held electrons are not directly controlled

by, or attached to a single atom. They are therefore describe as

delocalized or non-localized electrons.

These electrons are attracted by each of the nuclei surrounding

them. The electrons tend to bind the metallic atoms together. The

higher the number of these delocalized electrons per atom in the

lattice, the stronger the bond between the atoms and hence the higher

the melting point of the metal.

VAN DER WAALS FORCES

Weak attractive forces exist even between discrete molecules.

They were first described by J.D. Van der Waals. And are known as

Van der Waals forces. These forces are very weak when compared

with ionic and covalent bonds, but they are important in the

liquefaction of gases and in the formation of molecular lattices as in

iodine and naphthalene crystals.

 HYDROGEN BOND

Hydrogen bond is an intermolecular force which arises when

hydrogen is covlently linked to strongly electronegative elements like

oxygen, fluorine, chlorine, nitrogen, etc.

That is, these elements have very strong affinity for electrons. They

require a few electrons to attain their octet configuration. They tend to

pull the shared pair of electrons in the covalent bonds towards

themselves, resulting in the formation of a dipole where the hydrogen

atom is partially positive, while the nitrogen, oxygen or fluorine is

partially negative. An electrostatic attraction between two dipoles is

set up when the positive pole of one molecule attracts the negative

pole of another. This attractive force is known as the hydrogen bond.

Although this bond is weak, it has important effects on the physical

properties of compounds like hydrogen fluoride and water.

COMPARISON OF COVALENT, ELECTROVALENT AND

METALLIC BONDS AND THEIR COMPOUNDS

IONIC COVALENT METALLIC

1.Crystal lattice are Crystal lattice are Crystal lattice are

built from ions built from molecules built from positive

nuclei and delocalized

 electrons

2. Conduct electric Do not conduct Conduct electric

current in electric current current in solid state

molten or because no ions are because of the

solution state present but molecules presence of

due to the delocalized electrons

presence of

mobile ions

3. Soluble in polar Insoluble in polar Insoluble in all polar

solvents like solvent like water but solvents

water soluble in organic

solvent like

tetrachlorobenzene,

kerosene, etc.

4. Formed by Formed by electron Formed by interaction

electron transfer sharing between nuclei and

delocalized electrons

5. Reactions Reactions involving Reactions takes place

involving ions covalent bonds are by electron transfer

are spontaneous slower

 6. Bonds are non- Bonds are directional Bonds are non-

directional directional

7. Have high Have low melting and Melting and boiling

melting and boiling points points may be low or

boiling points high, depending on

the number of

electron available for

bonding

8. Crystals are Crystals are soft Crystals vary widely

hard and brittle in hardness,

depending on the

number of electron

available for bonding.

They are malleable

and ductile.

THE MOLE CONCEPT

Chemical reactions take place between individual particles,

such as atoms, molecules and ions, of the reacting substances. For

example, in a certain chemical reaction, one particle of a reactant A

may need to react with one particle of another reactant B to give the

particle of the product C, i.e.

A + B C

An equal number of particles of A and B are always needed to

yield a definite number of particles of C. Since particles, like atoms

and molecules, are extremely small to be seen by even the most

powerful microscope and impossible to weigh individually, it is

difficult to work with individual particles when we carry out chemical

reactions. When chemists need to know how many atoms are

involved, they must count by weighing large numbers. The amount of

a substance can be measured by its mass, or by the number of

specified particles it contains. When measured by the number of

specified particles, the amount of a substance is measured in moles. A

mole is therefore defined as the amount of substance which contains

the same number of specified particles (atoms, ions, molecules or

electrons) as there are carbon atoms in 12 grammes of carbon-12

isotope (12 6C). Carbon-12 isotope contains specified number of atoms

which are 6.02×1023atoms. The number is known as the Avogadro’s

number. Any amount of substance containing this Avogadro’s number

is said to be one mole of that substance. i.e.

One mole = 6.02×1023 particles. C=12, Fe=56, H=1, S=32, Ag=108,

etc, a mole of each contains 6.02×1023atoms.

The definition of a mole also gives the following relationship:

Number of moles =Number of particles

of a substance 6.02×1023

SECOND TERM WORK

STATE OF MATTER

Matter exists in three states. They are:

a. Solid

b. Liquid and

c. Gas

The fundamental difference between these three states of matter is the degree of

movement of their particles.

SOLID STATE

Various types of solids are formed by different chemical combinations. The

structures of solids can be considered more readily because the particles that

make up solid-atoms, molecules or ions are close together and are in an orderly

arrangement held by forces of cohesion. The forces of cohesion may be

electrovalent, covalent, metallic or even the very weak vander waals forces. The

strength of any solid is determined by the types of bonds or forces holding the

crystal structure together.

The cohesive forces holding the particles of a solid are strong enough to

restrict their movement so that they are held in fixed positions. These particles

can only vibrate and rotate about fixed positions but they cannot translate, i.e.,

remove from one place to another. As a result, solids have definite shapes and

volumes, and are difficult to compress.

The strength of any solid is determined by the types of bonds or forces

holding the crystal structure together as earlier stated. Some have high melting

and boiling points, high thermal and electrical conductivity and some hard or

brittle than others due to their difference in bond formation. There are metallic,

ionic, covalent and molecular solids. Solids are orderly arranged in both

crystalline and amorphous forms.

LIQUID STATE

Liquids are the most difficult to describe precisely out of the three states

of matter. The particles of a liquid interact with their neighbors, like the

particles in a solid, but, unlike in solids, there is little order in their arrangement,

i.e. the particles of liquid are further apart than those in a solid. They have more

kinetic energy and are not held in fixed positions. They can vibrate, rotate and

translate. Although the particles can slide about randomly, they are still under

the influence of the cohesive forces and their movements are restricted. Inter-

molecular forces are responsible for the existence of liquid state and also govern
the processes of mixing, dissolving and boiling. These forces control the

process of vaporization, the vapor pressure of liquids, their boiling points,

surface tension, capillary action and viscosity.

Liquid state of matter possesses a fixed volume but has no definite shape

or form. Instead, it assumes the shape of the container in which it is placed. A

liquid is also hard to compress.

GASEOUS STATE

Gaseous particles have much more kinetic energy than those in a liquid.

The cohesive forces in a gas are negligible and the particles are free to move

about in all directions at great speed. A gas has no definite shape; it occupies the

whole volume of its container, i.e. they have no volume as well. Gas particles

are relatively far apart and may be readily compressed (liquefied).

KINETIC THEORY OF MATTER

Matter is made up of very tiny particles such as atoms, molecules and

ions. The kinetic theory of matter postulate that these particles that make up

mater are continually moving and so possess kinetic energy. An increase in

temperature causes an increase in the average kinetic energy of the particles.

We say average kinetic energy because in any given sample of a substance,

some particles are more energetic, i.e. they move faster than others.

PHENOMENA SUPPORTING KINETIC THEORY

 Nobody has seen the tiny particles which make up matter although

scientists have managed to measure the velocities of molecules and detect their

exact positions at definite times with the help of very sophisticated instruments.

The fact that these particles are in constants motion is exhibited in some natural

phenomena such as Brownian movement, diffusion, osmosis, tyndal effect and

dissolution of salts in water.

BROWMAN MOVENMENT

In 1827, a botanist by name Brown performed an experiment with a

pollen grain suspended in a drop of water and viewed it under a microscope. He

noticed that the pollen grain was moving about all the time in a haphazard, zig-

zag manner. This irregular movement was later found to be due to the

bombardment of the suspended solid particles (the pollen grains) by the

surrounding liquid molecule (water molecules). This phenomenon was termed

Brownian movement after the name of Brown who discovered it.

DIFFUSION

Diffusion is the movement of solute particles through a medium, from a

region of higher concentration to a region of lower concentration. In other

words, the solute particles tend to move from a more crowded region to a less

crowded region. Once the solute particles become evenly distributed throughout

the medium, there will be no net diffusion in any particular direction.

DIFFUSION IN GASES
 Diffusion is fastest in gases because gas particles have more kinetic

energy than particles in liquids and solids. The rate of diffusion of gases is

affected by their densities. The smaller the density of a gas, the faster the rate of

diffusion. The bigger the density, the slower the rate of diffusion.

DIFFUSION IN LIQUIDS

Diffusion also takes place in liquids, though it is much slower than in

gases. This is because liquid particles have less kinetic energy and are more

restricted in their movement due to the cohesive forces between the particles.

DIFFUSION IN SOLID

Diffusion may also be observed in solids but the process is extremely

slow. If a gold bar and silver bar are tied together firmly and left for years, some

gold particles will have diffused into the silver bar, and vice versa.

Diffusion is fastest in gases (in seconds). Their particles are far apart and

the cohesive forces between them are negligible. It is slowest in solids (in years)

where the particles are held in fixed positions by strong cohesive forces.

OSMOSIS

Osmosis is a special form of diffusion which involves the movement of

water molecules through a semi-permeable membrane from a region where they

are in higher concentration to one where they are lower concentration. For
example, if we place some dry bean seed in a beaker of water, they swell after

some time because water molecules have moved through the semi-permeable

skins into the seeds by osmosis.

Thus, osmosis indicates movement of water molecules.

Osmosis occurs because the bean seeds contain sugar solution and

placing them in water creates a situation where water molecules are in a lower

concentration inside the seeds than on the outside.

GAS LAWS

Many chemical reactions produce gases, so chemists often find it

necessary to handle gases. Only a few colored gases can be seen. Some can be

detected by their odour; majority are colourless and odourless. The detection of

such gases is by chemical reactions.

The volume of a gas does not tell how much of it is available because any

sample of gas will fill its container. However, knowledge of the volume and

pressure of a sample of gas gives useful information about the actual mass of

the gas. The variations in volumes, pressures temperatures of ideal gases subject

to certain simple laws known as the gas laws. The laws of Boyles and Charles

are two of such gas laws. These laws enable us to determine how one of the

important properties [volume, pressure and temperature] of a gas under a given

condition will change its properties, if a variation occurs in another one.

The kinetic theory of Gases

The kinetic theory assumes that gases are made up of tiny particles

[molecules], moving about in random motion at temperature above zero degree

[O Kelvin= -273OC]. The higher the temperature, the higher the velocity of the

molecules.

If a tennis ball is dropped from a height of about 2 meters onto a scale

pan of compression balance, the scale pointer moves and the ball bounces and

possibly drop again on the scale pan.

Like the tennis ball, the mobile molecules of a gas collide with the walls

of their container and bounce. They move in the opposite directions, after each

collision. Force is exerted on the wall of the container as a result each collision.

This is responsible for the movement of the pointer in the demonstration above.

Just as the reading of scale depends on the mass and velocity of the ball, the

force on the wall of a gas container depends on the mass and velocity of the gas

molecules. Surely if two balls are thrown on scale pan at the same time, the

magnitude of deflection of the pointer will be doubled. Similarly, the greater the

number of molecules in the container the greater the force on the walls.

Assumptions of the kinetic theory

The kinetic theory made the following assumptions about the molecules of a

gas;

1. The gas molecules move randomly in straight lines, colliding with one

another and with walls of the container. The collision of the gas

molecules on the walls of the container constitute the gas pressure exerted

in the container.

2. The collision of the gas molecules is perfectly elastic. When two

molecules collide their individual energies may change and one may
 move faster while the other slow down, their total kinetic energies remain

the same, i.e., no energy is converted to heat when the molecules collide

with the walls of the container, they bounce like elastic balls without any

loss of energy.

3. The actual volume occupied by the gas molecules themselves is

negligible relative to the volume of the container. The gas molecules are

also, small in relation to the distances between them.

4. The cohesive forces between the gas molecules are negligible.

5. The temperature of the gas is a measure of the average kinetic energy of

the gas particles.

In the above theory, certain assumptions have been made to simplify the

description of the behavior of gases. Real gases, however, show deviations in

behavior as given in this theory.

Definition of terms

1. Pressure:

The particles of a gas contained in a vessel move randomly at high speeds, often

colliding with one another and with the walls of the vessels. Each time a

gaseous particle hits or collides with the wall of the vessel, it exerts a very small

force on it. Since the gas particles are numerous and evenly distributed, their

collisions exert a constant force on the walls of the vessel. This forces that the

gas particles exert per unit area of the wall is known as the gas pressure. It will

be constant in every area of the walls of the vessel in which the gas is enclosed.
 Gas pressure is commonly measured in atmosphere (atm) or mmHg. The

S.I unit for measuring pressure is the Pascal (Pa), i.e. Newton per square Meter

(Nm-2).

The relationship between these units is; 1 atm = 760mmHg = 101325 Nm-
2
. A barometer is used in measuring the atmospheric pressure, while a

manometer is used in measuring the pressure gas.

2. Volume:

The volume of a gas does not tell now much of is available because any

sample of gas will fill its container as said earlier. So gases have no

volume. Volume is measured in cubic meter (M3). But the commonly or

popularly known S.I unit of volume is decimeter cubic (dm3) and the

centimeter cubic (cm3). For practical purpose, 1 dm3 = 1000cm3.

3.Temperature;

Temperature is a measure of the degree of hotness or coldness of a body.

It is measured by the use of a thermometer.

The unit of temperature is degree absolute or kinetic, K; it measures

absolute temperature.

The Kelvin temperature scale has the same interval as the Celsius

or centigrade Scale, measured in Celsius degree, 0C. However, Kelvin

temperatures are 273 degrees higher than the corresponding Celsius

temperatures. Thus, 0oC on the Celsius or centigrade scale is 273k on the

absolute or Kelvin temperature.

Scale:
 Celsius scale, oC Kelvin scale, K

Boiling point of water 100 373

melting point of ice 0 273

Absolute zero - 273 0

In order to convert t oC to Kelvin Scale, TK, just add 273 to its value.

i.e. t oC = (273 + t) K = TK.

(where, t is the temperature on the Celsius scale and T is the temperature on the

Kelvin scale).

Example:

1. Convert the following temperatures to Kelvin scale: a. 27oC b. – 10oC

Solution:

a. 27oC = (27 + 273) K = 300k

b. – 10oC = (- 10 + 273) K = 263K.

In order to convert absolute temperatures TK to degree Celsius, just subtract

273 from the value.

i.e TK = (T -273) oC = t oC

Examples:

2. Convert the following temperatures to Celsius scale:

a. 290K; b. 200k.

Solution:

a. 290k = (290 -273) oC = 17oC

 b. 200 k = (200 -273) oC = 73oC

Generally, heat flows from a region of high concentration to a region of low

concentration.

3. Standard temperature and pressure, S. t. P;

Temperature and pressure are the two variables that affect gas volumes. In order

to determine or compare volume of various gases, the standard experimental

conditions are 273k (0oC) and one atmosphere, i.e. 760mmHg or 1.01x105 Nm-2.

These conditions are called standard temperature and pressure S.t.P, stp or S.T.P

Exercises

1. State the S.I unit of:

a. Volume: b. temperature; c. pressure

a. What is standard pressure?

b. What is standard temperature?

c. What is S.T.P? state the condition

2. What is the relationship between Celsius and Kelvin temperature?

3. Convert the following temperature to Celsius scale.

1. 300k; b. 504 k; c. 173k; d. 85k.

4. What is the value of – 14oC on the Kelvin temperature scale? (WAEC)

VARIATION OF GAS VOLUME WITH PRESSURE [PHYSICAL GAS

LAWS];

------ BOYLE’S LAW;

The two variables that determine the volume of a fixed mass of gas are

temperature and pressure. Robert Boyle [1627-1691], an English Physicist,

studied the effect of pressure change on gas volume at constant temperature. His

observation led to the Boyles law, which describes the physical behavior of

gases, and state that;

The volume of a given mass of a gas is inversely proportional

to the pressure, if temperature is constant.

This statement means that at constant temperature, an increase in the pressure

exerted on a fixed mass of a gas leads to a decrease in gas volume, and vice

versa.

Mathematically; V∞ -------------------------------[1]

Or V═

i.e. PV a constant[k]-------------------[2]

[where, K constant of proportionality].

Experimentally, if the initial pressure P1 of a gas of initial volume V1 is changed

to a new or final pressure P2, its new or final volume V2 at constant temperature

T is obtained from the expression;

P1V1 P2V2 [m and t constant]-----------------------[3]

V2 V1 P1 -----------------------------------[4]

P2

Equation [4] shows that if P1 is greater than P2, then V2 will be greater than V1

in the same proportion, and vice versa. That is; if the pressure is increased by a
factor of ,then the volume will decrease by the same factor , and vice

versa.

Equation [4] is the mathematical expression for Boyles law. It is used

when a fixed mass of gas is subjected to a change in pressure or volume at

Constant temperature.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF BOYLES LAW;

Any gas that conforms to any of these graphs at all temperatures and pressure is

called a perfect or an ideal gas.

(a) (b) (

(b)

P P PV

V V P or V

KINETIC THEORY EXPLANATION OF BOYLES LAW

The pressure of a gas is due to the continuous bombardment of the

molecules with the walls of the container. At constant temperature, the average

kinetic energy (or velocity) of the gas molecules is constant. If the volume of

the container is reduced to a half, the frequency of collision of the molecules

with the walls of the container will be doubled. This is because the distance to

the walls has been reduced to a half. Therefore, the gas pressure will double the

initial value.

Conversely, if the volume of the container is doubled, the frequency of

collision of the molecules with the walls becomes reduced by a half, since the

distance the molecules will move before colliding with the walls has been

doubled. Hence, the gas pressure will be half of the initial value.

Generally, an increase in the volume of container at constant

temperature decreases the pressure of gas and vice versa. However, the pressure

of a gas in a closed container remains constant, if the volume of the container

and the temperature remain constant.

CALCULATION BOYLES LAW BASED ON INVERSE PROPORTION

Chemical calculations on Boyles law are based on inverse

proportions. Here, an increase in pressure leads to a decrease in volume in the

same proportion, and vice versa, at constant temperature.

Example;
 A certain mass of gas occupies 200cm3 at 1.0 105 Nm-2. Calculate its

volume when the pressure is 2.0 105Nm-2 at constant temperature.

Data provided;

Initial pressure, P1 1.0 105;

Initial volume, V1 200Cm3;

Final pressure,P2 2.0 105;

Final volume,V2 αCm3

According to Boyles law,P1V1 P2V2

Substituting;1.0 5
200 2.0 105 V2

Making the unknown V2 the subject of formula;

V2 1.0 105 200

2.0 5

100Cm3.

VARIATION OF GAS VOLUME WITH TEMPERATURE

Jacque Charles (1787), a French physicist, studied the effect of

temperature change on gas volume. He made the following observations

on the physical behavior of gases:

  All gases expand or contract by the same quantity as temperatures

changes, provided the mass and pressure P remain the same.

Change in volume is about of the gas volume at O [273] for

every degree rise or fall in temperature.

CHARLES LAW;

Charles law state that;

The volume of a fixed mass of gas is directly proportional to the absolute

temperature at constant pressure. It means that an increase in temperature of a

`fixed mass of gas leads to an increase in the volume in the same proportion,

and vice versa, provided the pressure remains the same.

Mathematically, V∞T---------------------------[5]

Or V KT------------------------[6]

i.e. constant K---------------[7]

where, K constant of proportionality.

Thus for a fixed mass of gas, is constant, provided that mass M and pressure

P are constant.

Hence, if the initial temperature T1 of a gas of initial volume V1 is changed to a

new or final temperature T2. its new or final volume v2, at constant pressure, can

be obtained from the following mathematical expression:

-------------------------------------[8]

V2 V1 T2------------------------------[9]
 T1

Equations [8] shows that if T2 is greater than T1, then, V2 will be greater than V1

in the same proportion, and vice versa.

Equation [8] can be rearranged to give;

--------------------------------------------------(10)

Equation [10] shows that:

V1:V2 T1T2-----------------------------------------------(11)

Equations [8] and [9] are the mathematical expression for the Charles law. They

are used when a fixed mass of gas is subjected to a change in temperature or

volume, at constant pressure.

GRAPHICAL REPRESENTATION OF CHARLES LAW

KINETIC THEORY EXPLANATION OF CHARLES LAW

An increase in temperature raises the average kinetic energy, and hence, the

average velocity of gas molecules. The molecules move more rapidly and

collide with the walls more frequently.

 Conversely, a decrease in temperature lowers the average kinetic energy

of the molecules; it lowers their average velocity, and hence, lowers the

frequency of collision of gas molecules with the walls.

CALCULATIONS INVOLVING CHARLES LAW

Chemical calculations based on Charles law are solved by direct proportion.

The law is used to calculate the volume V or the temperature T when a fixed

mass of gas is subjected to a change in temperature or volume, at constant

pressure P.

In all the calculations involving Charles law, the temperatures must be

in degree Kelvin (and not with degree Celsius, ).

Example:

1. The volume of a fixed mass of gas measured at atmospheric pressure and

27 is 3.0dm3.Calculate the volume at 127 and at the same pressure.

Data provided;

Initial volume, V1 3.0dm3

Initial temperature, T1 27 (27 273) k 300k

Final temperature, T2 127 (127 273) k 400k

Final volume, V2 dm3 (required).

According to Charles law,

[P constant]

Substituting;
Making the unknown V2 the Subject of the formula,

V2 4.0dm3.

GENERAL GAS EQUATION

The ideal gas equation is obtained by combining the Boyles and Charles

law;

From Boyles law; V (m and T Constant)

From Charles; V (m and P)

If, for a fixed mass of gas, temperature T and pressure are not constant, then;

V ---------------------------(12)

Or V KT

P--------------------------------(13)

Rearranging the variation, we obtain;

a Constant, K--------------(14)

When the initial volume V1 of a gas at temperature T1 and pressure P1 is

subjected to changes in temperature to T2 and pressure to P2, its new volume V2

is obtained from the equation;

--------------------------------(15)

Equation [15] is the combined general gas equation. It is made up of

six variables. It can be used to calculate the volume, pressure or temperature of

a fixed mass gas once the other five variables are known.
 CALCULATION INVOLVING GENERAL GAS EQUATION

Example;

A certain mass of gas occupies 330cm3 at 27 and 9.0 104

Nm-2 pressure. Calculate its volume at S.T.P (Standard pressure

1.0 105 Nm-2).

Data provided;

V1 330cm3; P1 9.0 104 Nm-2

T1 (27 273) k 300k

Standard temperature, T2 273k

Standard pressure, P2 1.0 105 Nm-2

V2 cm3.

Using the general gas equation;

Substituting;

9.0 104 330 1 .0 105Nm-2 V2

330 273

Making V2 the subject the formula;

V2 9.0 104 330 273 270.3cm3

1.0 105 300

V2 270cm3 [to 3 significant figures]

KINETIC THEORY EXPLANATION OF GENERAL GAS EQUATION

Gas pressure is due to the continuous bombardment of the walls of the

container by the gas molecules. An increase in temperature increases the

frequency of collision with the walls; this leads to an increase in pressure if the

volume remains constant.

Conversely, a decrease in temperature leads to a decrease in the

frequency of collision of the gas molecules with the walls; this leads to a

decrease in pressure, if the volume of the container remains constant.

DALTON’S LAW OF PARTIAL PRESSURE

▬ Mixture of gases

John Dalton, the originator of the atomic theory, also studied

the physical behavior of mixtures of gases that do not react. His observation

gave rise to the Daltons law of partial pressure which states that:

The pressure exerted by a mixture of gases is equal to the sum of their partial

pressures, provided that the gases do not react at that particular temperature.

The partial pressure of a gas is the pressure it exerts if it is alone

in the container at a particular temperature.

EXPERIMENTAL ILLUSTRATION OF DALTONS LAW OF PARTIAL

PRESSURE:
 Suppose a fixed mass of hydrogen gas exerts a pressure pH2 when alone in

a container of volume V, and a given mass of nitrogen gas, exerts a pressure

pN2 when alone in another container of the same volume V, at the same

temperature.

If the two gases now occupy the same container of volume V at the

same temperature, it would be found that the total pressure PTotal equals the sum

of their partial pressures. That is:

PTotal PH 2 PN 2

Generally, for a mixture of n gases;

PTotal P1 P2 P3 ----------------- Pn--------------------(17).

GASES COLLECTED OVER WATER

When a gas is collected over water, it becomes wet with water vapour,

and a mixture of gases is obtained. Since water vapour is a gas; it exerts its own

pressure.

The pressure exerted is, therefore, the partial pressure of the gas and

that of the water vapor at that temperature, i.e.

PTotal Pgas Pwater vapor.

In order to obtain the partial pressure of the gas [without water vapor],

the partial pressure of water vapor at that temperature is subtracted from the

pressure of the gas collected over water. Hence,

PGas PTotal PWater vapour.

KINETIC THEORY EXPLANATION OF DALTONS LAW

At a constant temperature, the average kinetic energy of the gas

molecules is the same and remains constant. Since it is a mixture of gases,

molecular collision is perfectly elastic (no loss of energy), the frequency of

collision of each gas molecule with the walls of the container [its partial

pressure] will be the same as when it is done in the container at the same

temperature. Hence, the total pressure exerted will be equal to the sum of the

partial pressures of the various types of gases in the mixture.

Examples:

If 20.0dm3 of hydrogen were collected over water at 17 and 79.7KNm-2

pressure; calculate the

a. pressure of dry hydrogen at this temperature

b. volume of dry hydrogen at s.t.p (vapor pressure of water is 1.90KNm-2 at 17

; 1 atmosphere 101.3KNm-2).

a. To find the pressure of dry hydrogen, Since the gas is collected over water,

then, Daltons law of partial pressure is to be applied.

Data provided;

P Total 79.7KNm-2 at 17
P Water vapor 1.90KNm-2 at 17

Required to find: PGas at 17

According to Daltons law;

PGas = Ptotal – Pwater vapour

Substituting:

P (H2) = (79.7 -1.90) KNm-2 = 77.8KNm-2

b. To find the volume of dry hydrogen at S.t.p

Data provided:

P1 = (79.7 – 1.90) KNm-2 = 77.8KNm-2

V1 = 20. 0dm3; T1 = 170C = (273 + 17) K = 290K

P2 = standard pressure = 101.3kNm-2

T2 = Standard temperature = 273K

Require: To find the final volume, V2.

Using the gas equation, and substituting:

; =

Making the unknown V2 the subject of the formal:

V2 = = 14.5dm3
LAWS OF COMBINING VOLUMES OF GASES

▬GAY –LUSSAC’S LAW

While Boyle, Charles, Dalton’s laws and Grahams law of Diffusion describe the

physical behavior of gases, Gay-Lussac’s law and Avogadro described the

chemical behavior of gases.

Gay-Lussac studied mixtures of gases that would react under suitable

conditions. The results of the study led to the Gay-Lussac’s law of combining

volumes of gases which states:

When gases react, they do so in volumes, which are in simple ratio to one

another and to the volumes of the gaseous products, provided all gaseous

volumes are measured at the same temperature and pressure.

The results of some of the chemical reactions are:

 One volume of hydrogen reacts with one volume of chlorine to produce

two volumes of hydrogen chloride.

 Two volumes of hydrogen and one volume of oxygen produced two

volumes of steam.

 One volume of nitrogen combines with three volumes of hydrogen to

produce two volumes of ammonia

  Carbon burns in one volume of oxygen to produce one volume of carbon

(iv) oxide.

Although Gay-lussac’s law is of great importance, it failed to relate gaseous

reactions to the atomic theory of Dalton. Hence, the kinetic theory cannot be

used to explain the law.

Avogadro’s principle

It was after the death of Gay-Lussac that Amadeo Avogadro, who also

studied the chemical behavior of gases, recognized the significance of the Gay-

Lussacs law.

His hypothesis, which later became Avogadro’s principle or law, states that:

Equal volume of all gases, under the same conditions of temperature and

pressure, contain the same number of molecules.

Mathematically:

V N (at constants T and P)

Where, V is the volume and N is the number of molecules.

The law relates the volume of a fixed mass of gas to number of molecules

it contains. It shows that the volume occupied by a gas depends on the number
of molecules it contains, at a given temperature and pressure. An increase in the

number of gas molecules leads to an increase in gas volume, and vice versa.

From the Avogadro’s principle, we expect the ratio of number of

molecules of all the gases in a balanced chemical equation, to be the same as the

ratio of volumes of all the gases in the reaction. In other words, Avogadro’s

principle could be used to explain Gay-Lussac’s law as illustrated with the

following examples:

1. One volume of hydrogen combines with one volume of chlorine to

produce two volumes of hydrogen chloride (Gay- Lussac’s law).

Applying Avogadro’s law: One molecule of hydrogen combines with one

molecule of chlorine to produce two molecules of hydrogen chloride.

From the above information, it is evident that each molecule of hydrogen

and chlorine is diatomic.

H2 (g) +Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g)

1Volume 1 volume 2volumes

(Gay –Lussac’s)

1 molecule 1molecule 2 molecules

(Avogadro’s)

2. Two volumes of hydrogen combine with one volume of oxygen to

produce two volumes of steam become:

 Two molecules of hydrogen combine with one molecule of oxygen to

produce two molecules of steam:

2H2(g) + 02 (g) 2H20(g)

2volume 1volume 2 volumes

(Gay –Lussac’s)

2molecules 1 molecule 2 molecules

(Avogadro’s)

Hence, each oxygen molecule contains at least two atoms.

3.Formation of ammonia:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

1volume 3volume 2 volume

(Gay-Lussac’s)

1 molecule 3molecules 2 molecule

(Avogadro’s)

Hence, each molecule of nitrogen contains at least two atoms.

4.Formation of carbon (iv) oxide:

C (s) + 02 (g) C02(g)

1volume 1volume
 (Gay –Lussac’s)

I molecule 1 molecule

(Avogadro’s)

Hence, carbon (iv) oxide contains two atoms (or one molecule) of oxygen

NOTES:

● The Gay-Lussac’s and Avogadro’s laws are applied to gaseous reactants

and products only.

 Most gaseous elements are diatomic, while those of noble gases are

monoatomic.

 The atomic theory of Dalton did not take into consideration the fact that

atomicity of some elements are greater than one.

CHEMICAL CALCULATIONS BASED ON THE LAW OF

COMBINING VOLUMES OF GASES

The chemical calculation based on Gay-Lussac’s law involves gas

volume-gas volume relationships in a chemical reaction.

In gas volume ─ gas volume calculations, the volume of one of the gases

in the reaction is given while the volume of another gas in the reaction is to be

determined, usually, by direct proportion. This is because gas volume is directly

proportional to the number of molecules as indicated by the numerical

coefficient in the balanced equation of reaction (Avogadro’s principle).

 For instance, in the reaction:

H2(g) +Cl2 (g) 2HCl (g)

The balanced equation shows that one molecule of hydrogen gas reacts

with one molecule chlorine gas to produce two molecules of hydrogen chloride

gas.

From Gay-Lussac’s law, one volume (cm3 or dm3) of hydrogen gas reacts

with one volume (cm3 or dm3) of chlorine gas. The volume relationship is 1: 1: 2

under similar conditions of temperature and pressure.

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. Water vapor is produced according to the following equation:

2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20(g)

What volume of oxygen will combine with 10.0cm3 of hydrogen and how many

cm3 of water vapor will be produced under the same conditions of temperature

and pressure?

To find the volume of 02 required to combine with H2

Given: 10.0cm3 of H2

Applying Gay-Lussac’s law:

2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20 (g)

2volume 1 volume 2 volumes

2 unit volumes of H2 require 1unit volume of 02

i.e 2cm3 of H2 1cm3 of 02

10cm3 of H2 (1X 10) /2 cm3 of 02

= 5.0cm3

To calculate the volume of steam produced

From the equation of reaction:

2cm3 of H2 2cm3 of H20

10cm3 of H2 (2 x10)/2cm3 of 02

= 10.0Cm3 of H20

Or, from the equation of reaction:

1cm3 of 02 = 2cm3 of H20

: 5cm3 of H2 = (2 x5)/ 1cm3 of 02

= 10.0cm3 of H20.

2. Ammonia is produced by Haber process according to the equation:

N2 (g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

If 20cm3 of nitrogen were mixed with 90.cm3 of hydrogen under suitable

conditions:
 a. Which gas is in excess, and by how much?

b. What will be the volume of ammonia produced?

c. What is the total volume of the gas mixture at the end of the reaction?

Applying Gay- Lussac’s law:

N2(g) + 3H2(g) 2NH3(g)

volume 3volume 2 volume

a.To establish the gas in excess:

Volume of nitrogen available = 20 cm3

Volume of hydrogen available = 90cm3

Suppose hydrogen gas is completely used up:

From the equation of reaction, 3 unit volumes of hydrogen require 1unit

volume of nitrogen,

i.e. 3cm3 of H2 require 1cm3 of N2

90cm3 of H2 require (1 x 90) / 30cm3 = 30cm3.

Since only 20cm3 of N2 is available, it means the volume of N2 available is

not enough; it will be completely used up. Hence, it is the volume of

nitrogen available that will determine the volume of the product (limiting

reactant).

Suppose nitrogen gas is completely used up:

From the equation of reaction, 1unit volume of nitrogen requires 3 unit volumes

of hydrogen.

i.e. 1cm3 of N2 require 3 cm3 of H2

20cm3 of N2 require (3X 20) cm3 of H2 = 60 cm3

Since 90cm3 of hydrogen is available; it is in excess by (90-60) cm3 = 30.0cm3.

a. To calculate the volume of NH3 produced.

Volume of NH3 produced depends on the volume of N2 (20cm3) or H2 (60cm3)

consumed.

From the equation of reaction:

1cm3 of N2 produces 2cm3 of NH3

20cm3 of N2 will produce (2 x20) cm3 of NH3 = 40 cm3.

Or, 3cm3 of H2 produce 2cm3 of NH3

60 cm3 of H2 will produce (2 X 60)/3cm3

= 40cm3 of NH3

b. To find the total volume of gas mixture.

At the end of the reaction, 40cm3 of NH3 is produced, while 30cm3 of H2 is

left unused
 Total volume of gas after reaction will be (40 + 30) cm3 = 70.0cm3 of

mixture.

The mixture of gases at the end of the reaction is called residual gases.

3. The following reaction occurred when 100cm3 of carbon (ii) oxide was

burnt in 70cm3 of oxygen.

2C0(g) +02 (g) 2C02 (g)

Calculate the total volume of gas mixture (residual gas) in the reaction vessel at

the end of the reaction, assuming the temperature and pressure were adjusted to

the initial values.

Data provided:

100cm3 of CO and 70cm3 of 02

Required:

To find the volume of gas mixture after reaction. Gay-Lussac’s law is to be

applied.

2C0(g) + 02 (g) 2C02 (g)

2vol. 1vol. 2vol.

First, find out which of the reactant is in excess i.e. suppose oxygen is

completely used up;

From the equation, 1 vol. of oxygen requires 2 volumes of carbon (ii) oxide.
i.e. 1cm3 of 02 require 2cm3 of CO.

70cm3 of 02 requires 2 X 70 cm3 = 140cm3.

since only 100cm3 of CO is available, it is the limit reaction, it will be

completely used up.

From the equation,

2vol. of CO 1’ vol. of 02

i.e. 2cm3 of CO 1 cm3 of 02

100cm3 of CO (1 X 100) 12 = 50. 0cm3 of 02

Since 70cm3 of 02 is available, the volume of 02 in

Excess = (70 -50) cm3 = 20.0cm3.

To find the C02 produced from the equation.

2cm3 of CO 2cm3 of C02

100cm3 of CO (2 x100)/2 = 100cm3 of C02

Hence, the total volume of gas mixture after the reaction will be 20.0cm3 of

excess 02 and 100cm3 of C02 produced = 120cm3 of residual gas.

4. What volume of hydrogen would be left over when 300cm3 of oxygen and

1000cm3 of hydrogen are exploded in a sealed tube?

2H2(g) + 02(g) 2H20(g) (WAEC)

Answer:

Data provided 300cm3 of 02 and 100cm3 of H2 required

1. To find the volume of hydrogen in excess after the reaction.

Gay-Lussac’s law is to be applied.

2H2 (g) +02(g) 2H20(g)

2vol. 1vol.

Since hydrogen is in excess, it means that the 300cm3 of 02 will be completely

used up.

From the equation:

1cm3 of 02 2cm3 of H2

300cm of 02 (2 x 300) cm3 = 1000cm3 of H2

Hence, the volume of hydrogen left over (in excess) will be (1000-600) cm3 =

400cm3.

Revision exercises:

1. State:

a. Gay-Lussac’s law of combing volume

b. Avogadro’s law.
 2. Which of the following cannot be explained by the use of the kinetic

theory?

a) Dalton’s atomic theory a) Boyle’s law

c) Gay- Lussac’s law d) Expansion of gases in reaction

3. 2S02 (g) + 02 (g) 2S03(g)

a. What volume of sulphur (iv)oxide, SO2, will combine with 50.0cm3 of

oxygen gas?

b. Calculate the volume of sulphur (vi) oxide, S03, produced

4. What volume of hydrogen will be produced if 100cm3 of ammonia is

completely decomposed at constant temperature and pressure?

The equation for the reaction is:

2NH3(g) N2(g) + 3H2(g) (WAEC)

1. 50cm3 b.) 150cm3 c.) 200cm3 d). 300cm3.

5.If 50cm3 of carbon(ii)oxide were burnt in 40cm3 of oxygen, determine

the gas that would be in excess and calculate the volume of gas that

would be unused. The equation for the reaction is:

2C0(g) + 02 (g) 2C02(g) (WAEC)

5. 300cm3 of hydrogen at s.t.p combine with 20cm3 of oxygen to form steam

according to the following equation.

2H2 (g) + 02 (g) 2H20(g)

Calculate the total volume of the gaseous mixture at the end of the reaction.

a. 50cm3 b.) 35cm3 c.) 30cm3 d.) 25cm3 (WAEC)

MOLAR VOLUME OF A GAS

▬Molar volume and Avogadro’s constant

When the mole concept is applied to gases, one mole of a gas contains 6.02x

1023 molecules (one Avogadro’s constant, L). The volume occupied by one

mole of a gas under any condition of temperature and pressure is called the

molar volume, Vm.

The molar volume of an ideal gas depends on the conditions of

temperature and pressure. At s.t.p, it is 22.4 dm3 (or 22400cm3), while at 250oC

it is 24.5dm3.
 Its value is quite low at high pressure. However, under any conditions of

temperature and pressure, molar volume contains 6.02 X1023molecule. Hence, at

s.t.p:

 One mole of hydrogen gas, H2, occupies 22.4dm3. It contains 6.02 X1023

molecules and weighs 2.0g.

 One mole of oxygen gas, 02, occupies 22.4 dm3; it contains 6.02 x1023

molecules and weighs 32.0g.

 One mole of carbon (iv)oxide gas C02 occupies 22.4dm3 it contains 6.02

x1023 molecules and weight 44.0g etc.

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. How many molecules are in a molar volume of a gas at: a.) s.t.p b) 20oC?

Answer

a. 6.02 x1023 molecule b. 6.02 x1023 (molar volume of any gas contains 6.02

x1023 molecules at any temperature and pressure).

In an experiment, 112cm3 of carbon (iv)oxide were collected at s.t.p. How many

molecules of the gas are present? (Avogadros constant, L = 6.02 x1023 mol;

molar volume at s.t.p is 22.4dm3).

Answer

Data provided:
Volume of C02 at s.t.p = 112cm3

Molar volume and s.t.p and Avogadro’s constant

One mole of a gas contains 6.02 x1023 molecules and occupies 22.4dm3 (or

22400cm3) at s. t. p.

i.e. 22400cm3 of CO2 contains 6.02 x1023 molecule

112cm3 of C02 contains (6. 02 x1023 X112) /22400 = 3.01 X 1021 molecules.

DETERMINATION OF MOLECULAR MASS

The concept of molar volume at s.t.p. can be used to determine the

relative molecular mass of a gaseous substance.

PROCEDURE:

1. A known volume of the gaseous form of the substance is weighed

accurately under suitable temperature and pressure.

2. The volume is then corrected to s.t.p.

3. The mass of the substance that occupies 22.4dm3 is then calculated.

When the molar mass of a gas is divided by its molar volume at a given

temperature and pressure, the gas density under these conditions is obtained i.e.

density of gas, (g dm-3) under any conditions of temperature and pressure is:

= Molar mass,M(g mol-1)

Molar Volume,Vm(dm3 mol-1)

WORKED EXAMPLES

1.Calculate the relative molecular mass of a gas if its density at s.t.p is

1.43gdm-3 (Molar volume at s.t.p is 22.4dm3 mol-1)

Answer

Data provided:

Density of gas = 1.43gdm-3

Molar volume at s.t.p = 22.4dm3 mol-1

Method 1:

Formula method:

Density at s.t.p. =

i.e. Molar mass = density X molar volume

= 1. 43 X 22.4 = 32.0g mole

 Molecular mass = density X Molar volume

= 1.43 X 22.4 = 32.0 (no unit).

Method 2:

Direct proportion method:

At s.t.p 1dm3 of the gas weighs 1.43g (density, given).

22.4dm3 of gas weigh (1.43 X 22.4) g = 32. 0g

i.e. one mole of the gas weighs 32.0g

Hence, molecular mass of gas = 32.0 (no unit).

1.Calculate the volume of 0.10g of H2 at s.t.p. (H = 1; molar volume at

s.t.p is 22.4dm3).

To find the volume of 0.10g of H2 at s.t.p.

Molar mass of hydrogen gas, H2 = 2 (1.0) = 2.0g mol-1

Molar volume of a gas at s.t.p. ═ 22.4dm3 mol-1

i.e. 2.0g (1 mole) of H2 occupy 22.4dm3 at s.t. p.

0.10g of H2 will occupy 22.4 X 0.10/2 at s.t.p = 1.12dm3.

VAPOUR DENSITY, D.

The vapour density d, of a gas is the number of times a given volume of

the gas is as heavy as an equal volume of hydrogen, at the same temperature and

pressure.

Since vapour density is a ratio of gas volume, it has no unit. It is related to the

relative molecular mass (no unit) and represented by the formula:

Relative molecular mass = 2 X vapour density, or vapour density of a gas is a

half of is relative molecular mass.

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. What is the vapour density of sulphur (iv)oxide gas?

(0 = 16; S = 32).

Data provided:

Relative atomic masses of the various elements that make up the compound, S02

Required to find the vapour density of S02

First, calculate the molecular mass of S02

i.e molecular mass of S02 = 32 + 2 (16)

= 32 + 32 = 64

But vapour density = ½ (molecular mass)

= ½ x 64 = 32

Vapour density of S02 = 32.0

2. If 400cm3 of a certain gas weighs 0.5g at s.t.p. calculate it’s

a. Molar mass

b. Vapour density (1.0 mole of a gas at s.t.p occupies 22.4dm3).

Answer

a. To calculate the molar mass

At s.t.p. 400cm3 of gas weigh 0.5g

22400cm3 of gas weigh (0.5 X 22400)/400g

= 28.0g
 Molar mass of gas = 28.0g mol-1

b. To calculate the vapour density

Vapour density = ½ molecular mass

= ½ of 28

= 14.0 (no unit).

IDEAL GAS EQUATION

Universal Gas Constant.

The ideal gas equation is the combination of Boyle’s, Charles and

Avogadro’s laws. It gives the relationship between volumes V, pressure P,

absolute temperature T and the amount n, in moles of a gas.

From the Boyle’s law: (V 1/p) m, p

From Charles, law: (V T) m, p

From Avogadro’s constant: (V n) m,p

Combining the laws:

V n 1/p XT

V=

R is the constant of proportionality called the universal gas constant. It is

independent of the quantity of gas.

Rearranging

PV = nRT . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . (18)
 Equation (18) is called the ideal gas equation. Any gas that obeys the

equation at all temperatures and pressure is said to be ideal or perfect.

THE VALUES AND UNITS OF THE GAS CONSTANT

The value of R is usually determined in respect of the fact that one mole of an

ideal gas at s.t.p. occupies 22.4dm3. It is the same for all gases; hence, it is

called the universal gas constant.

For 1 mole of an ideal gas, n = 1; hence,

Pv = RT

Pv/T = R

The unit of molar gas constant, R, depends on the units of pressure, P,

and volume, V:

If pressure P is expressed in atmosphere, the volume V must be in dm3

P = 1 atmosphere; v = 22.4dm3; T = 273k; n = 1

R= = = 0.082atm dm3 K-1 mol-1

i.e. R = 0.082 atm dm3 K-1 mol-1

In S.I unit:

If pressure P is in Nm-2volum V is in m3

If pressure P is in KNm-2, volume V is in dm3

Hence, substituting in the Ideal gas equation:

P = 101.3KNm-2; V = 22.4dm3; T = 273K; n= 1

PV = RT

R= = = 8. 31 K-1 mol-1

i.e. R = 8.37 JK-1 mol -1

WORKED EXAMPLE:

1.Calculate the volume occupied by 2.5 moles of an ideal gas at -23 , and

4.0 atmosphere(R ═ 0.082 atm dm3k-1mol-1).

Answer:

Data provided:

P = 4.0atm; T= -23+273= 250k; n= 2.5mol; R= 0.082atmdm3k-1mol-1

Required to calculate the volume,V= ?dm3

The appropriate equation is:PV = nRT

Making V the subject of formula and substituting,

V= nRT = 2.5 x 0.082 x 250

P 4

= 12.8dm3
▬ Grahams Law of Diffusion

Gases are capable of spreading in all directions in order to occupy any

available space. For instance; when the vapour of a perfume, ammonia, petrol

or rotten egg is allowed into a room, the odour (or smell). Spreads quickly and

fill the entire room.

Similarly, the exhaust fumes discharged from a smoke vehicle, gradually

become invisible. This natural phenomenon is called diffusion.

The process of diffusion is due to the zig-zag (translational) motion of gas

molecules.

Note: The term effusion is used to describe the movement of gas molecules

through a small opening under pressure.

Generally, diffusion (or effusion) is like pressure, it is usually from a region of

higher to lower concentration.

TO DEMONSTRATION THE PROCESS OF DIFFUSION

1. Invert a gas jar A full of iodine vapour (dark brown) over gas jar B full of

air (colorless).

Observation: The dark brown vapour of iodine spreads to occupy the lower jar

B, so that both jars are now filled with the dark brown vapour.
Graham studied the diffusion of gases. His observation that gases diffuse at

different rates, led to the graham’s law of diffusion, which states that: The rate,

r, of diffusion of a gas is inversely proportional to the square root of its vapour

density, d at constant temperature and pressure. Mathematically:

[r 1/ ] T, P

Corollary: An increase in the vapour density of a gas leads to a decrease in its

rate of diffusion, and vice versa.

Gay-Lussac’s law is usually employed when the rates of diffusion of two gases

are being compared. Consider two gases with rate of diffusion r1, and r2 of

densities d1 and d2, under the same condition of temperature and pressure.

r1, …………………………………………….. (23)

r2 …………………………………………….... (24)

Dividing equation (23) by equation (24), we obtain

= (T and P constant) ……………………………… (25)

(Note the inverse proportion of the expression).

Since the vapour density, d of a gas is a half of its relative molecular mass M,

then, vapour density is directly proportional to relative molecular mass;

equation (25) can therefore be written as:

= ( T, P constant) …………………………………(26)

Equation (25) or (26) is used when comparing the rates of diffusion of

two gases, or when three out of the four variables are known.
Generally, a gas with a low molecular mass, like H2 (H2 = 2) will diffuse faster

than another gas with a relatively high molecular mass, like C02 [C02 = 44]

under the same conditions of temperature and pressure.

WORKED EXAMPLES

1. Compare the rates of diffusion of hydrogen gas and oxygen gas under the

same conditions of temperature and pressure [H = 1.0; O = 16.0]

Answer

Molecular masses: H2 = 2 (1) = 2; 02 = 2(16) = 32

Using Graham’s law expression and substituting:

= = = =4

i.e, = or r (H2) = 4 x r (02)

That is the rate of diffusion of hydrogen gas is four times more than that

of oxygen gas, under the same set of conditions.

The ration of rates of diffusion is:

r (H2): r (02) = 4: 1

2. A gas x diffused through a porous partition at the rate of 3Cm3 per

second. Under the same conditions, hydrogen diffused at the rate of

15cm3 per second.

What is the relative molecular mass of x? (H = 1).

a.) 5. B. 12 C. 18 D. 45 E. 50 (NECO)

Answer
Data provided:

r(x) = 3cm3 s-1 ; r(H2) = 15Cm3 s-1

M (H2) = 2 (1) = 2; M(x) =?

Using Graham’s law: =

Substituting: =

Squaring both sides: =

Cross multiplying, and making M(x) the subject of the formulary:

M (x) = (225 x2) /9 = 50.0

i.e. The relative molecular mass of x is 50.0 (no unit)

ACIDS, BASES AND SALTS

Many chemical compounds show properties which are characteristic of

either acids, bases or salts. The concept of acids, bases and salt is therefore a

very useful means for the classification of a large number of chemical

compounds. In particular, the reactions between acids and bases to form salt and

water, called neutralization, may be used in chemical analysis to determine the

concentrations of some chemical substances in solution.

Furthermore, the control of the degree of acidity or alkalinity in most

biological chemical systems is very important for the proper functioning of such

system. For example, digestive enzymes in the stomach work best in dilute
hydrochloric acid media whereas saliva as a digestive juice works best only in

alkaline (basic) media.

Thus, a thorough understanding of the nature, general characteristics,

reactions and methods of preparation of acids, bases and salts is essential in the

study of chemistry.

ACIDS

An acid is a substance, which dissolves (ionize, dissociate) in water to

produce hydroxonium ion, H30+ (or simply, hydrogen ion, H+ or protons) as the

only positive ion.

The characteristics properties of an acid in solution are due to the

presence of these hydrogen ions. This is seen when dry hydrogen chloride gas is

dissolved in water and in methyl benzene.

- In water, it forms hydrogen ions and behaves like a typical acid.

- In methyl benzene, it does not form hydrogen ions and does not show any

acidic properties.

Thus, an acid has at least one ionizable hydrogen atom in its molecule.

Physical Characteristics of Acids

1. They have sour tastes

2. Strong acids are corrosive. The more concentrated the acid, the more

corrosive it is.

3. Acids react with indicators to give characteristic colours (Blue litmus-red;

phenolphthalein-colourless; methyl orange-pink).

Chemical Properties of Acids

1. Acids reacts with metals above hydrogen in the electrochemical series to

liberate hydrogen gas. Dilute trioxonitrate (v) acid, however, is an

exception to this.

Acid + Metal salt + hydrogen

2HCl (aq) + Zn(s) ZnCl2 (g) + H2 (g)

H2S04 (g) + Mg (s) MgS04 (g) + H2 (g)

2. Acids react with bases (insoluble) and alkalis to form salts and water as

the only products. Such a reaction is known as neutralization

i.e.

H+ +0H- H20(l)

Acid + Base Salt + water

H2S04 (aq) +2KOH(aq) K2S04 (aq) + H20(1)

3. Acids reacts with trioxocarbonates (iv) or hydrogen trioxocarbonates (iv)

to liberate carbon (iv) oxide.

Acid + trioxocarbonate (iv) Salt + water + carbon (iv) oxide

2HCl (aq) + Na2C03 (aq) 2Nacl (aq) + H20 (l) + C02(g)

H2S04 (aq) + K2C03(aq) K2S04 (aq) + H20 (l) + C02 (g)

Classification of Acids

Acids can be classified according to source and secondly according to

their degree of dissociation in solution (water)

Classification of Acids According to Source

There are two main classes of acids. They are

a. Mineral(inorganic)Acids: These acids are gotten from mineral

compounds reacting with Hydrogen. They include: HCl, H2S04, HN03,

H2S03, H2C03, H3PO4, etc.

b. Organic Acids: These are acids gotten from plants and animals. E.g.

ethanoic acid, Ethanedioic acid, methanoic acid, citric acid, palmitic acid,

lactic acid, Amino acid, etc.

Classification of Acids According To Degree of Dissociation in Water

There are two classes of acids based on their degree of dissociation/

ionization in water. They are:

a. Strong Acids: These are acids that dissociate completely in water to

produce high concentrations of hydroxonium/hydrogen ion and their acid

radicals. e.g HCl, H2SO4, HN03.

HCL(aq) H+ Cl-

H2SO4(aq) 2H+ SO42-

HNO3(aq) H+ NO3-

b. Weak Acids: These are acids that dissociate partially in water to produce

low concentrations of hydroxonium/hydrogen ion in water (solution).

Examples are HCOOH, CH3COOH (i.e. Organic acids) trioxocarbonate

(iv) acid, trioxosulphate (iv) acid (i.e H2CO3 and H2SO3),etc.

Classification According to Concentration

 a. Concentrated acids - Has more acid than water in it.

b. Diluted acid – Has more water than acid in it.

Basicity of Acids

Although many acids especially the organic acids contain more than one

hydrogen atoms in their molecules, not all these hydrogen atoms are replaceable

by a metal or can ionize in water. For example, one molecule of ethanoic acid

(CH3COOH) reacts with magnesium to liberate only one atom of hydrogen.

2CH3COOH(aq) + Mg (s) Mg (CH3COO)2 (aq) + H2 (g)

In some other acids, however, two or three atoms of hydrogen per

molecule of the acid are replaceable by a metal.

The number of replaceable hydrogen atoms in a molecule of an acid is

called the basicity of the acid. The basicity of some common acids are given in

the table below:

Table 1: Basicity of Some Common Acids

Monobasic Dibasic (Basicity = 2) Tribasic (Basicity = 3)

(Basicity = 1)
1 Hydrochloric Tetraoxosulphate(vi)acid, Tetraoxophosphate (vi)

acid,HCl(aq) H2SO4(aq) 2H+(aq) SO42- (aq) acid, H3PO4

H+ Cl-(aq), 3H+ PO43-

2 Trioxonitrate(v) Trioxosulphate(iv)acid,

acid,HNO3(aq) H2SO3(aq) 2H+(aq)SO32-(aq)

H+ (aq) NO3- (aq)

3 Methanoic acid, Trioxocarbonate(iv)acid,H2CO3. Trioxophospate(iii)

HCOOH H2CO3(aq) 2H+(aq) CO32-(aq) acid,H3PO3

HCOOH(aq) H+ H3PO4 3H+

(aq)+COO-

4 Ethanoic acid, Ethanedioic acid,H2C2O4 Tetraoxophosphate (v)

HC3COOH(aq) H+ H2C2O4 (aq) acid, H3PO4. H3PO4 (aq)

(aq)+CH3COO- 2H+(q) C2O42- (aq) 3H+(aq)+ PO4-(aq).

(aq)

METHODS FOR THE PREPARATION OF ACIDS

Acids are prepared in the laboratory by the following general methods:

1. By dissolving an acidic oxide (acid anhydride) in water

 a. Carbon (iv)oxide dissolves in water to form a weak acid, trioxocarbonate

(iv) acid.

CO2 (g) + H2O (1) H2CO3 (aq)

Sulphur (iv) oxide dissolves to form trioxosulphate (iv) acid in water.

SO2 (g) + H2O(l) H2SO4(aq)

These non-metallic oxides which dissolves in water to produce various

acids are known as acid anhydrides. For example, carbon (iv)oxide is the acid

anhydride of trioxocarbonate (iv) acid.

2. Combination of constituent elements

a. Burning hydrogen with chlorine, in the presence of activated charcoal as

the catalyst, yields hydrogen chloride gas which dissolves readily in

water to give hydrochloric acid.

H2 (g) + Cl2 (g) activated charcoal 2HCl(g)

b. Heating hydrogen gas and bromine vapour, in the presence of platinum as

the catalyst, produces hydrogen bromide gas which dissolves in water to

produce hydrobromic acid.

H2 (g) + Br2 (g) platinum 2HBr (g)

3. Using a strong acid to displace a weak acid or a volatile acid from its salt.

A strong acid may be used to displace a more volatile acid or a weaker

acid from its salt.

a. Concentrated tetraoxosulphate (iv) acid displaces the more volatile

trioxonitrate (v) acid from a trioxonitrate (v) salt, e.g. sodium

trioxonitrate (v), NaNO3 (must be in excess).

 NaNO3(s) + H2SO4 (aq) Na2SO4(aq) +2HNO3(g)

b. A chloride yields the volatile hydrogen chloride gas when heated with

concentrated tetraoxosulphate (vi) acid. The volatile hydrogen chloride

dissolves readily in water to give hydrochloric acid.

2KCl (s) + H2SO4 (aq) K2SO4(aq) + 2HCl(q)

c. Dilute hydrochloric acid which is a strong acid displaces the weak

trioxocarbonate (iv) acid from trioxocarbonates (iv). The trioxocarbonate

acid breaks down to evolve carbon(iv)oxide, the acid anhydride. The

weak acid is reformed by dissolving the carbon (iv)oxide in water.

2HCl(aq) + CaCO3 (s) CaCl2(aq) + H2CO3 (aq)

CaCl2 (aq) + H2O (1) +CO2 (g)

4. By double decomposition reactions

e.g Pb (NO3)2 (aq) + H2S(g) PbS (s) + 2HNO3(aq)

Uses of Acids

The various uses of acids are given below:

1. Acids are extremely useful chemicals which are used in many industries

to make other consumer chemicals such as fertilizers, detergents and

drugs.

2. They are used in industrial processes as drying agents, oxidizing agents

and catalysts.
 3. Acids are used as electrolyte for accumulators.

4. Organic acid such as vinegar, is used in dressing wound and as

preservatives.

5. Vitamin C (Ascorbic acid) is essential for health.

6. HCl produced in stomach, provides the medium for proper enzymes

activity for digestion.

BASES AND ALKALIS

A base is a substance which will neutralize an acid to yield/produce salt

and water only. While an alkali is a basic hydroxide which is soluble in water.

Physical Properties of Bases/Alkalis

1. They have bitter taste.

2. Strong bases/alkalis are corrosive (concentrated).

3. Solutions of bases are slippery when rubbed between fingers.

4. Bases react with indicators to give characteristic colours (Red litmus-

blue; phenolphthalein –pink; methyl orange- yellow).

Chemical Properties of Bases/Alkalis

1. Bases react with acids to form salts and water only

NaOH(aq) + HCl(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(1)

MgO (s) + 2HNO3(aq) Mg(NO3)2 (aq) + H2O(1)

2. Alkalis react with ammonium salts in the presence of heat, to generate

ammonia gas. This reaction can be used as a test for alkalis.

Ca(OH)2 (aq) +2NH4Cl(aq) CaCl2(aq) +2H2O(1) +2NH3(g)

NaOH(aq)+ NH4NO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) +H2O(1) +2NH3(g)

Classification of Bases

Bases can be classified according to their composition and solubility in

water. Such classification of the common bases is shown in the table below:

Table 2: Soluble and Insoluble Bases

Chemical Soluble Bases Insoluble Bases

Composition

Oxides Na2O, K2O MgO, PbO, FeO, Fe2O3, CuO,

ZnO

Hydroxide KOH, NaOH. Zn(0H)2, Pb(OH)2, Cu(OH)2,

Fe(OH)2, Fe (OH)3, Al (OH)3

Ba(OH)2 slightly

Ca(OH)2 soluble

As a general rule, all bases (oxide and hydroxide) of Group1 metals in the

periodic table, with the exception of lithium, are soluble in water. Bases of

calcium and barium are slightly soluble. All other bases are insoluble in water.
 Bases which are soluble in water give basic aqueous solutions. They form

a district class of bases called Alkalis. An alkali is a soluble base and is alkaline.

Alkalis as a class consist of only a few common bases, namely: Potassium

hydroxide, sodium hydroxide, barium hydroxide, calcium hydroxide and

ammonia solution.

Alkalis dissolve in water to produces hydroxide (hydroxyl) ions (OH-).

For example:

Na2O(s) + H2O(1) 2NaOH(aq)

NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH- (aq)

The hydroxyl and oxide ions, OH- and 02- are responsible for the

characteristic reactions of common bases. The reactions of bases with acids may

be represented by the two equations:

For hydroxide: OH-(aq) +H3O+(aq) 2H2O(1)

For oxide: 02-(aq) + 2H3O+ (aq) 3H2O(1)

Like acids, bases can also be classified according to their degree of

dissociation in water. They are:

a. Strong bases: These are bases that dissociate completely in water to

produce higher concentration of negatively charged hydroxide ion or

oxide ion (OH- and O2- respectively) and positively charged metallic ion.

E.g NaOH, KOH

NaOH (aq) Na+ (aq) +OH-(aq)

KOH (aq) K+ (aq) + OH-(aq)

 b. Weak bases/Mild Alkalis: These are bases/alkalis that dissociate

incompletely in water to produce lower concentration of negatively

charged hydroxyl or oxide ion and positively charged metallic ion. E.g

Na2CO3, K2CO3, Ca(OH)2, Ba(OH)2.

Ca(OH)2(aq) Ca2+ (aq) + 2OH-(aq)

Ba(OH)2 (aq) Ba2+ (aq) + 2OH- (aq)

Na2CO3(aq) 2Na+ (aq) + C032-(aq)

Caustic and Mild Alkali

The two best known alkalis –sodium hydroxide and potassium hydroxide

have corrosive actions on the skin. Consequently they are often referred to as

‘caustic alkalis and hence called caustic soda and caustic potash respectively.

Some soluble trioxocarbonate (iv) salts, for example sodium

trioxocarbonate (iv), on dissolution in water, show the characteristics of an

alkali. Their solution turns litmus from red to blue. Like bases, they neutralize

acids, but in addition liberate carbon (iv) oxide, according to the equation.

Na2CO3(aq) + 2HCl(aq) 2NaCl(aq) +H2O(1) +CO2(g)

The solutions of these trioxocarbonate (iv) salts though alkaline in behavior, are

not corrosive to the skin. They are therefore occasionally referred to as mild

alkalis.

Caustic alkalis Mild alkalis

Caustic Soda,NaOH Sodium trioxocarbonate(iv),Na2CO3

Caustic Potash,KOH Potassium trioxocarbonate(iv),K2CO3

It is important for us to recognize that mild alkalis are actually salts and not

true bases or alkalis.

The alkaline behavior of these salts is due to a phenomenon called

hydrolysis.

Hydrolysis is a reaction in which a portion of a salt reacts with water to

form an acid and a base.

One of these acid/base is strong while the other is weak. The weak one

remains undissociated while the strong one is dissociated. The dissociated one

shows its characteristic properties.

With Sodium trioxocarbonate(iv) for example, the trioxocarbonate(iv) salt

reacts with water to form trioxocarbonate(iv) acid which is essentially

undissociated in water being weak. Some Sodium hydroxide is also formed,

which being a strong base is completely dissociated into Na+ and OH-. The OH-

gives the solution the characteristic alkaline reaction.

Na2CO3(aq) +2H2O(l) H2CO3(aq)+2NaOH(aq)

General Methods of Preparing Bases

Bases can be prepared by the following methods:

1.By direct reaction between metals oxygen:

The reaction may be carried out by either of these two method.

a.Burning the metal in air : Sodium, Calcium, and Magnesium burn

in air to form basic oxides.

2Mg +O2(g) 2MgO(s)

2Ca(s) + O2(g) 2CaO(s)

4Na(s) + O2(g) 2Na2O((s)

b.Heating the metal in air or in a stream of oxygen.

Example: 2Cu(s) + O2(g) 2CuO(s)

2Zn(s) + O2(g) 2ZnO(s)

2.By the reaction between a metal and water:

a.Reaction with cold water:

The reactive metals : Potassium, Sodium and Calcium react with

cold water to form alkalis.

2Na(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2(g)

Ca(s) + 2H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(aq) + H2(g)

b.Reaction with Steam: Metals which react with steam to yield

Oxides include magnesium, Zinc and iron. The equations for their

reactions are:

Mg(s) + H2O(g) MgO + H2(g)

Zn(s) + H2O(g) ZnO(s) + H2(g)

3Fe(s) + 4H2O(g) Fe3O4(s) + 4H2(g)

3.By thermal decomposition of oxygen-containing compounds of

metals: The trioxonitrate(v), trioxocarbonate(iv) and hydroxides of

some metals are decomposed by heat to give the corresponding

metal oxides. This method can be used to prepare the oxides of

calcium, magnesium, iron, copper, zinc, aluminium and lead.

CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

2Ca(NO3)2(s) 2CaO(s) + 4NO2(g) + O2(g)

Cu(OH)2(s) CuO(s) + H2O(g)

4.By precipitation with a soluble hydroxide: The method of

precipitation may be used for the preparation of insoluble or

sparingly soluble hydroxide such as those of calcium, zinc,

magnesium, aluminium, iron, copper and lead.

Fe(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Fe(OH)2(s) +2NaNO3(aq)

Cu(NO3)2(aq) + 2NH3(g) + 2H2O(l) Cu(OH)2(s) + 2NH4NO3(aq)

Ca(NO3)2(aq) + 2NaOH(aq) Ca(OH)2(aq) + 2NaNO3(aq)

The colours of the precipitates of metal hydroxides are very

important for the identification of the metal in qualitative analysis of

the common metals. Hydroxides of iron and copper are coloured

precipitates while the others are white.

5.By displacement of a volatile base by less volatile alkalis: This is a

special method for the preparation of ammonia, a volatile base.

NH4Cl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) + NH3(g)

Any ammonium salt and any alkalis, including calcium hydroxide,

can be used for the preparation of ammonia gas.

 Uses of Alkalis

Alkalis are important substances used in industries concerned with

the manufacture of glass, soap, paper and rayon. Some alkalis are

also used to soften hard water.

Measurement of Acidity and Alkalinity

-The pH Scale

The degree of acidity or basicity of a given solution is

expressed quantitatively by the pH Scale.

The pH Scale is a logarithmic expression of the hydrogen

ion concentration of a solution. The scale ranges between the values

of 1-14. A solution which is acidic has a pH value below 7, while a

solution which is alkaline(basic) has a pH value greater than 7.

A neutral solution such as pure water has a pH value of 7. The lower

the pH value of a given solution, the more strongly acidic is the

solution, while the higher the pH value of a solution, the more

strongly alkaline(basic) is the solution.

7 14
0 Ver Very
y alkali
Ver ne Ver
aci ne
y utr y
aci dic al bas
dic ic

pH is defined by the expression:

pH = -log10 of molar concentration of hydroxonium ion

OR pH = -log10[H3O+] or [H+]
 Also, a measure of the hydroxyl ion concentration is the pOH of the

solution, i.e. pOH = -log10 [OH-].

Calculations involving pH Value

1.The pH of a 0.001m acid is a)2 b)3 c)4 d)1

Solution:

pH= -log10 [H3O+] or[H+]

0.001m =1× 10-3m

Log (1×10-3) =log (1.0) +log (10-3)

= 0 + ( -3)

= -3

pH = - log10 [H3O+]

= -(-3)= +3

Answer:B

Importance of pH

1.pH values play an important role in our daily life. In our body, an acidic

medium is required for digestion of food in the stomach while alkaline medium

is needed digestion in the mouth by ptylin and in small intestine.

2.The pH of normal human blood is about 7.4. For our body to function

properly, the body fluids must be maintained at the correct pH values.

Deviations from these values indicate ill health.

3.Soil has pH values varying from 4 to 9. Most plants grow well in soils with a

pH value of 7 to 8. A farmer has to make sure that the soil has the correct pH

requirements for the crop he intend to plant. Usually acidic soils are treated with

slaked lime (a base) to neutralize its acidity.

4.pH values are also important in pharmacy, medicine, water purification,

sewage treatment and several other industrial processes.

Measuring pH of a solution

The pH of a solution may measured by:

a. Universal indicators and

b. pH meters

A Universal indicator is made up of a mixture of various indicators which work

at different pH ranges. By a series of successive colour changes, it can indicate

pH values from about 3 to 11. These pH changes can be easily determined by

comparing the colour obtained with that of the standards given. This method of

measuring the pH is not very accurate.

The pH of solution can be measured accurate by using a pH meter. It can even

measure the pH of very dilute solutions as well as that of coloured and opaque

liquids.

Acid – base indicators are dyes, organic acid (weak acids) which changes colour

according to the pH of the medium/solution. Most acid-base indicators are

organic compound which behave as weak acids. Their chemical nature and
colour in a given solution depends on whether or not they lose a proton or

remain as the dissociated molecule.

The general reaction of such an acid-base indicator is represented by the

equation.

H1n(aq) + H20(1) H30+ (aq) + ln- (aq)

(acid colour) (base colour)

The anion (represented by ln-) has a different colour from the acid molecule

Hln.

In the presence of alkali which produce hydroxyl ions, the indicator which is a

weak acid, Hln, ionizes to form a large concentration of ln- which gives the base

colour of the indicator. But in the presence of acidic solutions the hydroxonium

ions from the acid prevent the ionization of the indicator so that it remains in the

molecular form, Hln, and this manifests the acid colour.

The most commonly used indicators are litmus, methyl orange, phenolphthalein

and methyl red.

The universal indicator

Acids vary in degree of acidity from very strong, moderately strong, moderately

weak top very weak. There is a similar variation in the degree of basicity, of

bases from very strong, moderately weak to very weak bases. Basic strength

depends on the concentration of hydroxyl ions in solution.

The universal indicator is useful for comparing the strength of solutions

of acids and bases. It is a mixture of dyes, and shows a wide range of colours
like: red, yellow, gree, blue, indigo and violet in acid and alkaline solutions. The

particular colour assumed in a given solution depends on the degree of acidity

or alkalininty of the solution.

SALTS

In every day language, salt refer to common table salt or sodium

chloride. In scientific language, salt means more than sodium chloride. In fact,

sodium chloride is just one of the numerous salts. In science, salt refers to a

chemical compound formed by replacing the hydrogen ions in an acid with

metallic or ammonium ions. It is the only product formed, besides water, when

an acid reacts with a base. Thus, a salt is composed of an aggregation of

positively charged metallic or ammonium ions and negatively charged ions.

A Salt is therefore defined as the compound formed when all or part of

the ionizable/ replaceable hydrogen of an acid is replaced by metallic or

ammonium ions.

Types of Salts

There are five main types of salts. They are:

i.Acids Salts

ii. Basic Salts

iii. Normal Salts

iv. Double Salts and

v. Complex Salts
i.Normal Salts

Normal salts are formed when all the replaceable hydrogen ions in the

acid have been completely replaced by metallic or ammonium ions.

HCl(aq) + NaOH(aq) NaCl(aq) + H2O(l)

Normal salt

H2SO4(aq) + ZnO(s) ZnSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Normal salt

Normal salts are are neutral to litmus. However, a few normal salts

such as sodium trioxocarbonate(iv), aluminium chloride ans sodium sulphide

will undergo hydrolysis in water to give an acidic or alkaline medium.

ii. Acidic Salts

Acidic salts are formed when the replaceable hydrogen ions in acids

are only partially replaced by a metal. They are produced only by

acids containing more than one replaceable hydrogen ion. Acids with

two replaceable hydrogen ions can form only one acidic salt, while

acids with three replaceable hydrogen ions can form two different

acidic salts.

Acid salts result when there is an insufficient supply of

metallic ions to replace aa the replaceable hydrogen ions in the acid.

For example,

H2SO4(aq) + KOH(aq) KHSO4(aq) +H2O(l)

Acidic salt
 An acid salt still contains replaceable hydrogen ions and has

acidic properties, e.g. it will turn blue litmus red. In the presence of

excess metallic ions/ ammonium ions, the remaining replaceable

hydrogen ions in the acid become replaced, converting the acid salt

to a normal salt.

KHSO4(aq) + KOH(aq) K2SO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Acidic salt alkali normal salt water

iii. Basic Salts

Basic salts contain the hydroxide ion,OH-. They occur when there

is an insufficient supply of acid which is needed for the complete neutralization

of the base. Bases formed from di- or trivalent metals, when neutralized in

step/incompletely by acids forms basic salts. Basic salts have the properties of a

base. For example, abasic salt will turn red litmus blue and will react with

excess acid to form a normal salt and water in the following way:

Zn(OH)2(aq) + HCl(aq) Zn(OH)Cl(aq) + H2O(l)

Base acid basic zinc chloride water

Salt

Zn(OH)Cl(aq) + HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l)

Basic zinc acid normal salt

Chloride salt

Other basic salt include: Mg(OH)Cl, pb(OH)2. 2pbCO3,etc.

iv. Double Salts

 Double salts are salts which ionize to produce three different types

of ions in solution. Usually two of thes are positively charged(metallic or

ammonium ions), while the other is negatively charged.

e.g.,alums,MgCl2.KCl.6H2O,etc.

v. Complex Salts

Complex salts contain complex ions, i.e.,ions consisting of a

charged group of atoms. Example, sodium tetrahydrozincate(ii) (Na2Zn(OH)4),

and potassium hexacyanoferrate(ii) (K4Fe(CN)6) are complex salts which ionize

as follows:

NaZn(OH)4(aq) 2Na+ (aq) + {Zn(OH)4}2-(aq)

K4Fe(CN)6(aq) 4K+ (aq) + {Fe(CN)6}4-(aq)

Preparation of Salts

Several general methods are available for preparing salts. The method chosen

for preparing a particular salt depends largely on:

a.its solubility in water, and

b. its stability to heat

Preparation of Soluble Salts

Salts that are soluble in water may be prepared by various methods.

The salts formed are in aqueous solutions and so must be recovered/obtained

from solutions by evaporation, if the salt is stable to heat (all chlorides except

zinc and iron(iii) chloride) or crystallization, if the salt is not stable to heat

(decompose on strong heating) and need some water of crystallization to form.

 The various methods of preparing soluble salts include:

i.Reaction of dilute acid and metal:

A soluble salt may be prepared by the direct displacement of the hydrogen ion

in an acid by a metal more reactive than hydrogen, e.g.,sodium, calcium,

magnesium, zinc and iron.

Zn(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2(g)

Soluble salt

Mg(s) + H2SO4(aq) MgSO4(aq) + H2(g)

Soluble salt

ii. Reaction of an alkali and an acid:

A soluble salt may be prepared by titrating an alkali against an appropriate acid.

A suitable indicator is used to determine when the neutralization reaction is

complete.

KOH(aq) + HNO3(aq) KNO3(aq) + H2O(l)

Soluble salt

iii. Reaction of a dilute acid and an insoluble base:

The dilute acid is heated and the base is added a little at a time, until no more

base can dissolve. The excess base is then filtered off, leaving the salt formed in

the solution.

H2SO4(aq) + CuO(s) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l)

Soluble salt

iv. Reaction of a dilute acid and tioxocarbonate(iv):

An acid will act on a trioxocarbonate (iv) to produce a soluble salt, water and

carbon(iv)oxide gas.

H2SO4(aq) + CuCO3(s) CuSO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Soluble salt

Where the trioxocarbonate(iv) is soluble, it is titrated against the acid

using a suitable indicator. If the trioxocarbonate(iv) is not soluble, it is added in

excess to the acid and th soluble salt formed is filtered off the excess

trioxocarbonate(iv).

Preparation of insoluble Salts

Salts which are insoluble in water can be prepared in the laboratory

by the following methods:

i.Double decomposition:

This method usually requires two soluble salts, one containing the metallic

radical and the other the acidic radical of the required insoluble salt. The salts

are mixed together and the two soluble salts dissociate into their ions and

exchange theire ionic radicals resulting in the precipitation of the required

insoluble salt, which is then obtained by filtration.

AgNO3(aq) + NaCl(aq) AgCl(s) + NaNO3(aq)

Soluble soluble insoluble soluble

White

Precipitate
BaCl2(aq) + K2SO4(aq) BaSO4(s) + KCl(aq)

Soluble soluble insoluble soluble

White

Precipitate

Other salts prepared by this method include: lead(ii)chloride,

lead(ii)iodide and calciumtrioxocarbonate(iv).

ii. Combination of constituent elements:

Some metallic salts, such as chlorides and sulphides, may be prepared

by the direct combination of the elements which make up the salt. This method

of salt preparation is confinedto binary salts, i.e., salts made up of two elements

only.

Fe(s) + S(s) FeS(s)

Insoluble salt

2Fe(s) + 3Cl2(g) 2FeCl3(s)

Insoluble salt

Properties of Salts

The following are the properties of salts:

a.Solubility in water: Salts differ in their ability to dissolve in water. Some salts

dissolve readily in water whereas others are insoluble or only sparingly soluble.

The general solubility pattern among salts are shown in the table below:

Table 4: Solubility of salts

Types of salts Solubility characteristics

i.Trioxocarbonates(iv) All are insoluble except the potassium,

ii. Sulphides sodium and ammonium salts.

iii. Trioxosulphates(iv)

iv. Chlorides All are soluble except silver and

lead(ii) chloride.

Note: lead(ii) chloride is soluble in hot

water.

v. Trioxonitrate(v) All are soluble

vi. Tetraoxosulphates(vi) All are soluble except barium and lead

tetraoxosulphate(vi). Calcium

tetraoxosulphate (vi) is sparingly

soluble

Note:Acid salts are generally soluble.

b.Dissociation in water: All salts exist as ions even in the solid state. All salts

once dissolved in water are completely dissociated into mobile ions.

Examples:

NaCl(aq) Na+(aq) + Cl-(aq)

MgSO4(aq) Mg2+(aq) + SO42-(aq)

c.Hydration of salts: Some salts are often obtained in the solid stat e by

crystallization from their solutions in water. The solid state of the salts may

assume one of two forms; either an amorphous powder or a regular crystalline

structure. Most salts incorporate a fixed proportion of molecules of water in the

process of forming their crystalline structure. This water is calledwaterof

crystallization. Any crystalline salt containing water of crystallization is called a

hydrated salt or simply a hydrate. Salts without water of crystallization are

called anhydrous salts. They are often powdery in nature. The water molecules

in hydrated salts are loosely bound to the salt molecule and are easily

dissociated from its by heating. The residual salt that is left behind on heating a

hydrate is said to be anhydrous and amorphous. Examples of hydrated salts are:

sodium tetraoxosulphate(vi)decahydrate(Na2SO4.10H2O), Copper(ii)

tetraoxosulphate(vi)pentahydrate(CuSO4.5H2O), calcium

chloridedihydrate(CaCl2.2H2O), etc.

Calculations involving Water of Crystallization

1.When 5.0g of a compound Y was heated to a constant mass, 1.80g of water

vapour was given off. Determine the number of molecules of water of

crystallization in one molecule of Y, given that the molar mass of its anhydrous

form is 160g (H=1,O=16).

Solution:

No of moles of anhydrous salt = No of moles of water

Mass of anhydrous salt (5.0˗1.80)g = 3.20g

Thus: 3.20 1.80

160 18

Mole ratio: 0.02 0.10

Dividing : 0.02 0.10

With the 0.02 0.02

smallest 1 : 5

There are 5 molecules of water of crystallization in the compound.

OR

If 3.20g of anhydrous salt combines wih 1.80g of H2O

⸫ 160g of anhydrous salt will combine with ꭓ

Cross multiplying, we have 3.20 × ꭓ = 160 ×1.80

ꭓ = 160 × 1.80

3.20

ꭓ = 90g H2O

No of moles of water = Mass of water

Molar mass of water

No of moles of water = 90

18

No of moles of water =5moles.

OR

Using the simple formular:

i.e., Mass of H2O = Molar mass of H2O

Mass of residue Molar mass of residue

Substituting appropriately:

1.80 = 18ꭓ

3.20 160

Cross multiplying,
1.80×160 = 3.20 ×18ꭓ

ꭓ = 1.80 ×160

3.20×18

ꭓ = 5moles

Efflorescent, Deliquescent and Hygroscopic Substances

When certain compounds are exposed to air, they either lose their

water of crystallization or they absorb moisture from their surroundinds. The

terms efflorescent, deliquescent and hygroscopic are used to describe such

compounds.

Efflorescence:

Some crystalline salts will lose part or all of their water of

crystallization when they are exposed to the atmosphere to form a lower

dehydrate or the anhydrous salt. This phenomenon is known as efflorescence

and the salt is said to be efflorescent. An example is the washing soda molecule

which loses nine out of its ten molecules of water of crystallization when

exposed to the atmosphere.

NaCO3.10H2O(s) Na2CO3.H2O(s) +9H2O(l)

Other examples of efflorescent substances are: MgSO4.7H2O, CaSO4.2H2O, etc.

Deliquescence:

Some compounds tend to absorb a large amount of water on exposure

to the atmosphere so that they eventually turn into solutions. This phenomenon
is known as deliquescence and the substances are said to be deliquescent.

Examples of these substances include: sodium hydroxide (NaOH) pellets,

iron(iii)chloride (FeCl3), Potassium hydroxide (KOH), calcium chloride

(CaCl2), magnesium chloride (MgCl2) and phosphorus(v)oxide.

Hygroscopy:

Hygroscopic substances also absorb moisture on exposure to the

atmosphere. If they are solids, they will not form solutions but merely become

sticky or moist. A hygroscopic liquid like concentrated tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid

will absorb water from the air, usually diluting itself up to about three times its

original volume. Other examples of hygroscopic substances include: sodium

trioxonitrate(v) (NaNO3), copper(ii) oxide (CuO) and calcium oxide (CaO).

Drying Agents:

Drying agents are substances that have a strong affinity for moisture or

water. They may be either hygroscopic or deliquescent. They are usually used to

dry gases in the laboratory. They are also commonly used in desiccators as

desiccants. Drying agents cannot be used if it reacts with the substance to be

dried. For example, concentrated tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid can be used to dry

gases like hydrogen chloride, chlorine and carbon (iv) oxide but cannot be used

to dry ammonia gas since they react to form ammonium tetraoxosulphate(vi).

Calcium oxide is used for drying ammonia gas.

2NH3(g) + H2SO4(aq) (NH4)2SO4(aq)

Uses of Salts
1.Salts are used in the manufacture of many industries, agricultural and

consumer substances like chlorine gas, fertilizers and laxatives.

2. They are also used as foo preservatives, drying agents and antifreeze.

THIRD TERM WORK

WATER, SOLUTION AND SOLUBILITY

WATER

Water is one of the most common substances known and played a

crucial part in the origin of life. Water has an essential role in maintaining

plants and animal

life. Plants depend on water for the transfer of nutrients and for photosynthesis.

Owing to the presence of water in cells and body fluids such as blood, human

beings are approximately 60 percent water. Nearly all the processes essential for

life depend on reactions that take place in an aqueous solution, be it the division

of cell, the digestion of foodstuffs in the stomach, or the transport of oxygen

around the body. It is also a good solvent for many substances and rarely occurs

in its pure form in nature.

Natural Water

Natural water includes rain water, spring water, well water, river water, lake

water and sea water. Rain water is the purest form of natural water because it is

formed as a result of the condensation of water vapour in the atmosphere, i.e. it

is a natural form of distilled water except for dissolved (soluble) gases like C02

and S02 in the atmosphere that may dissolve in the atmospheric vapour leading

to acid rain.

Spring water contains a considerable amount of mineral salt; but very

little suspended impurities such as dust and bacteria, so it is a good source of

drinking water.

Well water contains a lot of clay and other mineral salts. A well that is

used as source of drinking water should be:

a.Sited away from sources of underground water pollution such as pit latrines;

and

b.Lined with bricks and covered.

Water from deep wells tend to be less polluted than that from surface wells.

Generally, it is safer to boil well water before drinking. River water, lake water

and sea water contain a lot of dissolved air, mineral salts, bacteria and organic

remains. Water gotten from these sources should be specially purified before

they can be used for drinking and for other special purposes.
 All the types of natural water are in constant circulation, forming water

cycle.

Treated Water

Treated water include: distilled water, pipe- borne water for townships

and chlorinated water for use in swimming pools.

a.Distilled water:

This is chemically pure water. It is prepared by condensing steam or

passing water through an ion –exchange resin column. Distilled water is used

for the following:

i.Laboratory preparation of reagents and analytical work;

ii.Certain industrial processes;

iii.Preparation of drugs and

iv.Car batteries.

b.Pipe borne water (water supply to a township):

Pipe-borne water is prepared in a water treatment plant. This water is

usually germ-free but it contains mineral solute like sodium chloride.

Water from rainfall, rivers or lakes is stored in reservoirs. This water

is then purified using the following methods (in a step wise manner):

i.Aeration: Exposing the water to the air, so that some impurities

like carbon and Sulphur will be oxidized into C02 and S02 and

escape as gases in the atmosphere. During the exposure, sunlight

also kill some germs.

 ii. Coagulation: Adding aluminium tetraoxosulphate (vi) salt or in

form of alum (a double salt) into the water to bring smaller dirty

particles together form of lumps/flocs.

iii. Sedimentation: Allowing the lump to settle down, leaving a

clearer water on top.

iv. Filtration: Filtering the water from the dirty particles (in form

lumps) using sand bed.

v.Disinfection/Chlorination: Adding a calculated amount of

chlorine to the water to kill bacteria/germs. The purified is then

distributed towns cities through underground pipes for domestic and

industrial uses.

Note: Bleaching powder can also be used instead of chlorine.

HARDNESS OF WATER

Water is said to be hard, when it does not readily/ easily lather

with soap. This is usually due to a number of dissolved salts, mostly

magnesium tetraoxosulphate(vi), calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv)

calcium tetraoxosulphate(vi) salts. Soap is the sodium or potassium salt of an

organic acid. Ordinary soap is usually sodium octadecanoate. When soap is

added to hard water, the dissolved salts in the water will immediately react

with soap molecules in the following way:

Dissolve calcium or + Soap or Sodium Octadecanoate

 Magnesium salts (soluble)

(soluble)

Calcium or Magnesium + Sodium Salts

Octadecanoate (soluble)

(insoluble scum)

The insoluble calcium or magnesium salts form an unpleasant scum

which sticks to clothes and is difficult to rinse away. Hard water is wasteful,

as a large amount of soap has to be used in precipitating and removing the

calcium and magnesium ions, after which more soap has to be used for the

actual washing. In recent years, this problem has been overcome by the

introduction of detergents for domestic and laundry purposes. These

detergents are not affected by hard water because they form calcium and

magnesium salts which are soluble in water.

Origin of Hard Water

Water becomes hard when it dissolves gypsum, CaS04 .2H20, or

lime, CaC03, from the soil over which it flows. Gypsum is sparingly soluble in

water but limestone is not. However, water which contains carbon (iv) oxide is

capable of dissolving small quantities of limestone. The reaction is as follows:

CaCO3(s) +CO2(g) +H20(l) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

Insoluble soluble

Types of Hard Water

There are two types of hard water. They are:

a.Temporarily hard water and

b.permanently hard water.

a.Temporary Hardness:

This type of hardness is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium

hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv) or magnesium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv)

(Ca(HCO3)2 or Mg(HCO3)2 respectively). The cause originates from the

absorption of CO2 by rain water:

H2O(l) + CO2(g) H2CO3(aq)

The H2CO3 dissolves CaCO3 as the water flow over rocks.

CaCO3(s) + H2CO3(aq) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

Effects of temporary hardness

1.Furring of kettles and boilers: When a kettle or boiler has been used to boil

temporarily hard water for some time, the inner surface becomes coated with
 a white fur-like layer. This layer is due to the gradual deposition of caicium

trioxocarbonate(iv), from the decomposition of calcium hydrogen

trioxocarbonate(iv).

2. Stalagmite and stalacites: These are pillars of limestone found in hot

caves. When hard water flows temporarily over the top of a cave, drops of

water tend to drip through cracks in its roof. The calcium hydrogen

trioxocarbonate(iv) in the water then becomes decomposed by the heat inside

the cave, leaving deposits of calcium trioxocarbonate(iv) on the roof and the

floor of the cave. A calcium trioxocarbonate(iv) structure growing

downwards from the roof is known as stalactite while one growing upwards

from the floor is known as a stalagmite. This may grow towards each other

to form one solid pillar inside the cave.

Ways of softening temporary hard water/removing temporary hardness

in water

a.Ca(HCO3)2 decomposes on heating to form CaCO3 which is insoluble and this

brings the calcium ions out of the solution as a precipitate. Once the calcium

ions are out of the solution, the soap that is added to the water will be available

for the, formation of lather.

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Soluble insoluble

b.Addition of calcium hydroxide: Temporary hardness can also be removed by

using calculated amount of slaked lime,Ca(OH)2.

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Ca(OH)2 2CaCO3(s) + 2H2O(l)

Soluble slightly soluble insoluble

The soluble calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv) is precipitated as

the insoluble calcium trioxocarbonate(iv), thus removing out of the solution

calcium ions which are responsible for the hardness of water.

c.Addition of washing soda(Na2CO3): Temporary hardness of water can also be

removed by adding washing soda(Na2CO3).

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + 2NaHCO3(aq)

Insoluble soluble

b.Permanent hardness:

This is caused by the presence of dissolved calcium tetraoxosulphate(vi) or

magnesium tetraoxosulphate(vi) (CaSO4 or MgSO4 respectively).

Ways of softening permanent hardness:

Permanent hardness can only be removed by using chemicals. The

chemicals employed are also soluble sodium compounds which will form

insoluble precipitate with the calcium and magnesium ions. Washing soda,
caustic soda and permutit or zeolite are some of the common chemicals used in

the removal of permanent hardness.

a.The addition of washing soda removes the calcium and magnesium ions as the

insoluble calcium and magnesium trioxocarbonate(iv) respectively.

Na2CO3(aq) + CaSO4(aq) CaCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Soluble insoluble

Na2CO3(aq) + MgSO4(aq) MgCO3(s) + Na2SO4(aq)

Soluble insoluble

b.Addition of caustic soda(NaOH): The addition of caustic soda removes the

calcium and magnesium ions as the insoluble calcium and magnesium

hydroxides respectively.

2NaOH(aq) + CaSO4(aq) Ca(OH)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)

Soluble insoluble

2NaOH(aq) + MgSO4(aq) Mg(OH)2(aq) + Na2SO4(aq)

Soluble insoluble

c.Permutit process: A permutit is an ion-exchange resin consisting of an

insoluble complex compound with sodium ions sticking to its surface. These

sodium ions gradually replace calcium or magnesium ions from hard water.

When depleted, the sodium ions can be restored by pouring solution of sodium

chloride through the permutit.

Advantages of hard water:

 i.Hard water has a pleasant(better) taste than soft water due to the

dissolved minerals in it.

ii.The calcium ions contained in hard water makes for strong bones

and teeth, when taken by animals.

iii. Hard water helps animals like snail and crabs to make their shells.

These shells are made mainly of calcium trioxocarbonate(iv).

iv.Hard water can be supplied in pipes made of lead since it does not

dissolve lead unlike soft water that dissolves lead if supplied in lead

pipes thereby causing lead poisoning.

Disadvantages of hard water:

i.Hard water requires a lot of soap when used for washing before it can

foam or lather unlike soft water that lather readily with soap when used for

washing i.e, hard water waste soap.

ii. Hard water forms scales or furring of kettles and boilers while soft water

does not.

iii.Hard water cannot be used in dyeing and tanning due to the dissolved salts in

it that interfere with the modes action of these processes.

Water Pollution:

Water pollution is the discharge of harmful waste substances into

water bodies in an amount that is harmful to humans and aquatic life.

 Water pollution is a big problem in the present day world. It

threatens aquatic life and changes water bodies into unsightly, foul-smelling

scenes and even affects our health because of the harmful substances that

accumulate in aquatic animals which is one of our main source of food.

Causes of water pollution:

The main cause of water pollution is the indiscriminate dumping of solid and

liquid waste from our homes, farm lands and industries into water bodies.

Water pollutants:

Water pollutants are the solid/liquid waste, harmful substances

that are discharged into water bodies that brings about water pollution. They

are:

i.Refuse(garbage) and sewage from our homes

ii.Waste from industries

iii.Agricultural waste like fertilizers, pesticides, herbicides, etc.

iv.Crude Oil spills.

Control of Water pollution:

Some methods of controlling water pollution are as follows:

i.Refuse should be buried or burnt in an incinerator with built-in-devices to

prevent air pollution.

ii.Sewage should be processed, treated and converted to useful fertilizers in

sewage plants.

iii.Chemical wastes should be converted to harmless biodegradable substances

before being dumped in the sea.

iv.Safety measures must be implemented to prevent crude oil spills.

v.Strict laws must be passed to control water pollution by individuals and

companies.

vi. Educating people on the consequences of water pollution.

Composition of Water:

Priestley(1781) was the first to observe that the explosion by

hydrogen and oxygen gas mixture yields water vapour. Later, Cavendish

established that the ratio by volume of hydrogen to oxygen in that reaction, at

constant temperature and pressure is 2:1.

Water as An Oxide of Hydrogen

An oxide is a binary compound (i.e, a compound made of two

elements) in which one of the elements that make up the compound is oxygen.

When dry hydrogen gas is ignited in air, it burns with a faint blue

flame to give steam, which will condense on contact with any cold surface to

form water.

2H2(g) +O2(g) 2H2O(g)

 Properties of water

Physical properties of water

Pure water is a clear, colourless, tasteless and odourless liquid with other

properties like:

a.A boiling point of 100oC

b.A freezing point of OoC

c.Maximum density of 1g/cm3 at 4oC and

d.neutral to litmus.

The unique high melting and boiling point of water for a molecule

of its size is due to the fact that water molecules tend to form aggregates where

the molecules are linked by hydrogen bonds. Although hydrogen bonds are

weak forces their abundance in water makes it difficult for water to boil and ice

to melt. The hydrogen bonds are also responsible for the high surface tension in

water, producing a skin-like effect on water surfaces.

When most liquids solidify, the solids are usually denser than the liquids. In the

case of water, however, ice is less dense than water, i.e. it floats on water. This

is because the molecules in ice are held together by hydrogen bonds to form an

open lattice structure. The molecules in this solid structure are not crowded

together as in liquid water. Therefore, ice is less dense than water.

Since ice float on water, ponds and lakes do not freeze completely

during winter. This prevents aquatic life from being killed.

Chemical properties of water

 Water reacts with metals in a number of ways, with the degree of

reactivity depending on the position of the metal in the electrochemical series.

Thus,

× Sodium, potassium and calcium react with cold water to form alkalis and

liberate hydrogen;

× Magnesium and zinc react only with steam to form oxides and liberate

hydrogen;

× Iron reacts only with excess steam at red heat;

× Copper, gold, silver and mercury do not react with water in any form.

Non-metals like chlorine, oxygen and silicon also react with water.

Oxides of alkaline metals readily form strong alkalis or hydroxides

with water. Calcium oxides partially dissolves in water to form calcium

hydroxides or slaked lime.

Certain oxides of non-metals like carbon, Sulphur and nitrogen form

acids with water.

Water reacts with organic and inorganic compounds. Such reactions

are generally described as hydrolysis. For example,

Al2S3(s) + 6H2O(l) 2Al(OH)3 + (s) + 3H2S(g)

Test for water

When a few drops of water are added to:

× White anhydrous copper(ii)tetraoxosulphate(iv), it turns blue.

CuSO4(s) + 5H20(l) CuSO4.5H2O(s)

White anhydrous blue hydrate

× Blue cobalt(ii) chloride, it turns pink.

CoCl2(s) + 6H2O(l) CoCl2.6H2O(s)

Blue anhydrous pink hydrate

However, these two test are not specific for water. They only

indicate the presence of water. Any aqueous solution or substance containing

water will give a positive test for water.

SOLUTION

A solution is formed when a solid, liquid or gas dissolves in a

liquid, solid or gas, to produce a homogeneous mixture. A solution can also be

defined as a uniform or homogeneous mixture of two or more substances. OR A

solution is a homogeneous mixture of a solute and a solvent.

A solute is a dissolved substance which may be a solid, liquid or

gas. It is usually present in a smaller proportion. While a solvent is a substance

(usually a liquid, although it may be a solid or a gas) which dissolves a solute. It

is usually present in a larger proportion.

Water as a Universal Solvent

 Water is the most naturally occurring, common solvent. It is

referred to as the universal solvent. Water is polar in nature, i .e. one side of the

molecule is positively charged while the other side is negatively charged.

H-

O-

H-

Due to the polar nature, water is an excellent solvent for electrovalent solutes

such as mineral salts, mineral acids and bases. These are mainly inorganic

compounds. All covalent compounds which contain the hydroxyl group will

also dissolve easily in water. Examples are organic solids like sugar and organic

liquids like alkanol and propane-1,2,3-triol(glycerol).

Besides these, all gases can dissolve in water to some extent. Gases

which ionize in solution, or which react with water are found to be very soluble,

e.g. ammonia, hydrogen chloride and nitrogen(iv)oxide. Other gases like

Sulphur(iv)oxide, carbon(iv)oxide and chlorine, which ionizes only slightly, are

found to be fairly soluble in water. Gases which do not ionize at all in water are

oxygen, hydrogen, nitrogen and carbon(ii)oxide. In general, the solubility of

gases decreases with an increase in temperature.

Organic Solvents
Most inorganic substances except few organic ones, dissolve in water and other

polar solvents. Organic substances dissolve readily in organic solvents like

kerosene, petrol, benzene and turpentine.

Uses of Solvents

Some of the common uses of solvents include:

i.Solvents like kerosene, ammonia solution, turpentine, solution of borax in

water are used in laundry and dry cleaning to remove stains like fat, oil, grease,

paint and coffee or tea stains.

ii.Solvents are also used in general household or office furniture and equipment

cleaning cleaning to remove stains.

iii.Solvents are used in manufacturing perfumes, aromatic(Sweet-smelling) oils

particularly ethanol.

iv. Ethanol as a solvent is used in the laboratory to extract chlorophll (the green

pigment in leaves) by boiling the leaves in ethanol.

v. Benzene as a solvent is used dissolved rubber and certain other substances to

form vulcanizers solution for mending punctures in the inner tubes of car tyres.

vi. The iodine solution for dressing wounds in the dispensary is prepared dy

dissolving solid iodine in ethanol.

vii. Turpentine is used to mix water-proof paints for the painting of walls.

viii.Water, being the universal solvent, serve as a very suitable medium for most

chemical reactions especially in living systems.

 Types of Solutions

The most common solutions are those where the solutes are

dissolved in a liquid solvent. When the liquid is water, the solution is known as

an aqueous solution.

In some cases, the formation of a solution of solute in a solvent is

accompanied by a chemical reaction. This type of solution that is gotten from

the reaction of a solvent and a solute is often known as a chemicals solution. For

example, the formation of magnesium chloride solution formed when

magnesium dissolves in dilute hydrochloric acid and in the water present in the

dilute acid.

Solution can as well be classified according to their particle size

and visibility to the naked eye.

1.True solution: A solution is said to be a true solution when the solute particles

dissolve such that they are able to get in between the solvent particles and are

too small to be seen by the naked eye. The particles are called crystalloids

which are simple molecules or ions. Examples of true solutions are aqueous

solutions of sodium chloride and copper(ii)tetraoxosulphate(iv).

2. False solutions or colloidal solutions: The individual solute particles of false

solutions or colloidal solutions are larger than the solution of the true solutions,

but not large enough to be seen by the naked eye. Some examples of colloids

are starch and albumen (egg white solution).

Types of Colloids
 In a colloidal or false solution, the liquid solvent is more

appropriately known as the dispersion medium while the solid solute particles

constitute the dispersed substance. As in the case of solutions, in colloids too,

the dispersion medium and dispersed substance may be a solid, a liquid or a gas.

The most important colloid is protoplasm, the living matter in cells. The various

types of colloids are:

a.Sols and gels: When in a colloid, the dispersion medium is a liquid and the

dispersed substance is a solid, it is called sol. And when sols solidify under

certain conditions, it is called gel. Examples of sols are starch, glue, agar, jelly,

gelatin and clay.

b.Aerosols: This is a type of colloid where a liquid or solid particles are

dispersed in a gas. Examples of aerosols are fog, smoke, sprays of insecticides

and deodorants,etc.

c. Emulsion: This is a type of colloid where a liquid is dispersed in another

liquid or liquid dispersed in solid. Examples of emulsions are milk, hair cream,

cod liver oil, Butter, etc.

NOTE:The cleaning action of soap and detergent is due to their ability to form

emulsions.

Table 1: Examples of colloids

Examples of colloids Solvents or dispersion Solute or dispersed

medium substance

Fog Gas Liquid

Smoke Gas Solid

Foam or lather Liquid Gas

Emulsions Liquid Liquid/Solid

Sols Liquid Solid

Coagulation of colloids

Dispersed particles in colloids cannot be separated from the

medium by filtration but can be precipitated or coagulated by the addition of

solutions containing metal ions.

iii.Suspension:

A suspension is a heterogeneous mixture of undissolved particles

in a given medium. The particles are usually large enough to be seen without

the aid of an instrument ( e.g. microscope), and they eventually settle down

if left standing. e.g suspension of dust and fine particles in air.

In some suspensions, the particles are too small to be seen. They

appear to have dissolved in the medium and may not settle on any exposed

surface. Such examples are border-line cases between suspensions and

colloidal solutions They are described as colloidal suspensions They have

the characteristics of both a colloidal solution and asuspension. Examples are

clouds, fog, smoke and aerosol sprays.

 Table ii:Differences between True and False solution

i. The solution can be dialyzed, i.e The solution cannot be dialyzed

the solutes can diffuse through a

semi-permeable membrane

ii. The solutes do not scatter light The solute can scatter light rays, i.e.

rays the solution exhibit tyndal effect.

iii. They are not visible to naked eye They are large but not enough to be

and are homogeneously distributed in seen with the naked eye. They are

the solvent. They exist in their usually formed by large collection of

simplest forms,i.e. as molecules or molecules clinging to one another.

ions.

Similarities

Both solutes can pass through a filter paper.

 SOLUBILITY

Although most substances are soluble in water, some are more soluble

than others, i.e. their solubility differ. Solubility is a way of comparing the

extent to which different solutes can dissolve in a particular solvent at a

definite temperature. One can therefore define solubility of a solute in a

solvent at a particular temperature as the maximum amount of the solute in

moles or grams that will saturate 1dm3 of the solvent at that temperature.

Saturated and Unsaturated Solutions

A given volume of water can only dissolve a certain amount of

salt in it at room temperature. If more salt is added to such a solution is said

to be saturated. Thus, a saturated solution of a solute at a particular

temperature is one which contains as much solute as it can dissolve at that

temperature in the presence of undissolved solute particles.

The composition of a saturated solution is not affected by the

presence of excess solute particles but, the dissolved solutes and the

undissolved solute are in equilibrium at a particular temperature. Any change

in temperature will disturb this equilibrium and the system must alter to

counter the change. Since the solution of many substances is accompanied

by heat absorption, an increase in temperature will result in a corresponding

increase in the solubility of these substances. On the other hand, when a

saturated solution is cooled, excess solute will crystallize out, i.e. solubility

generally decrease with a decrease in the temperature for solid substances.

 The concentration of a saturated solution varies with the solute, the solvent

and with the temperature. An unsaturated solution on the other hand, can

continue to dissolve more solute, if added, until the solution becomes

saturated.

Supersaturated Solution

A supersaturated solution is one which contains more solute than it can

normally dissolve/hold at that temperature. It is usually very unstable and

capable of releasing the excess solute if disturbed, either by saking or “seeding”

with a tiny crystal of the solute or even with a dust particle dropped into it or

scratching the inner container.

Solubility Graphs or Curves

Solubility curves are used to determine the solubility of a solute at

several values of temperature. Where the solubility of a given solvent is

plotted against its temperature. The solubility of different solutes in a given

solvent can be plotted on the same axes. Example:

From the above solubility curves, the following deductions can be made

from the temperature range of 00C to1000C:

i.that the solubility of KClO3 and KNO3increase very rapidly with increase in

temperature.

ii. that the solubility of NaOH and Ca(OH)2aer independent of temperature.

iii. that Na2SO4 shows a solubility curve with a sharp break at 360C. This is

because, the salt exist in solution as sodium tetraoxosulphate(vi)-

decahydrate, Na2SO4.10H2O at temperatures below 360C but gives up its

water of crystallization to become anhydrous at temperatures above 360C.

Thus, 360C is referred to as the transition point. If cooled, a saturated

solution of sodium tetraoxosulphate(vi) will deposit. Na2SO4.10H2O below

and Na2SO4 above 360C.

iv. that at all temperatures between 00C and 1000C, Ca(OH)2 has the lowest

solubility among the six compounds. And also a decrease in solubility at

temperatures over 700C.

iv. that the solubility of potassium chloride increases at a constant rate with

the rise in temperature.

Applications of Solubility Curves

1.Solubility curves enable pharmacists to determine the amounts of solid

drugs that must be dissolved in a given quantity of solvent to give a

prescribed drug mixture.

2. The curves also enable chemists and research workers to determine the

most suitable solvent to be used at various temperatures for the extraction of

essential chemicals from various natural sources.

3. With the help of solubility curves, a given mixture of solutes can be

separated or purified by fractional crystallization. When a saturated solution

of such a mixture is cooled, those fractions with very low solubility will be

the first to crystallize out of solution while those solutes that are still within

their limits of solubility will remain in solution.

Solubility of Gases

The solubility of most solid solutes increases with a rise in

temperature. The solubility of most common gases, however, decrease with a

rise in temperature. Hydrogen chloride gas is an exception. Gases which do

not react with water are only slightly soluble in water. Gases like ammonia

and hydrogen chloride which are very soluble in water form alkali and acid

solutions respectively. Air is sparingly soluble in water.

The solubility of a gas is directly proportional to the pressure

of the gas. Aerated drinks are made by dissolving carbon(iv)oxide under

pressure. When an aerated drink can or bottle is opened, the pressure is

released and bubbles of carbon(iv)oxide gas are given off.

Calculations Involving Solubility

 1.If 12.2g of lead(ii) trioxonitrate(v) were dissolved in 21g of distilled water

at 200C, calculate the solubility of the solute in moldm-3.

Molar mass of Pb(NO3)2 = 331g

Number of moles of Pb(NO3)2 in 12.2g = Mass(g)

Molar mass(g/mol)

Number of moles ofPb(NO3)2in 12.2g = 12.2

331

= 0.037moles

If 21g of water at 200C dissolved 0.037moles of Pb(NO3)2

1000g of water at 200C will dissolve x

Cross multiplying:

21 X x = 1000 X 0.037

x = 1000 X 0.037

21

x = 1.76mol/dm3

2.500Cm3 of a saturated solution of Aluminium Chloride contains 26.7g

dissolved in it at 600C. What is the solubility in mol/dm3 at this temperature?

Molar mass of AlCl3 = 27 + (35.5 X 3)

= 133.5

Number of moles of AlCl3 in 26.7g = 26.7

133.5
 = 0.2moles

If 0.2moles of AlCl3 saturates 500Cm3 solution

x moles of AlCl3 will saturate 1000Cm3 solution

Cross multiplying:

500 X x = 0.2 X 1000

x = 1000 X 0.2

500

x = 0.4mol/dm3

3.Water was added to 65.52g of sodium chloride to produce 100cm3 of a

saturated solution at 270C. If the solubility of the salt at this temperature is

9mol/dm3, calculate the number of moles of undissolved salt.

Molar mass of NaCl = 23 + 35.5

= 58.5g/mol

Number of moles of NaCl in 65.52 = 65.62

58.5

= 1.12mol

If 9moles of NaCl saturate 1000cm3 H2O

x moles of NaCl will saturate 100cm3 H2O

Cross multiplying:

1000 X x = 9 X 100

x = 9 X100

1000
x = 0.9moles

This is the number of moles that dissolved.

The of moles of undissolved = amount dissolved in moles — amount that

dissolved in 100cm3.

Factors that affect Solubility of Solutes

The following are Factors that affects the solubility of solutes:

1.Increase in temperature (for solid solutes): Increase in temperature increases

the solubility of solid solutes but decreases the solubility of gases.

2. Increase in pressure (for gaseous solutes): Increase in pressure increases the

solubility of gases.

3. Nature of solute.

4. Nature of solvent.

CARBON AND ITS COMPOUNDS

------Carbon
Carbon is a non-metal in group 4 of the periodic table with silicon, germanium,

tin and lead. They are tetravalent, i.e. each of their atoms has four valence

electrons. They tend to form covalent compounds.

Carbon is known to people for a long time under the names

charcoal, soot and diamond. It occur naturally as diamond and graphite. Carbon

also occur in an impure form as coal and the combined state as petroleum, wood

and natural gases. These carbon compounds from an important source of fuel.

They are burnt to release heat and light, which may be converted to other forms

of energy. Other sources that contain carbon are mineral deposits of metallic

trioxocarbonates(iv), especially calcium trioxocarbonate(iv)(limestone) and

magnesium trioxocarbonate(iv)(dolomite), and the carbon(iv)oxide in the air

and water around us. Carbon is also an essential constituent of all living things.

Allotropes of Carbon

Allotropy is the ability of an element to exist in various forms in the

same physical state. Carbon exhibit allotropy. Diamond and graphite are the two

allotropic forms of crystalline (having a regular three dimensional molecular

structure) carbon. The others like coal, coke, charcoal, lampblack, sugar

charcoal and animal charcoal are amorphous(shapeless) or non-crystalline forms

of carbon.

Diamond:

Each carbon atom in diamond is covalently bonded to four other carbon atoms

arranged tetrahedraly. This arrangement gives diamond a giant net-work

structure. Diamond occurs as an octahedral crystal which is very dense and

hard. It is the hardest naturally occurring substance. It is therefore used in glass-

cutting and rock-drilling. When diamond is cut and polished, it has a high

refractive index and lustre which makes it very important as a jewel. It is also

the purest form of naturally occurring carbon, very dense and resistant to high

temperature and chemical attack. It is a non- conductor of electricity because

there are no free valence electrons in the diamond crystal, as all of them are

used in bond formation. The world main supply of diamond comes from south-

western Africa. It is also found naturally in Brazil, India, the Republic of

Guyana, Siberia, Venezuela and Sierra leone.

Uses of Diamond

1.Being dense and hard, they are used industrially in drills for mining, as

abrasives to sharpen very hard tools and for cutting glass and metals. They are

also used as pivot supports in precision instruments and as dies for drawing

wires.

2. Its highly refractive index with dispersion power, makes it a sparkling

brilliance when it is cut and polished, thus it is used in making valuable jewelry.

Artificial Diamond

Artificial diamond is made by subjecting graphite to a very high temperature

and pressure for several hours, in the presence of a catalyst such as nickel or

rhodium.
 Graphite and Its uses

Graphite occurs as a black, slippery, hexagonal crystal. Internally, graphite

consists of layers of carbon atom. Each atom is joined to three others in the

same plane. Each layer of the atoms is linked to another layer by weak van der

waals forces. Because of these weak forces, the layers easily slide over one

another. This makes graphite soft and greasy. It is therefore used as lubricant in

machines such as dynamos. Because of its soft and black nature, it is used in the

manufacture of lead pencils. Pencil is manufactured by mixing graphite with

clay. If more clay is used, hard pencil is produced, but if more graphite is used,

soft pencil is produced. “Lead” pencil does not contain lead.

Graphite is the only non-metal that conduct electricity at room

temperature and pressure. This is because it has free electrons. The free

electrons exist because one of the four electrons in the outermost shell of carbon

is not used for bonding. Graphite is therefore used as electrodes. Graphite is

also used in nuclear reactors to absorb neutrons and prevent explosion.

Industrial Preparation of Graphite

Graphite is industrially prepared by heating coke in an electric

furnace to a very high temperature for about 20 to 30 hours in the absence of

air. The graphite produced is very pure and free from grit. This process of

producing graphite industrially due to it high market demand, is called the

Acheson process. This process requires a lot of energy, and is only feasible in

countries with cheap electricity.

Amorphous Carbon

Other forms of carbon which do not exist naturally are loosely classified as

amorphous except for coal, which is mined from natural deposits. Some of the

very fine varieties such as lampblack which appear amorphous contain tiny

crystals of graphite bound together by impurities. Thus, they are not considered

as true allotropes of carbon.

Coal

Coal is an impure form of carbon. It is formed from the remains of

plants that lived several millions years ago. The action of bacteria, heat and

pressure on the dead woods converted them into coal. This takes place in the

absence of air and carbon(iv)oxide and water were liberated, leaving behind

a material that contained a very high percentage of carbon. During this

process of carbonization, the vegetable material was converted into stages of

peat, lignite (or brown coal) which is about 95% pure carbon. Impurities

present may include nitrogen, Sulphur and phosphorus.

The lowest grade of coal is peat which is wood that has been

subjected to little pressure after burial. Lignite is brown in colour. It has

undergone little decomposition. It burns with very smoky flame. It is a low

quality of carbon.
 Bituminous coal is a high quality coal which is soft and found

in many parts of the world, including Udi hills near Enugu. It has undergone

a high degree of decomposition and lost all the wood-like structures. It burns

with a hot flame and little smoke. It is the most important and widely used

variety of coal. For a long time, it was used by the Nigerian Railway

Corporation for generating steam to run rail steam engines. It is also used in

coal pot stoves for cooking, generating electric power in Oji River and also

for producing coke for the extraction of iron.

Anthracite or hard coal is a very high grade coal that burns

with smoky flame. Anthracite, which is 100% carbon is the final stage of

coal formation.

Destructive Distillation of coal and wood

Coal is a complex mixture of compounds composed mainly of

carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with small amounts of nitrogen, Sulphur and

phosphorus as impurities. A wide variety of substances can be obtained from

it by a process known as destructive distillation of coal.

During this process, coal is heated to a very high

temperature in the absence of air so that all the volatile components distill

over. Some of these condense on cooling to form an almost black tar, called

coal tar, and an aqueous liquid known as ammoniacal liquor. Coal tar is a

mixture of more than 200 different substances which can be separated by

fractional distillation. Most of these, e.g. benzene, toluene, phenol and

naphthalene, are used in the synthesis of important commercial products like

dyes, paints, insecticides, drugs, plastics and explosives. Ammoniacal liquor

is a solution of ammonia in water. It is converted into ammonium

tetraoxosulphate(vi) for use as a fertilizer.

The volatile components are collected as coal gas, which usually

contains about 50% hydrogen, 30% methane, 10% carbon(iv)oxide and

small amounts of other gases, e.g. ethane and hydrogen sulphide. Coal gas is

an important gaseous fuel because it is cleaner and more efficient than coal

or solid fuels.

The non-volatile solid residue which is left behind after

destructive distillation is coke, which can be used as a fuel or for other

purposes. Unlike ordinary distillation, the coal is destroyed by this

distillation process.

Coal coke + ammoniacal liqior + Coal tar + Coal gas

Solid solid liquid condensed gas

Volatile

Component

Of coal

Wood is a complex substance like coal except that the percentage

composition of the elements present in it is different. For example, wood has

a higher percentage of hydrogen and oxygen but a lower percentage of

carbon than coal. Destructive distillation of wood yields these four fractions:

Wood wood charcoal + pyroligneous acid + wood tar + wood gas

Pyroligneous acid, which is the liquid fraction, contains mainly

ethanoic acid, propanone, methanol and some other compounds.

Coke

Coke is the solid product of destructive distillation of coal gotten by

heating bituminous coal to a very high temperature of about 1300oC in the

absence of air to drive away all the volatile constituents. Coke is mainly used

as a fuel. It burns with practically no smoke and leaves very little residue. It

is a very important industrial reducing agent and is used in the extraction of

metals, especially iron, from their ores. It is also used in the production of

gaseous fuels, water gas and producer gas and for the manufacture of

graphite (Acheson process), calcium carbide, silicon carbide and

carbon(iv)sulphide.

Carbon Black(Soot)

Carbon black or soot is finely divided carbon particles produced by

burning carbonaceous materials in a limited supply of air. Lamp-black is

obtained from vegetable or lamp oils, while carbon black is obtained from

coal gas, natural gas or fuel oils. Carbon black is used in manufacturing
 rubber tyres, black shoe polish, printers ink, type writing ribbons and carbon

paper.

Charcoal

Charcoal can be made by heating wood, nut shells, bones, sugar

and even blood.

Wood charcoal is the most common. It is prepared by heating

wood in a limited supply of air. It contains impurities such as Sulphur.

Sugar charcoal is formed when sugar is dehydrated (i.e. the

hydrogen and oxygen it contains are removed in the of water) either by burning

the sugar in a limited supply of air or by the action of concentrated

tetraoxosulphate(vi) acid (a dehydrating agent). It is the purest form of

amorphous carbon.

Animal charcoal is produced when bones and animal refuse are

heated in a limited supply of air. It contains a high percentage of calcium

tetraoxophosphate(v) as impurity.

Charcoal has a very porous structure. It allows small molecules of

gases and dyes to adsorb or adhere to its internal surfaces. Thus, it is a good

adsorbent, particularly when activated by heating in steam. Wood charcoal is

used in gas masks adsorbing for poisonous gases. It is also used for purification

of the noble gases and the recovery of industrial solvents. Similarly, animal

charcoal which has the property of adsorbing colouring matter, is used in

removing the brown colour from crude sugar, and in decolourizing petroleum

jelly. Like coal, wood charcoal is also used mainly as a domestic fuel in

Nigeria.

Carbon Fibers

Carbon fibers are produced by carefully heating fibers of materials

such as poly (propenonitriles) until they char to form carbon. Carbon fibers are

incorporated into plastics to produce a very light but stiff and strong material.

General Properties of Carbon

1.All the carbon allotropes, except diamond, are black or greyish-black solids.

2. They are odourless and tasteless.

3. Their melting points are very high, about 3500oC.

4. They are insoluble in common solvents like water, alkalis, acids, petrol and

carbon(iv)sulphide. That is why carbon deposits inside motor engines and even

hurricane lamp globe cannot be easily removed by washing with water but

mechanically. This is known as the decarbonization of motor engines.

5. Chemically, carbon is not a very reactive element and most carbon

compounds are stable. This is because the carbon atom has a valency of four

and forms compounds, it does not have any lone pair of electrons and so it is

unreactive since it cannot function as an electron-pair donor. The stability of

carbon compounds is also due to the strong carbon-carbon bond.

6. Carbon can form single or multiple bonds with itself and other elements such

as hydrogen, nitrogen, Sulphur and oxygen.

7. Owing to the strong carbon-carbon bond, carbon atoms can group together to

form long chains or rings. This is known as catenation. This unique property of

carbon enables it to form numerous compounds in which the molecules range

from small to extremely large ones.

8. All the allotropes of carbon have similar chemical properties since they are

all chemically identical. However, diamond and graphite are usually less

reactive than amorphous carbon.

9. All forms of carbon burn in excess oxygen to produce carbon(iv)oxide only,

although the temperature requires differ.

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g)

10. Carbon is a reducing agent. When some metallic oxides are heated with

carbon, they are reduced to the metal while the carbon is oxidized to

carbon(iv)oxide or carbon(ii)oxide.

11. Carbon combines directly with certain elements such as Sulphur, hydrogen,

calcium and aluminium at very high temperatures.

C(s) + 2S(s) CS(s)

Carbon(iv)sulphide

C(s) + 2H2(g) CH4(g)

Methane

C(s) + Ca(s) CaC2(s)

Calcium carbide
C(s) + 4Al(s) Al4C3(s)

Aluminium carbide

12. When carbon is heated with concentrated trioxonitrate(v) acid or

concentrated tetraopxosulphate(vi) acid, it is oxidized to carbon(iv)oxide.

C(s) + 4HNO3(aq) 2H2O(l) + 4NO2(g) + CO2(g)

C(s) + 2H2SO4(aq) 2H2O(l) + 2SO2(g) + CO2(g)

Fuel Gases (Gaseous fuels)

Producer Gas

When air is blown through white-hot coke in a furnace, combustion takes place.

Carbon (iv) oxide is formed.

C(s) + O2(g) CO2(g) (highly exothermic)

Much heat is liberated, and as the carbon(iv)oxide rises up the white hot coke, it

is reduced to carbon(ii)oxide because very little or no oxygen is available.

C(s) + CO2(g) 2CO(g) (endothermic).

This reaction absorbs heat. Since the heat produced by the combustion is more

than enough for the reduction, the temperature of the coke remains high.

Nitrogen of the air does not take part in the combustion or

reduction reactions, so the overall reaction may be written as:

2C(s) + O2(g) + 4N2(g) 2CO(g) +4N2(g)

Producer gas

The gaseous mixture leaving the furnace which consists of carbon(iv)oxide and

nitrogen, is known as producer gas. Of these products, only the carbon (ii) oxide
component is combustible, hence producer gas has low calorific value. Producer

gas is inexpensive and is widely used to heat furnaces, retorts (in the

manufacture of zinc and coal gas) and lime kilns. It is also a source of nitrogen

for the manufacture of ammonia (Haber process).

Water Gas

When passing water vapour through white hot coke in a furnace

instead of air, a different composition of gaseous mixture called water gas is

formed.

H2O(g) + C(s) CO(g) + H2 (highly exothermic)

This reaction lowers temperature of the furnace drastically. After some time, the

passage of steam must be stopped, and air passed to raise the temperature so

that the reaction with steam can take place. The mixture consists of 50%

carbon(ii) oxide and 50% hydrogen.

The two gases in water gas are combustible. Water gas also contains

a greater percentage of carbon(ii)oxide than producer gas. Water gas therefore

has a higher calorific value than producer gas. This makes water gas an

important industrial fuel. It is also an industrial source of hydrogen and other

organic compounds, such as methanol and butanol.

Compounds of Carbon

A). Carbon(iv)oxide:
 Carbon(iv)oxide is the product of the final oxidation stage of

carbon and carbon compounds with oxygen.

Laboratory Preparation of Carbon(iv)oxide,CO2

Carbon(iv)oxide is prepared in the laboratory by the action of dilute

acids on a trioxocarbonate(iv), or a hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv). Usually,

calcium trioxocarbonate(iv), in the form of marble chips, shells or “potash”, is

used with hydrochloric acid or trioxonitrate(v) acid.

CaCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + H2O + CO2(g)

NaHCO3(aq) + HNO3(aq) NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Carbon(iv)oxide is also obtained by heating metallic

trioxocarbonate(iv)(except those of sodium and potassium), or the hydrogen

trioxocarbonates(iv) of sodium and potassium.

CuCO3(s) CuO(s) + CO2(g)

2KHCO3(aq) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

A kipp’s apparatus is used to provide a supply of the gas whenever it

is needed in the laboratory.

In the kipp’s apparatus, carbon(iv)oxide is produced by the action of

dilute hydrochloric acid on marble chips.

Industrial Preparation of Carbon(iv)Oxide,CO2

Carbon(iv)oxide is obtained industrially as a by-product of

fermentation processes and when limestone is heated to make quicklime.

Physical Properties of Carbon(iv)oxide, CO2

1.Carbon(iv)oxide is a colourless, odourless gas with a sharp, refreshing taste.

2. It is about 1.5 times denser/heavier than air.

3. It is soluble in water.

4. It changes damp blue litmus paper to pink because carbon(iv)oxide dissolves

in water to yield trioxocarbonat(iv) acid.

5. On cooling, it readily liquefies and solidifies(-78oC) to form a white solid

known as dry ice.

Chemical Properties of Carbon(iv)oxide,CO2

1.Carbon(iv)oxide is not very active chemically but it dissolves in water to form

trioxocarbonate(iv) acid (soda water). This is a weak, dibasic acid which ionizes

slightly.

On heating, trioxocarbonate(iv)acid decomposes to form water and

carbon(iv)oxide.

2.Carbon(iv)oxide does not burn, nor does it support combustion of most

substances. The intense heat produced by burning magnesium, however,

decomposes carbon(iv)oxide to release oxygen for the further oxidation of

magnesium. The products of the combustion are carbon deposits and white

magnesium oxide ash.

3. When carbon(iv)oxide is passed over red-hot coke, it is reduced to

carbon(ii)oxide. This reaction is reversible and is of great commercial

importance.

CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)

Test for Carbon(iv)oxide, CO2

The passage of the unknown gas suspected to be carbon(iv)oxide is allowed into

a test-tube containing lime water. Note, the solution turns milky. The

continuous passing of carbon(iv)oxide into the milky solution, clears the milky

solution.

Lime water is a saturated solution of calcium hydroxide. When

carbon(iv)oxide is passed into it, calcium trioxocarbonate(iv) is formed.

Ca(OH)2(aq) + CO2(g) CaCO3(s) + H2O(l)

Being an insoluble salt, a white suspension results. The solution

appears milky. As more carbon(iv)oxide is passed, further reaction occurs

resulting in the formation of calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv). This acid

solution is soluble in water, hence the milky colour disappears, forming clear

solution.

CaCO3(s) + CO2(g) + H2O(l) Ca(HCO3)2(aq)

Finally, if the clear solution is heated, it becomes milky again due to

the decomposition of the soluble calcium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv) to

insoluble calcium trioxocarbonate(iv).

Ca(HCO3)2(aq) heat CaCO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Uses of Carbon(iv)oxide, CO2

1.Many fire extinguishers use carbon(iv)oxide to put out fire as the gas does not

support combustion. Being heavier than air, it envelopes the burning material

and cuts off the oxygen supply. Carbon(iv)oxide is more effective than water in

putting out petrol or oil fibers because these materials floats on water.
2. Carbon(iv)oxide gives carbonated(aerated) drinks their refreshing taste.

3. Carbon(iv)oxide is used in the manufacture of some important chemicals like

sodium trioxocarbonate(iv) (washing soda) by the solvay process, sodium

hydrogen trioxocarbonate (iv), lead(ii) trioxocarbonate(iv), urea and ammonium

tetraoxosulphate(vi). The last two substances are important fertilizers.

4. Solid carbon(iv)oxide (i.e., dry ice) is used as a refrigerant for perishable

goods, e.g., ice-cream. It sublimes on warming and provides a lower

temperature.

5. Gaseous carbon(iv)oxide is used to preserve fruits.

6. Carbon(iv)oxide is also used as a coolant in nuclear reactors.

B). Carbon (ii)oxide, CO:

Carbon(ii)oxide is the product of incomplete combustion of carbon compounds.

Preparation of carbon(ii)oxide, CO

Carbon(ii)oxide is prepared from carbon(iv)oxide gas by passing

the latter through red-hot carbon as shown below:

CO2(g) + C(s) 2CO(g)

Most of the carbon(iv)oxide gets reduced to carbon(ii)oxide. Unchanged

carbon(iv)oxide is removed when the mixture of gases passes through

concentrated sodium hydroxide. The pure carbon(ii)oxide is collected over

water.
 Carbon(ii)oxide can also be prepared by dehydrating

methanoic(formic) acid or ethanedioic(oxalic) acid using concentrated

tetraoxosluphate(vi) acid. The latter serves as adehydrating agent.

Physical Properties of Carbon(ii)oxide, CO

1.Carbon(ii)oxide is a colourless, tasteless and odourless gas.

2. It is insoluble in water, but dissolves in a solution of ammoniacal copper(i)

chloride.

3. It is slightly less dense than air.

4. It is neutral to litmus.

Chemical Properties of Carbon(ii)oxide, CO

1.Carbon(ii)oxide is a strong reducing agent. It reduces metallic oxides to

metals and is itself oxidized to carbon(iv)oxide.

PbO(s) + CO(g) Pb(s) +CO2(g)

Carbon(ii)oxide also reduces iodine(v)oxide to iodine and team to

hydrogen.

I2O5(s) +5CO(g) I2(g) + 5C02(g)

H2O(g) + CO(g) H2(g) + CO2(g)

2.Carbon(ii)oxide will combine with oxygen i.e., burn in air with a faint blue

flame forming carbon(iv)oxide.

2CO(g) + O2(g) 2CO2(g)

And with haemoglobin in the red blood cells to form a stable compound known

as carboxyhaemoglobin. This stable compound prevents the haemoglobin from

transporting oxygen in our body. A person dies from lack of oxygen.

Test for carbon(ii)oxide, CO

If a lighted splint is applied to a test-tube containing the unknown gas and some

lime water added to the test-tube and shaked, and then gas burns with a blue

flame and turns the lime water milky after burning but not before burning, then

the gas is carbon(ii)oxide.

Uses of carbon(ii)oxide, CO

1.Carbon(ii)oxide is used in the extraction of metals from their ores. i.e., it

reduces the oxides of copper, lead, iron and zinc to their metals, becoming itself

oxidized to carbon(iv)oxide.

2. It is also an important constituent of gaseous fuel like producer gas and water

gas.

C). Trioxocarbonates(iv) Salts:

Trioxocarbonates(iv) salts are formed from the reaction of

trioxocarbonate(iv)acid (a dibasic acid) with free metals, metallic oxides or

other dissolved salts. Trioxocarbonate(iv) acid on its own is gotten from the

reaction of carbon(ii)oxide with water. Trioxocarbonate(iv) salts are of two

types. They are:

a.) The normal trioxocarbonate(iv) salt gotten when all the replaceable

hydrogen ion in trioxocarbonate(iv) acid are fully replaced by a free metal,

ammonium radical, metallic oxide, or other dissolved salt and,

b.) The acidic hydrogentrioxocarbonate(iv) salt gotten when one of the

replaceable hydrogen ion in trioxocarbonate(iv) acid is replaced with a metal,

ammonium radical, metallic oxide or other dissolved salts.

 Trioxocarbonate(iv) salts are usually found as natural ores or

deposits in the earth crust as chalk, limestone and marble. Of the three forms,

chalk is the softest and marble the hardest.

Stalacites and stslsgmites which are found in caves and limestone

regions are made of calcium trioxocarbonate(iv).

Preparation of Soluble Trioxocarbonates(iv) Salts

Of the common trioxocarbonates(iv) salts, only sodium, potassium and

ammonium trioxocarbonate (iv) are soluble in water. They are prepared in the

laboratory by bubbling carbon(iv)oxide through a solution of corresponding

alkali.

2KOH(aq) + CO2(g) K2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

2NaOH(aq) + CO2(g) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O(l)

2NH4OH(aq) + CO2(g) (NH4)2CO3(aq) +H2O(l)

Since sodium and potassium trioxocarbonates(iv) salts are not

decomposed by heating, they can also be prepared by heating the corresponding

hydrogen trioxocarbonates(iv) salts.

heat

2KHCO3(s) K2CO3 (s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

heat

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(s) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

heat

2NH4HCO3(s) (NH4)2(s) + H2O(l) +CO2(g)

Preparation of Insoluble Trioxocarbonates(iv) Salts

The insoluble metallic trioxocarbonates(iv) salt can be prepared as

precipitates by adding a solution of sodium trioxocarbonate(iv) or sodium

hydrogentrioxocarbonate(iv) to a solution of the corresponding salt.

CaCl2(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) CaCO3(s) + NaCl(aq)

CaCl(aq) + 2NaHCO3(aq) CaCO3(s) +2NaCl(aq) + H2O(l) +CO2(g)

AgNO3(aq) + Na2CO3(aq) Ag2CO3(s) + 2NaNO3(aq)

AgNO3(aq) +2NaHCO3(aq) Ag2CO3(s) +2NaNO3(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Note: Other insoluble trioxocarbonates(iv) salts include MgCO3, ZnCO3,

PbCO3, CuCO3 .i.e., all trioxocarbonate s(iv) salts, CO32- are insoluble except

those of sodium, potassium and ammonium salts that are soluble in water.

Aluminum trioxocarbonate(iv) does not exist.

Properties of Trioxocarbonate(iv) Salts.

1.Most metallic trioxocarbonates(iv) salts are insoluble in water except for the

trioxocarbonates(iv) salts of the alkali metals (sodium and potassium) and

ammonium trioxocarbonate(iv) which are soluble.

When the soluble trioxocarbonate(iv) salt dissolve in water, they

become hydrolyzed and form the corresponding hydroxide, e.g.

a.Na2CO3(s) + 2H2O(l) 2NaOH(aq) + H2CO3(aq)

The hydroxide produced ionizes completely in solution while the

trioxocarbonate(iv) acid is only partially ionized. The resulting solution is

alkaline to litmus because the number of hydroxide ions exceed that of the

hydrogen ions.

b.NaOH(aq) Na+(aq) + OH-(aq)

c.H2CO3(aq) 2H+ (aq) + CO32-(aq)

2.With the exception of sodium, potassium and barium trioxocarbonate(iv) salts,

all the other trioxocarbonate(iv) salts decompose on heating to liberate

carbon(iv)oxide.

ZnCO3(s) ZnO(s) + CO2(g)

2AgCO3(s) 4Ag(s) +2CO2(g) + O2(g)

(NH4)2CO3(s) 2NH3(g) + CO2(g) + H2O(l)

3.All trioxocarbonates(iv) salts react with dilute acids to form carbon(iv)oxide,

water and a salt.

Na2CO3(aq) + H2SO4(aq) Na2SO4(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

ZnCO3(s) + 2HCl(aq) ZnCl2(aq) + H2O(l) + CO2(g)

Uses of Trioxocarbonate(iv) Salts:

1.Sodium trioxocarbonate(iv) decahydrate, Na2CO3.10H2O which is called

washing soda, is a component of dry soap powders. It is also used for making

glass and for softening hard water.

2.Lead(ii)trioxocarbonate(iv) (white lead) is used as white paint when mixed

with oils.

3.Calcium trioxocarbonate(iv) which occurs as limestone used in making

cement. Another form of calcium trioxocarbonate(iv) called marble is polished

and used in building houses.

4.Limestone is decomposed by heating in lime kilns to produce quicklime, CaO,

which is used in the manufacture of paints, mortar, bleaching powder and for

the reduction of soil acidity and CO2 for production of Na2CO3 and NaHCO3 in

solvay process.

D.) Hydrogen Trioxocarbonates(iv) Salts:

Hydrogen trioxocarbonates(iv) salts are the acid salts of

trioxocarbonate(iv) acid. They are formed when a metal or ammonium radical

replaces one of the two hydrogen atoms in the trioxocarbonate(iv) acid

molecule. They are soluble in water. Only the hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv) of

ammonium, potassium and sodium can be isolated as solids. Calcium and

magnesium hydrogen trioxocarbonates(iv) salts exist only in solution and are

responsible for hardness in water.

Preparation of Hydrogentrioxocarbonates(iv) Salts:

a.) Hydrogentrioxocarbonates(iv) may be prepared by passing carbon(iv)oxide

through a cold solution of the corresponding hydroxides or trioxocarbonates(iv).

b.) Sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonates(iv) can be prepared by the solvay or

ammonia soda process.

In solvay process, concentrated sodium chloride solution (brine) is

saturated with ammonia and made to flow down a solvay tower. Gaseous

carbon(iv)oxides is forced up that tower from the bottom. Perforated metal

plates fitted in the tower from the bottom. Perforated metal plates fitted in the
tower ensures thorough mixing of the solution and counter current

carbon(iv)oxide gas. The following reaction occurs.

NaCl(aq) + NH3(g) + H2O(l) + CO2(g) NaHCO3(s) +NH4Cl(aq)

Sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv) is only slightly soluble in water and

therefore precipitates out of solution. This precipitate is facilitated by cooling

the lower part of the tower. It is removed from the tower, washed and dried for

use as baking powder. Some of it, however, is heated to yield sodium

trioxocarbonate(iv).

heat

2NaHCO3(s) Na2CO3(aq) + H2O (g) + CO2(g)

This method of manufacturing sodium hydrogen

trioxocarbonate(iv) is a very efficient process as the raw materials like sodium

chloride and calcium trioxocarbonate(iv) (limestone) are very cheap and

abundant.

The carbon(iv)oxide for the process is obtained by the

decomposition of limestone by heating.

heat

CaCO3(s) CaO(s) + CO2(g)

The calcium oxide produced in the decomposition of limestone is

used to recover the ammonium used in the process which has been converted to

ammonium chloride. This is done by heating the solution from the tower and the

solution from the washing of the precipitate with calcium hydroxide.

CaO(s) + H2O(l) Ca(OH)2(s)

Ca(OH)2 + 2NH3Cl(aq) CaCl2(aq) + 2NH3(g) +2H2O(l)

The ammonia liberated is pumped back to the tower. As a result of this, once

the initial quantity of an ammonia required by the system has been provided, no

other external supply of ammonia will be required. However, a little quantity of

ammonia is usually supplied to the system externally to make up for minor

losses during the process.

The carbon(iv)oxide produced during the conversion of the sodium

hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv) to sodium trioxcarbonate(iv) is recirculated into

the tower.

With the exception of calcium chloride which has no further use in

the process, none of the by-products of the process is wasted. Calcium chloride

is the only waste product.

Properties of Hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv) Salts:

1.All hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv) salts decompose on heating to give

corresponding trioxocarbonate(iv), water vapour and carbon(iv).

Ca(HCO3)2(s) CaCO3(s) + H2O(g) + CO2(g)

2.Like trioxocarbonates(iv), hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv) salts too react

withacids to produce carbon(iv) oxide. This reaction is used to test for hydrogen

trioxocarbonate(iv) salts.

Trioxocarbonate Uses of Hydrogen (iv) Salts:

1.As baking soda, sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv) is used to make baking

powder. Mixed with tartaric acid, the action of heat liberates carbon(iv)oxide

which causes bread or cake to rise and become light.

2.Sodium hydrogen trioxocarbonate(iv) is also used to make fire extinguishers.

CARBON CYCLE

Carbon is essential to living things and gets to living things from the

atmosphere in the form of carbon(iv)oxide, directly or indirectly. The

respiration of animals and plants as well as the decay of dead plants and animals

return carbon(iv)oxide to the atmosphere to maintain a balance. Photosynthesis

by plants take carbon(iv)oxide from the atmosphere and burning of substances

(organic and some inorganic substances) by human beings release

carbon(iv)oxide back to the atmosphere.

This process of taking carbon(iv)oxide from the atmosphere and

later returning it to the atmosphere is termed the carbon cycle. The cycle has

been extended by man’s activities. Whether the balance is still maintained at

0.03% by volume of air in the atmosphere or not, is a question scientists are still

working on. Already, there are speculations that there is a net increase in the

composition of carbon(iv)oxide of the atmosphere by human activities like

burning of fossil fuels in industries, homes, vehicles and deforestation.