STRENGTH OF MATERIALS

SIMPLE STRESSES AND STRAINS

1.1 Introduction.

When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation.
Due to cohesion between the molecules, the body resists deformation. This
resistance by which material of the body opposes the deformation is known as
Strength of material.

Depending on the method of loading, mechanical tests are classified in the

following three types:

Kinds of stresses induced; In this case the loading may cause tensile, compressive,
direct shear, torsion and flexural (bending) stresses. (see figure below)

Rate at which the load is applied; In this category the tests are classified in three
groups. If the load is applied in such a way that the rate of application of the load
has no effect on the test results, the test is said to be a static test ( a quasi-static test).
e.g. tensile test conducted on universal testing machine.

If the load is applied rapidly so that the rate of loading and the effect of inertia has a
bearing on the test results, the test conducted is said to be dynamic test. e.g. drop
test.

If the load is applied is sustained over long period, the test is called long time test.
e.g. creep tests.

1
The number of times a load is applied; In this category tests are classified in two
groups:

The one in which the load is applied only once and the other in which load is applied
a number of times. Endurance or fatigue tests come in the latter category.

1.2 Stress

The force of resistance per unit area, offered by a body against deformation is known
as stress. The external force acting on the body is called the load. The load is applied
on the body while the stress is induced in the material of the body. Mathematically
stress is written as
P
  , where σ = stress
A

P = external force or load

A = cross – sectional area

1.2.1 Units of stress

N/m2 in S.I units 1Pa = 1 N/m2

kg/m2 in M.K.S units

1.3 Strain.

When a body is subjected to some external force, there is some change of

deformation of the body. The ratio of the change of dimension to the original
dimension is known as strain. Strain is dimensionless.

Strain may be:

1. Tensile strain
2. Compressive strain
3. Volumetric strain
4. Shear strain
2
If there is some increase in length of the body due to external force, then the ratio of
increase of length to the original length of the body is known as tensile strain.

But if the is some decrease in length of the body due to external force, the ratio of
decrease of length to the original length of the body is known as compressive strain.
The ratio of change of volume of the body to the original volume of the body is
known as volumetric strain.

1.4 Types of stresses

a. Tensile stress
b. Compressive stress
c. Shear stress
d. Bending stress.

1. Tensile stress

When a section of any ductile material is subjected to two equal and opposite pulls,
as a result of which the body tends to increase its length. The stress induced is called
tensile stress. The corresponding strain is called tensile strain.

P P

P Resisting force R

Resisting force R P
P R l
Tensile stress    and Tensile strain  
A A l

2. Compressive stress.

The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite pushes as a
result of which the body tends to decrease its length. The stress induced is called
compressive stress. The corresponding strain is called compressive strain.

3
 P P

P Resisting force R

Resisting R
P R l
Compressive stress    Compressive strain  
A A l

3. Shear stress.

The stress induced in a body, when subjected to two equal and opposite forces which
are acting tangentially across the resisting section as a result of which the body tends
to shear off across the section, is known as shear stress.

D C D C
P
X X X X X X

A PP
PPp B A
B l

Let a force P be applied tangentially along the top face CD on the block. Such force
acting tangentially along a surface is known as shear force. For the equilibrium of
the block, the surface AB will offer a tangential reaction R equal and opposite to the
applied tangential force P.

Consider a section X-X which divides the block into two parts. The upper part will
be in equilibrium if P = Resistance R. Similarly the lower part will be in equilibrium
if P = Resistance R. This resistance is known as shear resistance. And the shear
resistance per unit area is known as shear stress τ

Shear stress τ= Shear resistance / Shear area = R/A = P/(Lx1)

4
Shear stress is tangential to the area over which it acts. As the bottom face of the
block is fixed, the face ABCD will be distorted to ABC1 D1through an angle φ as a
result of force P.

D D1 C C1

Φ φ

A B

4. Elastic limit.

When an external force acts on a body, the body tends to undergo some deformation.
If the external force is removed and the body comes back to its original shape and
size, the body is known as elastic body. The property, by virtue of which certain
materials return back to their original position after removal force, is called
elasticity.

The body will regain its previous shape and size only when deformation caused by
the external force is within a certain limit. Thus there is a limit value of force up to
and within which, the deformation completely disappears on the removal of the
force. The value of stress corresponding to this limiting force is known as elastic
limit of the material.

5. Hooke’s law

It states that a material is loaded within elastic limit; the stress is proportional to the
strain produced by the stress. This means that the ratio of the stress to the
corresponding strain is a constant within the elastic limit. This constant is known as
Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus, it can also be known as Shear Modulus
or Modulus of Rigidity.

6. Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus.

l P l P l
  E.  E or  E. or E  .
l A l A l

5
7. Modulus of Rigidity or Shear Modulus

G


8. Factor of safety
F.S = ultimate stress/Permissible stress

TENSILE TEST OF MATERIALS

The stress – strain diagram gives information about the following important
points:

P P

Gauge length

a. The graph OA is fairly long straight line, which indicates that the ratio of a
stress to strain is a constant and Hooke’s law holds good from O to A. The

6
 point A, where the curve deviates from the straight line is known as limit of
proportionality or proportional limit.
b. The graph AB is a very small curve, which indicates that the ratio of the strain
is no constant, but slightly changes. In this portion, the metal continues to
behave perfectly elastic. The point B is known as elastic point.
c. The graph BC is another very small curve, which indicates that the strain
increase more quickly than the stress. The point C is called yield point. It may
be denoted that if the load on the specimen is removed, the elongation from B
to C will not disappear. But it will remain as a permanent set.
d. The graph CD is also a very small curve, which indicates that the strain
increase without any appreciable increase in stress. During ductile elongation
of the specimen, its cross – sectional area gets reduced uniformly in proportion
to its length.
e. The graph DE is an upward curve, which indicates that the specimen regains
some strength, and higher values of stresses are required for higher strains.
The graph rises up to the maximum limit indicated by the point E. The stress,
corresponding to the point E is known as ultimate tensile stress or tenacity,
which is a measure of tensile strength of a material. The work done while
stretching the specimen is transferred, largely, into heat and the specimen
becomes hot.
f. The graph EF is a downward curve, which indicates that a neck is formed,
which decreases the cross – sectional area of the specimen. Now it requires
lesser load to continue extension till fracture takes place at F. The stress
corresponding to the point is known as breaking stress.

7
Stress Strain Diagram brittle Material
The diagram below shows stress-strain graph for a brittle and a ductile material. A typical
brittle material is Cast Iron. Steels become increasingly brittle as the carbon content
increases.

Brittle fractures are generally clean and the ends of the test piece are square and mate together.

8
True Stress and Strain
It is clear that the tensile testing procedure yields important values for specifying engineering
materials. It is however important to note that the stress and strain values identified in the test
are not true stress and strain values. They are known as Engineering stress and engineering
strain.

Engineering stress = Force / Original Specimen Area = F / So

Engineering strain = extension/ Original Specimen Length = (Lu - Lo) / Lo

The true stress and the true strain differs from the real value continuously as the strain increases.

True stress = Force / Actual Specimen minimum Area = F / S

True strain = logarithmic strain = Sum of incremental elongations /current length

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Tensile test of materials

Common test made on engineering materials

It gives much information regarding the quality of the material

Tensile test specimen

Gauge Length - The distance along the specimen upon which extension calculations are
made.

Effects of strain rate

The elastic portions of the curves for different rate of straining will be more or less same but
the plastic deformation will be higher with higher rate of loading

Increase in ultimate strength

Increase in yield point

E.g. the percentage of carbon has considerable effect on the yield and ultimate strength of the
steel

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In tensile test the load is applied very slowly so that the rate of straining has no effect on
mechanical properties

In most machine, different rates of strains can be obtained.

Mechanical properties may also depend on the rate of deformation

Effect of temperature

Temperature influences the properties of material to some extent (yield point,

ultimate stress, ductility, modulus of elasticity and Poisson's ratio)
Increase in temperature
Tensile strength decreases rapidly
Decrease in temperature
Young’s modulus increases
In certain materials, change in temperature gives a basic change in stress-strain
curve

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LOAD AND STRESS LIMIT
DESIGN CONSIDERATION
Will help engineers with their important task in designing structural
memebr/machine that is safe and economically performing for a specified function

DETERMINATION OF ULTIMATE STRENGTH

An important element to be considered by a designer is how the material that has
been selected will behave under a certain load.
This is determined by performing specific test (e.g. Tensile test)
Ultimate force (Pu)= The largest force that may be applied to the specimen so that
if it is reached the specimen either breaks or begins to carry less load.
Ultimate normal stress

( ) = Ultimate force (P ) /Area (A)

u u

ALLOWABLE LOAD / ALLOWABLE STRESS

Max load that a structural member/machine component will be allowed to carry
under normal conditions of utilization (use) is considerably smaller than the
ultimate load
This smaller load = Allowable load / Working load / Design load
Only a fraction of ultimate load capacity of the member is utilised when allowable
load is applied
The remaining portion of the load-carrying capacity of the member is kept in
reserve to assure its safe performance
The strength of a material is a measure of the stress that it can take when in use.
The ultimate strength is the measured stress at failure but this is not normally used
for design because safety factors are required. Therefore one of the ways to define a
safety factor or factor of safety is:

stress at failure Ultimate stress Ultimate load

safety factor =  
stress when loaded Permissible stress Allowable load

SELECTION OF F.S.
1. Variations that may occur in the properties of the member under
considerations
2. The number of loading that may be expected during the life of the structural
member/machine
3. The type of loading that are planned for in the design, or that may occur in the
future
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 4. The type of failure that may occur
5. Uncertainty due to the methods of analysis
6. Deterioration that may occur in the future because of poor maintenance/
because of unpreventable natural causes (earthquake, tornado, etc.)
7. The importance of a given member to the integrity of the whole structure

MECHANICAL PROPERTIES OF METERIALS

The mechanical properties of the metarials are those which are associated with the
ability of the material to resist mechanical forces and load. These mechanical
properties of the metarial include strength, stiffness, elasticity, plasticity, ductility,
brittleness, malleability, toughness, resilience, creep and hardness. We shall now
discuss these properties as follows:
1. Strength. It is the ability of a material to resist the externally applied forces
without breaking or yielding. The internal resistance offered by a part to an
externally applied force is called *stress.

2. Stiffness. It is the ability of a material to resist deformation under stress. The

modulus of elasticity is the measure of stiffness.

3. Elasticity. It is the property of a material to regain its original shape after

deformation when the external forces are removed. This property is desirable for
materials used in tools and machines. It may be noted that steel is more elastic than
rubber.

4. Plasticity. It is property of a material which retains the deformation produced

under load permanently. This property of the material is necessary for forgings, in
stamping images on coins and in ornamental work.

5. Ductility. It is the property of a material enabling it to be drawn into wire with the
application of a tensile force. A ductile material must be both strong and plastic. The
ductility is usually measured by the terms, percentage elongation and percentage
reduction in area. The ductile material commonly used in engineering practice (in
order of diminishing ductility) are mild steel, copper, aluminium, nickel, zinc, tin
and lead.

6. Malleability. It is a special case of ductility which permits materials to be rolled

or hammered into thin sheets. A malleable material should be plastic but it is not
essential to be so strong. The malleable materials commonly used in engineering

13
practice (in order of diminishing malleability) are lead, soft steel, wrought iron,
copper and aluminium.

Furthermore, the plastic response of a material to tensile force is known as ductility

and plastic response to compressive force is known as malleability. The
elongation and reduction of area of a test piece tested to failure in tension are
generally taken as measures of ductility of material.

7. Brittleness. It is the property of a material opposite to ductility. It is the property

of breaking of a material with little permanent distortion. Brittle materials when
subjected to tensile loads, snap off without giving any sensible elongation. Cast iron
is a brittle material.

8. Toughness. It is the property of a material to resist fracture due to high impact

loads like
hammer blows. The toughness of the material decreases when it is heated. It is
measured by the amount of energy that a unit volume of the material has absorbed
after being stressed up to the point of fracture. This property is desirable in parts
subjected to shock and impact loads.

9. Machinability. It is the property of a material which refers to a relative case with

which a material can be cut. The machinability of a material can be measured in a
number of ways such as comparing the tool life for cutting different materials or
thrust required to remove the material at some given rate or the energy required to
remove a unit volume of the material. It may be noted that brass can be easily
machined than steel.

10. Resilience. It is the property of a material to absorb energy and to resist shock
and impact loads. It is measured by the amount of energy absorbed per unit volume
within elastic limit. This property is essential for spring materials.

11. Creep. When a part is subjected to a constant stress at high temperature for a
long period of time, it will undergo a slow and permanent deformation called creep.
This property is considered in designing internal combustion engines, boilers and
turbines.

12. Fatigue. When a material is subjected to repeated stresses, it fails at stresses

below the yield point stresses. Such type of failure of a material is known as
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*fatigue. The failure is caused by means of a progressive crack formation which are
usually fine and of microscopic size. This property is considered in designing shafts,
connecting rods, springs, gears, etc.

13. Hardness. It is a very important property of the metals and has a wide variety of
meanings. It embraces many different properties such as resistance to wear,
scratching, deformation and machinability etc. It also means the ability of a metal to
cut another metal. The hardness is usually expressed in numbers which are
dependent on the method of making the test. The hardness of a metal may be
determined by the following tests :
(a) Brinell hardness test,
(b) Rockwell hardness test,
(c) Vickers hardness (also called Diamond Pyramid) test, and
(d) Shore scleroscope.

14. Set or permanent set: The deformation or strain remaining in a body after
removal of stress is known as permanent set. This is due to plastic property of
material.

15. Elastic limit: The greatest stress that a material can take without permanent set
on the removal of stress is known as elastic limit.

16. Proportionality limit: The greatest stress that a material can take without
deviation from straight line relation between stress and strain is known as
proportionality limit.

17. Endurance limit or fatigue limit: The greatest stress, applied infinite number
of times, that a material can take without causing failure is known as endurance or
fatigue limit.

18. Ultimate strength: The maximum stress a material can take is known as ultimate
strength. This is equal to maximum load divided by original area of cross-section.

19. Modulus of resilience: The energy stored per unit volume at the elastic limit is
known as modulus of resilience.

20. Modulus of toughness: The amount of work required per unit volume to cause
failure, under static loading, is called modulus of toughness.

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21. Modulus of rupture: The ultimate strength in flexure or torsion is known as
modulus of rupture.

22. Strain hardening: Strain hardening is phenomenon in when they are strained
beyond the elastic range.

23. Proof stress: Proof stress is the stress which is just sufficient to cause a
permanent set (elongation) equal to a specified percentage of the original gauge
length.

24. Elastic strain: It is the dimensional change that occurs in a material due to the
application of loads and disappears completely on the removal of the loads.

25. Plastic strain: It is the dimensional change that occurs in a material due to the
application of the loads and does not disappear after the removal of the loads.

ANALYSIS OF BARS OF VARYING SECTIONS

Though each section is subjected to the same axial load P, yet the stresses, strain and
change in length will be different. The total change in length will be obtained by
adding the changes in length of individual sections.

A1 A2 A3

P P

l1 l2 l3

P P P
Stresses 1  2  3 
A1 A2 A3

1 2 3
1  2  3 
Strains E E E

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 P L1
Change in length of section 1, l1  .
A1 E
P L2
Change in length of section 2, l 2  .
A2 E
P L3
Change in length of section 3, l3  .
A3 E
Total change in length of the bar,
P L1 P L2 P L P l l l 
l  l1  l2  l3  . + . + . 3 =  1  2  3  (1)
A1 E A2 E A3 E E  A1 A2 A3 

Equation (1) is used when the Young’s modulus of different sections is the same. If
E is different for different sections, the total change in length of the bar is given by
 l l l 
l  P 1  2  3 
 E1 A1 E 2 A2 E3 A3 

POISSON’S RATIO

When a bar is loaded in tension its length increases but the other two dimensions
(width and thickness) decrease. For compressive loads, the length decreases and
other dimensions increase. Lateral strain thus developed has a definite relationship
to the longitudinal strain depending on the material. Ratio between transverse (lateral
strain) εt and longitudinal strain, εl is known as Poisson’s ratio and is denoted by µ
or 1/m. The value of µ depends on the material and for most materials lies between
t

0.25 and 0.33. l

l d
Longitudinal strain  l  and Lateral strain  t 
l d

Proportional change in area, δA/A is sum of proportional changes l in length and

width b.
A l b
 
A l b

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For a circular section, proportional change in area is twice the proportional change
in diameter (or radius) as l = b = d.
A d r
2 2
A d r

Similarly, proportional change in volume of a rectangular block is the sum of

proportional changes in l, b and t.
v l b t
  
V l b t

Rectangular section subjected to an axial force

Let us take a bar of width b, thickness t and length l subjected to axial force P.

Initial volume of bar vi = btl

Changes in dimensions are δb (decrease, -ve), δt (decrease, -ve), and δl (increase,

+ve).

Final volume vt  l  l b  bt  t 

= lbt  btl  lbt  ltb (neglecting products of two small quantities).

Change in volume v  lbt  btl  lbt  ltb  btl  btl  lbt  ltb
v btl  lbt  ltb
Volumetric strain  v  
vi btl

l t b
v   
l t b

t b
But  t   Volumetric strain = longitudinal strain – 2 lateral strain
t b

t l
And   or t   l  
l l
l l l
v   2 t   2
l l l
l
 v  1  2 
l

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Cylindrical rod subjected to axial load

Consider a cylindrical rod of length l and diameter d subjected to an axial tensile

load P. Let δl be increase in length and δd be decrease in diameter.

Final length of rod = l  l

Final diameter of rod = d  d


Final volume of rod = d  d 2 l  l    d 2 l  2dld  d 2l  (neglecting smaller
4 4
values)

Change in volume, δv = Final volume – Initial volume

  
=
4
d 2
l  2dld  d 2l   4
d 2l 
4
d 2
l  2dld 

Volumetric strain, εv = change in volume /original volume

 
=
4
d 2
l  2dld /
4
d 2l

l d
= 2
l d

d
We know  lateral strain = µ longitudinal strain
d

l
=
l

l l
So, v   2
l l

l
 v   l 1 2  where,  l is longitudinal strain,
l

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BULK MODULUS OF ELASTICITY

When a body is subjected to normal stress of same nature along 3 mutually

perpendicular directions. The ratio of normal stress to the corresponding volumetric
strain is called Bulk Modulus of Elasticity, K which is constant for a given material.

K = Normal stress/Volumetric strain K
 v
v

ELASTIC CONSTANTS

There are three types of moduli:

a. Modulus of Elasticity or Young’s Modulus E

b. Modulus of Rigidity G
c. Bulk Modulus of Elasticity K

These constants and Poisson’s ratio are known as elastic constants

Relation between K, E and µ

Let us consider a cube of dimension l, which is subjected to normal stress σ along a

three mutually perpendicular axes x, y and z

   
 x , strain in x direction =    1  2 
E E E E

   
 Y , strain in y direction =    1  2 
E E E E

   
 z , strain in z direction =    1  2 
E E E E

3
Volumetric strain   =  x   y   z  1  2 
E

20
   E
Bulk modulus, K =  
 v 3 31  2 
1  2 
E

E
K or E  3K 1  2 
31  2 

Relation between G and E

E  2G1   

Relation between K, G and E

From the above two relations K and E and between E and G in terms of Poisson’s
ratio µ we get the common relation between K, E and G in terms of µ.
E  3K 1  2   2G1   

By eliminating µ from the two equations of E given above, we can get a relationship
between E, G and K free from term µ.

E  E 
  1, E  3K 1    2 
2G  G 

 E 3KE
Or E  3K  3    9 K 
 G G

 3K   G  3K 
So, E 1    9K or E   9K
 G   G 

9 KG
Or E
G  3K

E  3K 1  2 )  2G (1    
9 KG
So,
G  3K

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STRAIN ENERGY

When an elastic body is subjected to external loads, it gets deformed and the point
of load application of load is also displaced i.e work is done by force. An internal
resistance is developed in the body. The work done by the load is stored in the body
in the form of energy. This energy is termed strain energy as it is caused by
elongation (or strain). Strain energy per unit volume stored by the body within elastic
limit when loaded externally is called resilience and maximum energy which a body
stores up to elastic limit is called Proof resilience. Proof resilience is the mechanical
property of materials and indicates their capacity to bear shocks. Proof resilience per
unit volume of piece is called Modulus of Resilience.

STRAIN ENERGY IN TENSION OR COMPRESSION

a. Gradually applied load

Let us consider a bar of cross – section A and length l subjected to a load P. This
load (force) P causes elongation δl and stress
P
 
A

P A

δl (elongation) P

Strain energy (SE) stored in bar = work done

P P Pl P 2l
=  l   
2 2 AE 2 AE

= shaded area under the load- elongation curve

So, strain energy is the area under load extension diagram

22
 P l  2 Al  2V 1
SE      Al
2 E 2E 2E 2

Where V is the volume, V = Al

If σp is proof stress or max stress to which the bar is stressed up to elastic limit, then

 p2
Proof resilience, Up  V
2E

 p2
And modulus of resilience =
2E

b. Suddenly applied load

When load P is applied all of a sudden, max stress σsu and elongation δl are produced,
1
strain energy=  su Al
2

δl deformation

External work done = P  l  Pl

1 1  1  su
2

So, Pl  Al   su su Al  Al

2 2 E 2 E

2P
 su   2  stress due to gradually applied load
A

STRAIN ENERGY DUE TO SHEAR STRESS

Let us consider a cube of size l fixed at bottom surface and subjected to a shear force
P on top surface
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Cube gets distorted to A’B’CD

The associated shear stress and shear strain are τ and ϕ respectively.
AA' AA'
ϕ = shear strain =  ' AA'  l
AD l

P P
Shear stress,   , P  l 2 as A  l 2
areaofAB A

  P P
Modulus of rigidity, G or    2 
 G l G AG

Strain energy stored in cube due to shear stress, US = work done by shear force, P
0 P
(applied gradually) average shear force =
2

P l 2 l 2 
Us   AA1  .l  . l
2 2 2 G

 2l 3  2
Us   V
2G 2G

Us  2
Modulus of resilience = 
V 2G

P Pl P P 2l
Also, Us   l    A A’ P B B’
2 2 AG 2 AG

ϕ ϕ

D C

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