Convective Heat Transfer

2.1. DIMENTIONAL ANALYSIS

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical methods which makes use of the study of the
dimensions for solving several engineering problems. This methods can be applied to all types
of fluid resistances, heat flow problems and many other problems in fluid mechanics and
thermodynamics.

2.1.1. Dimensions

In dimensional analysis, the various physical quantities used in fluid phenomenon can be
expressed in terms of fundamental quantities. These fundamental quantities are mass (M),
length (L), time (T), and temperature (θ)

The dimensions of commonly used quantities in heat transfer analysis is listed in

Table2.1 with reference to MLθT where

M = Mass,

L = Length,

Theta = Temperature,

T = Time.

For example,
Distance L
Velocity V = = = LT -1
Time T

1
2.1.2. Buckingham π Theorem

A more general situation in which dimensional analysis may be profitably employed is

one in which there is no governing differential equation clearly applies. In such a situation, a
more general procedure is required which is known as Buckingham π theorem.

2
 Buckingham π theorem states as follows.

“If there are n variables in a dimensionally homogeneous equation and if these contain
m fundamental dimensions, then the variables are arranged into (n - m) dimensionless terms.
These dimensionless term are called π terms.”

2.1.3. Advantages of Dimensional Analysis

1. If expresses the functional relationship between the variables in dimensionless

terms.
2. It enables getting up a theoretical solution in a simplified dimensionless form.
3. Design curves, by the use of dimensional analysis, can be developed from the
experimental data or direct solution of the problem.
4. The result of one series of tests can be applied to a large number of other similar
problems with the help of dimensional analysis.

2.1.4. Limitations of Dimensional Analysis

1. The complete information is not provided by dimensional analysis. It only indicates

that there is some relationship between the parameters.
2. No information is given about the internal mechanism of the physical phenomenon.
3. Dimensional analysis does not give any clue regarding the selection of variables.

2.2. DIMENSIONLESS NUMBERS AND THEIR PHYSICAL SIGNIFICANCE

2.2.1. Reynolds Number (Re)

It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force.

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒
Re =
𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝐹𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

ρU2 L2
=
µ UL

UL
Re = …(2.1)
v

Where U - Velocity, m/s,

L - Length, m,

3
 µ
V = - Kinematic Viscosity, m2/s.
𝜌
Reynolds number, is therefore, a measure of relative magnitude of the inertia force to
the viscous force occurring in the flow.

2.2.2. Prandtl Number (Pr)

It is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity.

Momentum diffusivity
Pr =
Thermal diffusivity

µ 𝐶𝑝 V
Pr = = …(2.2)
𝑘 𝛼

Where V = Kinematic Viscosity, m2/s,

α = Thermal diffusivity, m2/s.

Prandtl number provides a measure of the relative effectiveness of the momentum and
energy transport by diffusion.

2.2.3. Nusselt Number (Nu)

It is defined as the ratio of the heat flow by convection process under an unit temperature
gradient to the heat flow rate by conduction under an unit temperature gradient through a stationary
thickness of L metre.
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 ℎ 𝐴 ∆𝑇 ℎ
Nusselt Number (Nu) = = ∆𝑇 = 𝑘
𝑞𝑐𝑜𝑛𝑣 𝑘𝐴
𝐿 𝐿

ℎ𝐿
(Nu) = …(2.3)
𝑘

Where h - Heat transfer coefficient W/m2k,

L - Length,m,
K - Thermal conductivity, W/mK.

The Nusselt number is a convenient measure of the convective heat transfer coefficient.
For a given value of the Nusselt Number, the convective heat transfer coefficient is directly
proportional to thermal conductivity of the fluid and inversely proportional to the significant
length.

4
2.2.4. Grashof Number (Gr)

It is defined as the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the square of
viscous force.

𝐼𝑛𝑒𝑟𝑡𝑖𝑎 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒 𝑥 𝐵𝑢𝑜𝑦𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑦 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐𝑒

Gr =
(𝑉𝑖𝑠𝑐𝑜𝑢𝑠 𝑓𝑜𝑟𝑐 )2

ρ U2 L2 x ρβ g∆TL3
Gr =
(µUL )2

g ρ2βL3∆T
=
µ2

g x β x L3 x ∆T
Gr = …(2.4)
v2

Where β - Coefficient of expansion, K-1

L - Length, m,
V - kinematic viscosity, m2/s,
∆𝑇 - Temperature difference, K.

Grashof Number has a role in free convection similar to that played by Reynolds number
in forced convection.

2.2.5. Stanton Number (St)

It is the ratio of Nusselt Number to the product of Reynolds number and Prandtl
Number.

5
2.2.6. Newtonion and Non-Newtonion fluids

The fluids which obey the Newton’s law of viscosity are called the Newtonion fluids and
those which do not obey are called non-newtonion fluids.

2.2.7. Laminar Flow

Laminar flow is sometimes also called stream line flow. In this type of flow, the fluid
moves in layers and each fluid particles follows a smooth and continuous path. The fluid
particles in each layer remain in an orderly sequence without making with each other.

2.2.8. Turbulent Flow

In addition to the laminar type of flow, a distinct irregular flow I frequently observed in
nature. This type of flow is called turbulent flow. The path of any individual particles is Zig-Zag
and irregular. Fig 2.1 shows the instantaneous velocity in laminar and turbulent flow.

2.3. Boundary layer concept

The concept of a boundary layer as proposed by Prandtl forms the starting point for the
simplification of the equation of motion and energy.

When a real fluid i.e., Viscous fluid, flows along a stationary solid boundary, a layer of
fluid which comes in contact with the boundary surfaces. Thus the layer of fluid which cannot
slip away the boundary surfaces and undergoes retardation. This retarded layer further causes
retardation for the adjacent layer of the fluid. So, small region is developed in the immediate
vicinity of the boundary surfaces in which the velocity of the flowing fluid increases rapidly from
zero at boundary surfaces and approaches the velocity of main stream.

6
 The layer adjacent to the boundary is known as boundary layer. Boundary layer is
formed whenever there is relative motion between the boundary and the fluid.

In this concept, the flow over a body is divided into two regions.

1. A thin region near the body called the boundary layer, where the velocity and
temperature gradients are large.
2. The region outside the boundary layer where velocity and temperature gradients are
very nearly equal to their free stream values.

The thickness of the boundary layer has been defined as the distance from the surface
at which the local velocity or temperature reaches 99% of the external velocity or temperature.

Fig. 2.2. Boundary layer on flat plate

2.3.1. Types of Boundary Layer

1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer (or) Velocity boundary layer

2. Thermal boundary layer

2.3.2. Hydrodynamic Boundary Layer

In hydrodynamic boundary layer, velocity of the fluid is less than 99% of free stream
velocity.

2.3.3. Thermal Boundary Layer

In thermal boundary layer, temperature of the fluid is less than 99% of free stream temperature.

7
2.4. CONVECTION

Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between a solid surface and a
fluid medium when they are at different temperatures.

2.4.1. Newton’s Law of Convection

Heat transfer from the moving fluid to solid surfaces is given by the equation,
Q = h A (TW - T∞)
This equation is referred to as Newton’s Law of cooling.
Where, h = Local heat transfer coefficient in W/m2K,
A = Surface area in m2,
TW = Surface (or) Wall temperature in K,
T∞ = Temperature of the fluid in K.

2.4.2. Types of Convection

1. Free Convection, 2. Forced convection.

2.4.3. Free (or) Natural Convection

If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from temperature
gradients, the mode of heat transfer is said to be free or natural convection.

2.4.4. Forced Convection

If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external force like a blower or
fan, that type of heat transfer is known as forced convection.

2.5. THE LOCAL AND AVERAGE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS FOR FLAT PLATE –
LAMINAR FLOW

At the surface of the flat plate, heat flow may be written as

…(2.6)

8
We know that,

9
We know that,

The average heat transfer coefficient, h is given by

10
 … (2.9)

We know that,
ℎL
Average Nusselt Number, Nu =
k

2.6. THE LOCAL AND AVERAGE HEAT TRANSFER COEFFICIENTS FOR FLAT PLATE –
TURBULENT FLOW

The heat transfer coefficient for turbulent flow can be derived by using Colburn analogy,

For colburn analogy, we know that,

11
 …(2.11)

We know that,

…(2.12)

The average heat transfer coefficient, h is given by

12
We know that,

2.6.1. Heat Transfer coefficient for combination of Laminar and Turbulent Flow

Heat transfer coefficient for laminar – turbulent combined flow is given by

13
14
 Transition occurs at critical Reynolds number, Rec = 5 x 105, i.e., Flow is laminar upto
Re = 5 x 105, after that flow is turbulent.

Substitute Rec = Rex = 5 x 105

… (2.15)

We know that,
ℎL
Average Nusselt Number, Nu =
k

… (2.16)

15
2.7. BOUNDARY LAYER THICKNESS, SHEAR STRESS AND SKIN FRICTION COEFFICIENT
FOR TURBULENT FLOW

We know that, Von Karman momentum equation for boundary layer flow is

16
 …(2.17)

We know that,

…(2.18)

Equating equation (2.17) and (2.18),

17
Assuming boundary layer is turbulent over the entire length of the plate.

… (2.19)

18
Local Skin Friction Coefficient, Cfx :

We know that,

19
Equating both equation,

…(2.21)

Average friction coefficient,

We know that,

20
21
1. Air at 20˚C at atmospheric pressure flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 3 m/s. If the plate
is 1 m wide and 80˚C, calculate the following at x = 300 mm.

1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness.

2. Thermal boundary layer thickness,
3. Local friction coefficient,
4. Average friction coefficient,
5. Local heat transfer coefficient,
6. Average heat transfer coefficient,
7. Heat transfer.

Given:

Fluid temperature, T  = 20˚C

Velocity, U = 3 m/s

Wide, W = 1 m

Surface temperature, Tw = 80˚C

Distance, x = 300 m = 0.3 m

To find:

1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,

2. Thermal boundary layer thickness,
3. Local friction coefficient,
4. Average friction coefficient,
5. Local heat transfer coefficient,
6. Average heat transfer coefficient,
7. Heat transfer.

Solution:

We know

Tw  T 80  20
Film temperature Tf 
= 2 2

Tf = 50˚C

22
 Properties of air at 50˚C:

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 33]

Density,  = 1.093 kg/m3

Kinematic viscosity, v = 17.95  10-6 m2/s

Prandt 1 Number = Pr = 0.698

Thermal conductivity, k = 0.02826 W/mK

We know that,
UL
Reynolds Number, Re =
v

3  0.3
 x  L  0.3m
17.95 106


 Re = 5.01  104 < 5 105


Since Re < 5  105, flow is laminar

For Flat plate, laminar flow,

[Refer HMT data Book, Page No. 112]

1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness:

 hx  5  x  Re 0.5
 5  0.3  5.0110 4 
0.5

 hx  6.7 103m

2. Thermal boundary layer thickness:

Tx   hx
Rr 0.333
 hx  6.7 103  0.698  0.333

 hx  7.5 103m

23
 3. Local Friction coefficient:

C fx  0.664Re 0.5


 0.664 5.0110 4  0.5

C fx  2.96 10 3

4. Average friction coefficient:

C fL  1.328Re 0.5


 1.328 5.0110 4 
0.5

 5.9 10 3

C fL  5.9 10 3

5. Local heat transfer coefficient (h x ):

Local Nusselt Number
Nu x= 0.332 (Re) 0.5 (Pr) 0.333
= 0.332 (5.01  104)0.5 (0.698)0.333

Nu x = 65.9
We know,

hx  L
Nu x =
k
h  0.3
65.9  x  x  L  0.3m
0.02826



2
h x = 6.20 W/m K 
6. Average heat transfer coefficient (h):

h = 2 h x

= 2  6.20

h = 12.41 W/m2 K

24
 7. Heat transfer:

We know that,

Q  hATw  T 
 12.41 1 0.380  20

Q = 223.38



Result:

1.  hx 6.7 103 m,

2.  Tx 7.5 103 m,
3. C fx 2.96 103 ,
4. C fL 5.9 10 3 ,
5. h x 6.20W / m2 K
6. h = 12.41 W/m2K,
7. Q = 223.38 W.

2. Air at 30˚C flow over a flat plate at a velocity of 2 m/s. The plate is 2 m long and 1.5 m wide.
Calculate the following:

1. Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thickness at the trailing edge of the
plate,
2. Total drag force,
3. Total mass flow rate through the boundary layer between x  40 cm and x  85cm.

Given:

Fluid temperature, T = 30˚C

Velocity, U = 2 m/s

Length, L = 2 m

Wide, W = 1.5 m

To find:

1. Hydrodynamic and thermal boundary layer thickness.

2. Total drag force.
3. Total mass flow rate through the boundary layer between x  40 cm and x  85 cm.

25
 Solution:

Properties of air at 30˚C

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 33]

 = 1.165 kg/m3

v = 16 10-6 m2/s

Pr = 0.701

K = 0.02675 W/mK

We know that,
UL
Reynolds Number, Re =
v

2 2
=
16 106

Re = 2.5  105 < 5 105

Since Re < 5  105, flow is laminar

For flat plate, laminar flow,

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 112]

Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness

 Tx  5  x  Re 0.5
 x  L  2m
 5  2  2.5 10 5 
0.5


Tx  0.02m


Thermal boundary layer thickness,

 Tx   hx  Pr 0.333
 0.02  0.701
0.333

Tx = 0.02

26
Average friction coefficient,

C fL  1.328Re 
0.5

 1.328  2.5 10 5 

0.5

C fL = 1.328 (Re) -0.5

= 1.328(2.5 105) -0.5


C fL 
U 2
2

 2.65 103 
1.165 22
2

==> Average shear stress,  = 6.1 10-3 N/m2

Drag force = Area  Average shear stress

= 2  1.5  6.1  10-3

Drag force = 0.018

Drag force on two sides of the plate

= 0.018  2 0.036 N

Drag force, FD = 0.036 N x  50

Total mass flow rate between x  40 cm and
…… (1)
m  U  
5
hx hx40


Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness

27
  hx  0.85  5  x  Re 0.5
0.5
U  x 
 5  0.85   
 v 
 2  0.85 
 5  0.85  
16 10 6 

 x  85cm  0.85m

 hx0.85  0.0130m

 hx  0.40  5  x  Re 0.05
0.5
 5  0.40   2  0.40 
6 
 16 10 


 hx 0.40  8.9 103 m

5

(1)  m  1.165  2 0.0130  8.9 103 
8

m  5.97 103 kg / s

Result:

1. Hydrodynamic boundary layer thickness,  hx  0.02m,

Thermal boundary layer thickness, Tx  0.0225m,
2. Drag force, FD = 0.036 N,
3. Total mass flow rate, m = 5.97  10-3 kg/s

3. Air at 30˚C flows over a flat plate at a velocity of 4 m/s. The plate is maintained at 90˚C. The
plate dimension is 90  30 cm2. Calculate the heat transfer for the following condition

1. First half of the plate,

2. Full plate,
3. Next half of the plate.

28
Given:

Fluid temperature, T  = 30˚C

Velocity, U = 4 m/s

Plate surface temperature, T w = 90˚C

Plate dimension = 90 30 cm2

= 0.90  030 m2

To fine:

Heat transfer for

1. First half of the plate, i.e., x = 0.45 m,

2. Full plate, i. e., x = 0.90 m,
3. Next half of the plate.

Solution:

We know that,

T w  T 
Film temperature, Tf 

= 2

90  30
2

Tf = 60˚C

Properties of air at 60˚C:

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 33]

 1.060kg / m2

v = 18.97  10-6 m2/s

Pr = 0.696

K = 0.02896 W/mK
UL
Reynolds number, Re =
v

29
 4  0.45
18.97 106

Re = 9.4  104 < 5 105

Since Re < 5  105, flow is laminar

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 112]

hx  L
Local Nusselt Number, Nu x =
k

hx  0.45
90.21 
0.02896

==> 2
hx = 5.80 W/m K

2
Local heat transfer coefficient, h x = 5. 80 W/ m K

Average heat transfer coefficient

h  2  hx

h = 11.61 W/m2 K

Heat transfer, Q1  h  A  Tw  T 

 h  L W  Tw  T 
 11.61 0.45  0.30  90  30

 x  L  0.45m;W  0.30m

Q1 = 94.04 W


Case (ii):

For full pate x = L = 0.9 m

30
 UL
Reynolds Number, Re =
v

4  0.90
18.97 106

Re = 1.89  105 < 5 105

Since Re < 5  105, flow is laminar

For flat plate, laminar flow,

Local Nusselt Number, Nu x= 0.332(Re) 0.5 (Pr) 0.333

= 0.332 (1.89  105) 0.5(0.696) 0.333

Nu x = 128.18
hx  L
We know, Nu x =
k

hx  0.90
128.18
0.02896

Local heat transfer coefficient

hx 4.12W / m2 K

Average heat transfer coefficient

h  2  hx  2  4.12

h = 8.24 W/m2 K
Heat transfer for entire plate

Q2  h  A  Tw  T 

 8.24  0.90  0.30  90  30



Q2 = 133.48 W

31
Case (iii):

Heat lost from the next half of the plate

Q3 = Q2-Q1

= 133.48 – 94.04

Q3 = 39.44 W

Result:

1. Heat lost for first half of the plate Q1 = 94.04 W

2. Heat lost for entire plate Q2 = 133.48 W
3. Heat lost for next half of the plate Q3 = 39.44 W

4. Air at 40˚C flows over a flat plate, 0.8 m long at a velocity of 50 m/s. The plate surface is
maintained at 300˚C. Determine the heat transferred from the entire plate length to air taking
into consideration both laminar and turbulent portion of the boundary layer. Also calculate
the percentage error if the boundary layer is assumed to be turbulent nature from the very
leading edge of the plate.

Given:

Fluid temperature, T  = 40˚C

Length, L = 0.8 m

Velocity, U = 50 m/s

Plate surface temperature, Tw = 300˚C

To find:

1. Heat transferred for:

(i) Entire plate is considered as combination of both laminar and turbulent flow.
(ii) Entire plate is considered as turbulent flow.

32
 2. Percentage error.

Solution:

We know that,

T w  T 
Film temperature, Tf 

= 2

300  40
 443K
2

Tf = 170˚C
Properties of air at 170˚C:

 = 0.790 kg/m3

v = 31.10 10-6 m2/s

Pr = 0.6815

k = 0.037 W/mK

We know
UL
Reynolds Number, Re =
v

50  0.8
  1.26 106
31.10 10 6

Re = 1.286  106 > 5 105

Re > 5  105, so this is turbulent flow.

Case (i):

Laminar-turbulent combined. [It means, flow is laminar upto Reynolds number value is 5
 105, after that flow is turbine.]

Average Nusselt Number Nu = (Pr) 0.333 [0.037 (Re) 0.8 – 871]

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 114]

Nu = (0.6815) 0.333[0.037(1.286 106) 0.8 -871]

Average Nusselt Number Nu = 1746.09

33
 We know

hL
Nu =
k
h  0.8
1746.09 
0.037

h = 80.75 W/m2K
Average heat transfer coefficient h = 80.75 W/m2K

Heat transfer, Q1 = h  A  Aw  T 

h  L  W  Tw  T 
 h  L  W Tw  T 
 80.75  0.8 1 300  40

Q1 = 16796
Case (ii):

Entire plate is turbulent flow:

Local Nusselt Number Nu x= 0.029 (Re) 0.8

(Pr) 0.33

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 113]

Nu x= 0.029 (1.286 106) 0.8  (0.6815) 0.33

Nu x = 2010.15
We know

hx  L
Nu x =
k

hx  0.8
2010.15 
0.037

hx = 92.96 W/m2 K

34
 2
Local heat transfer coefficient, hx = 92.96 W/m K

Average heat transfer coefficient (for fully turbulent flow) h = 1.25 h x

= 1.25 92.96

Average heat transfer coefficient h = 116.20 W/m2K

Heat transfer, Q2 = h  A W  Tw  T 

 h  L W Tw  T 
 116.20  0.8 1 300  40

Q2 = 24169.60 W


Q2  Q1
Percentage error =
Q1

24169.60  16796
 100
16796
 43.90

Result:

1. Heat transfer (Laminar – Turbulent combined) Q1 = 16796 W

2. Heat transfer (Fully turbulent) Q2 = 24169.60 W
3. Percentage error 43.90

5. Air at 15˚C, 30 Km/h flows over a cylinder of 400 mm diameter and 1500 mm height with
surface temperature of 45˚C. Calculate the heat loss.

Given:

Fluid temperature,

T  = 15˚C

Velocity, U = 30 km/h

30 103 m
U=
3600s

35
 U = 8.33 m/s

Diameter, D = 400 mm = 0.4 m

Length, L = 1500 mm = 1.5 m

Plate surface temperature, Tw = 45˚C

To fine:

Heat loss

Solution:

We know that,

Tw  T 45  15
Film temperature, Tf 
= 2 2

Tf = 30˚C

Properties of air at 30˚C:

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 33]

Density,  = 1.165 kg/m3

Kinematic viscosity, v = 16  10-6 m2/s

Prandtl Number, Pr = 0.701

Thermal conductivity, k = 0.02675 W/mK

We know,
UD
Reynolds Number, Re =
v

8.33  0.4

16 106

ReD = 2.08  105

Nusselt Number, Nu = C (Re) in (Pr) 0.333

36
 [From HMT data Book, Page No. 115]

ReD value is 2.08  105, corresponding C value is 0.0266 and m value is 0.805.

==> Nu = 0.0266 (2.08 105) 0.805 (0.701) 0.333

Nu = 451.3
We known that,

hD
Nusselt number, Nu =
k

h  0.4
==> 451.3 =
0.02675

==> h = 30.18 W/m2K

Heat transfer coefficient, h = 30.18

Heat transfer, Q = hATw  T 

= h    D  L  Tw  T 

 A  DL
= 30.18   0.4 1.5(45 – i5)

Q = 1706.6 W
Result:

Heat loss, Q = 1706.6 W

6. Air at 40˚C flows over a tube with a velocity of 30 m/s. The tube surface temperature is
120˚C; calculate the heat transfer coefficient for the following cases.

1. Tube could be square with a side of 6 cm.

2. Tube is circular cylinder of diameter 6 cm.

Given:

Fluid temperature, T  = 40˚C

Velocity, U = 30 m/s 6 cm

37
 Tube surface temperature, Tw = 120˚C

To find:

Heat transfer coefficient, (h)

Solution:

We know that,

T w  T 
Film, temperature, Tf 

= 2

120  40

2

Tf = 80˚C

Properties of air at 80˚C

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 33]

 = 1kg/m3

v = 21.09  10-6 m2/s

Pr = 0.692

k = 0.03047 W/mK

Case (i):

Tube is considered as square of side 6 cm.

i.e., L = 6 cm = 0.06 m
UD
Reynolds Number, Re =
v

30  0.06

21.09 106

Re = 0.853 105

38
 Nusselt Number, Nu = C  (Re) n (Pr) 0.333

For square, n = 0.675

C = 0.092

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 118]

==> Nu = 0.092 (0.853  105) 0.675  (0.692) 0.333

==>
Nu = 173.3

We know that,
hL
Nu =
k

h  0.06
173.3 =
0.03047

Heat transfer coefficient, h = 88

Case (ii):

Tube diameter, D = 6 cm = 0.06 m

UD
Reynolds Number, Re =
v

30  0.06

21.09 106

ReD = 0.853  105

Nusselt Number, Nu = C (Re) m (Pr) 0.333

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 115]

ReD value is 0.853  105, corresponding C and m values are 0.0266 and 0.805 respectively.

39
 ==> Nu = 0.0266 (0.853 105) 0.805 (0.692) 0.333

Nu = 219.3
We known that,

hD
Nusselt number, Nu =
k

h  0.06
==> 219.3 =
0.03047

==> h = 111.3 W/m2K

Heat transfer coefficient, h = 111.3 W/m2 K

Result:

1. Heat transfer coefficient for square tube h = 88 W/m2K

2. Heat transfer coefficient for circular tube h = 111.3 W/m2 K

7. in a surface condenser, water flows through staggered tubes while the air is passed in cross
flow over the tubes. The temperature and velocity of air are 30˚C and 8 m/s respectively. The
longitudinal and transverse pitches are 22 mm and 20 mm respectively. The tube outside
diameter is 18 mm and tube surface temperature is 90˚C. Calculate the heat transfer
coefficient.

Given:

Fluid temperature, T  = 30˚C

Velocity, U = 8 m/s

Longitudinal pitch, St = 22 mm = 0.022 m

Transverse pitch, St = 20 mm = 0.020 m

Diameter, D = 18 mm = 0.018 m

Tube surface temperature, Tw = 90˚C

To find:

1. Heat transfer coefficient

40
Solution:

We know that,

T w  T 
Film, temperature, Tf 

= 2

90  30

2

Tf = 60˚C

Properties of air at 60˚C

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 33]

 = 1.060kg/m3

v = 18.97  10-6 m2/s

Pr = 0.692

k = 0.02896 W/mK

We know that, 

Maximum Velocity, U max  U 
St 
St  D 



U  8  0.020
0.020  0.018
max

Umax = 80 m/s

U max  D
Reynolds Number, Re =
v

80  0.18

18.97 106

Re = 7.5  104

41
 Nusselt Number, Nu = C  (Re) n (Pr) 0.333
St 0.020
  1.11
D 0.018

St
1.11
D
St 0.022
  1.22
D 0.018

St
 1.22
D

St Sl
 1.11,  1.22, Corresponding C, n values are 0.518 and 0.556 respectively.
D D

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 112]

C= 0.518

n = 0.556

We know that,

Nusselt Number, Nu = 1.13 (Pr) 0.333 [C (Re) n]

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 112]

==> Nu = 1.13 (0.693) 0.333  105)  [0.518 (7.5 104) 0.556

Nu = 266.3
h  0.06
173.3 =
0.03047

==> Nu = 0.0266 (0.853 105) 0.805 (0.692) 0.333

Nu = 219.3

42
 hD
Nusselt number, Nu =
k

h  0.018
==> 266.3 =
28.96 103

Heat transfer coefficient, h = 428.6 W/m2 K

Result:

Heat transfer coefficient h = 4238.6 W/m2 K

8. Water at 50˚C enters 50 mm diameter and 4 m long tube with a velocity of 0.8 m/s. The tube
wall is maintained at a constant temperature of 90˚C. Determine the heat transfer coefficient
and the total amount of heat transferred if exit water temperature is 70˚C.

Given:

Inner temperature of water, Tmi= 50˚C

Diameter, D = 50 mm = 0.05 m

Length, L = 4 m

Velocity, U = 0.8 m/s

Tube wall temperature, Tw = 90˚C

Exit temperature of water Tmo = 70˚C

To find:

1. Heat transfer coefficient, (h)

2. Heat transfer, (Q)

Solution:

Tmi  Tmo
Bulk mean temperature, Tm=
2

50  70

2

Tm = 60˚C

43
Properties of air at 60˚C

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 21]

 = 985 kg/m3

v = 0.478  10-6 m2/s

Pr = 3.020

k = 0.6513 W/mK

let us first determine the type of flow:

UD
Re 
v

0.8  0.05

0.478 106

Re = 8.36  104

Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent.

L  4
  80
D 0.05
L
 80  60
D
Re  8.36 10 4  10,000
Pr  3.020  0.6  Pr  160
L
Ratio is greater than 60. Re value is greater than 10,000 and Pr value is in between
D
0.6 and 160. So,

Nusselt Number, Nu = 0.023 (Re) 0.8 (Pr) n

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 125]

[Inlet temperature 50˚C, Exit temperature 70˚C  Heating Process, So, n = 0.4]

Nu = 0.023  (8.36 104) 0.8  (3.020) 0.4

Nu = 310

44
 hD
We know that, Nu 
k

h  0.05
310 
0.6513

Heat transfer coefficient, h = 4039.3

Heat transfer, Q = hATw  T 

= h    D  L  Tw  T 

= 4093.3    D  L  Tw  T 

C= 76139 W



Result:

1. Heat transfer coefficient h = 4039.3W/m2 K

2. Heat transfer, Q = 76139 W.

9. Air at 30˚C, 6 m/s flows in a rectangular section of size 300  800 mm. calculate the heat
leakage per metre length per unit temperature difference.

Given:

Air temperature, Tm= 30˚C

Velocity, U = 6 m/s

Area, A = 300  800 mm2

= 0.3 0.8 m2

To find:

1. Heat leakage per metre length per unit temperature difference.

45
 Solution:

Properties of air at 30˚C:

 = 1.165 kg/m3

v = 16  10-6 m2/s

Pr = 0.701

k = 0.02675 W/mK

Equivalent diameter for 300  800 mm2 cross section is given by

4A 4  0.3  0.8
De  
P 20.3  0.8


Where P – Perimeter = 2 (L + W)

De = 0.436 m

We know that,

UDe
Reynolds Number, Re =
v

6  0.436

16 106

Re = 16.3  104

Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent.

For turbulent flow general equation is (Re > 10000),

Nu = 0.023(Re) 0.8 (Pr) n

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 125]

Assuming the pipe wall temperature to be higher than air temperature. So, heating
process ==> n = 0.4.

==> Nu = 0.023  (16.3 104) 0.8  (0.701) 0.4

Nu = 294.96

46
We know,

hDe
Nusselt Number, Nu =
k

h  0.436
294.96 
26.75 103

Heat transfer coefficient, h = 18.09 W/m2K

Heat leakage per unit length per unit temperature difference

Q = hP

= 18.09[2  0.3  0.8]

Q = 39.79 W

Result:

Heat leakage, Q = 39.79 W.

10. Air at 2 bar pressure and 60˚C is heated as it flows through a tube of diameter 25 mm at a
velocity of 15 m/s. If the wall temperature is maintained at 100˚C, find the heat transfer per
unit length of the tube. How much would be the bulk temperature increase over one metre
length of the tube.

Given:

Pressure, P = 2 bar = 2  105 N/m2

Inlet temperature of air, Tmi = 60˚C

Diameter of tube D = 25 mm2 = 0.05 m

Velocity, U = 15 m/s

Tube wall temperature, Tw = 100˚C

Legth, L = 1 m

47
 To find:

1. Heat transfer per unit length of the tube, Q.

2. Rise in bulk temperature of air, Tmo  Tmi 


Solution:

Properties of air at 60˚C:

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 33]

 = 1.060 kg/m3

v = 18.97  10-6 m2/s

Pr = 0.696

k = 0.02896 W/mK

Note:

Given pressure is above atmospheric pressure. So, kinematic viscosity, v and density, p
will vary with pressure. Pr. k, Cp are same for all pressures.

Kinematic viscosity, v  v Patm

atm

Pgiven

1bar
= 18.97 10-6 
2bar

[Atmospheric pressure = 1 bar]

110 5
 18.97 10  6

2 105

v = 9.485 10-6 m2/s

P
Density,  
RT

 2 105
287  60  273



P = 2.092 kg/m2

48
We know that,

UD
Reynolds Number, Re =
v

15  0.025

9.485 106

 Re = 39.53  103 2300

Since Re > 2300, flow is turbulent.

For turbulent flow general equation is (Re > 10000),

Nu = 0.023(Re) 0.8 (Pr) n

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 125]

This is heating process. So, n = 0.4.

==> Nu = 0.023  (39.53 103) 0.8  (0.696) 0.4

Nu = 94.70
We know,

hD
Nu =
k

h  0.025
94.70 
0.02896

==> h = 109.70 W/m2 K

Heat transfer coefficient, h = 18.09 W/m2 K

Mass flow rate, m = AU


 D 2 U
4

 2.092  0.0252 15
4

m = 0.015 kg/s

49
 We know that,

Heat transfer, Q = mC p Tmo  Tmi 

= 0.015 1005Tmo  60

[For air Cp = 1005 J/kgK]

Q = Heat leakage per unit length per unit temperature difference


Q = hP Tmo  60 …… (1)

We know that, 

Heater transfer, Q = mC p Tmo  Tmi  

 h  DL  Tw  Tm 
…… (2)
 109.70   0.025 1 100  Tm 

Equating (1) and (2),

15.075Tmo  60  8.615100  Tm 



1.749Tmo  60  100  Tm T  T
 
1.749T   60  100  mi mo 
mo  
 60 
2 T 
1.749T   104  100  
mo

mo  
 2 
Tmo
1.749Tmo  104.94  100  30 
2
Tmo
1.749Tmo  2  100  30  104.94
 2.249Tmo  174.94
Tmo  77.78 C

Outlet temperature of air, Tmo = 77.78˚C

50
 Rise in bulk temperature of air, T  Tmo  Tmi

= 77.78 – 60

T 17.78 C
Heat transfer, Q = mC p Tmo  Tmi 

= 0.015 100517.78  C 

Q = 268.03 W



Result:

1. Q = 268.03 W
2. T  Tmo  Tmi 17.78 C

11. A vertical plate of 0.75 m height is at 170˚C and is exposed to air at a temperature of 105˚C
and one atmosphere. Calculate:

1. Mean heat transfer coefficient,

2. Rate of heat transfer per unit width of the plate.

Given:

Legth, L = 0.75 m

Wall temperature, Tw = 170˚C

Fluid temperature, T  = 105˚C

To find:

1. Heat transfer coefficient, (h)

2. Heat transfer (Q) per unit width.

Solution:

Velocity (U) is not given. So this is natural convection type problem.

51
 T w  T 
Film temperature, Tf 

= 2

170  105

2

Tf= 137.5˚C
Properties of air at Tf = 137.5˚C  140˚C

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 33]

Density,  = 0.854 kg/m3

Kinematic viscosity, v = 27.80  10-6 m2/s

Prandtl Numbe Pr = 0.684

Thermal conductivity, k = 0.03489 W/mK

We know that, 

1
Coefficient of thermal expansion,  
Tf inK


1
 
137.5  273
==>
 1
410.5

==>
 = 2.4  10-3 K-1

We know that,

g    L3  T
Grashof Number, Gr =
v2

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 134]

9.81 2.4 10 3  0.75  170  105

3

==> Gr 
27.80 10 



6 2

52
 ==> Gr = 8.35  108

==> Gr Pr = 8.35  108  0.684

Gr Pr = 5.71  108

Since Gr Pr > 109, flow is laminar.

Gr Pr value is in between 104 and 109 i.e., 104 < Gr Pr < 109

So, Nusselt Number

Nu = 0.59 (Gr Pr) 0.25

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 134]

==> = 0.59 (5.71  108) 0.25

Nu = 91.21

We know that,

hL
Nusselt Number, Ne =
k

h  0.75
91.21 
0.03489
h  4.24W / m 2 K

Heat transfer coefficient, h = 4.24 W/m2 K

We know,

Heat transfer, Q = hATw  T 

 h W  L  Tw  T 
 4.24 1 0.75  170 105

[W = 1 m]

Q = 206.8 W

53
Result:

1. Heat transfer coefficient, h = 4.24 W/m2 K

2. Heat transfer, Q = 206.8 W

12. A vertical plate of 0.7 m wide and 1.2 m height maintained at a temperature of 90˚C in a
room at 30˚C. Calculate the convective heat loss.

Given:

Wide, W = 0.7 m

Height (or) Length, L = 1.2 m

Wall temperature, T w = 90˚C

Room temperature, T  = 30˚C

To fine:

Convective heat loss (Q)

Solution:

Velocity (U) is not given. So, this is natural convection type problem.

We know that,

T w  T 
Film temperature, Tf 

= 2

90  30
2

Tf = 60˚C

Properties of air at 60˚C:

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 33]

 1.060kg / m3

v = 18.97  10-6 m2/s

Pr = 0.696

54
 K = 0.02896 W/mK

We know,

1L
Coefficient of thermal expansion  =
Tf inK

1
  3 103 K 1
60  273

  3 103 K 1

g    L3  T
Grashor Number, Gr =
v2

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 134]

9.81 3 10 3  1.2   90  30
3


18.97 10 
6 2

Gr = 8.4 109

Gr Pr = 8.4  109  0.696

Gr Pr = 5.9  109
Since Gr Pr > 109, flow is turbulent.

For turbulent flow,

NUSSELT Number, Nu = 0.10 (Gr Pr) 0.333

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 135]

Nu = 0.10 [5.9 109]0.333

Nu = 179.3
We know that,
hL
Local Nusselt Number, Nu =
k
h 1.2
179.3 
0.02896

55
 Convective heat transfer coefficient h = 4.32 W/m2 K

Heat loss, Q  hAT 

 h  W  L  Tw  T 
 4.32  0.7 1.2  90  30

Q = 218.16 W


Result:

Convective heat loss, Q = 218.16 W

13. A horizontal plate of 800 mm long, 70 mm wide is maintained at a temperature of 140˚C in

a large tank of full of water at 60˚C. Determine the total heat loss from the plate.

Given:

Horizontal plate length, L = 800 mm = 0.8 m

Wide, W = 70 mm = 0.070 m

Plate temperature, Tw = 140˚C

Fluid temperature, T  = 60˚C

To find:

Solution:

T w  T 
Film temperature, Tf 

= 2

140  60
2

Tf = 100˚C

56
Properties of air at 100˚C:

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 21]

  961kg / m3

v = 0.293  10-6 m2/s

Pr = 1.740

K = 0.6804 W/mK

 (water) = 0.76  10-3 K-1

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 21]

g    L3  T
c
Grahhof Number, Gr = 2
v ……… (1)

For horizontal plate,

W
Lc = Characteristic length =
2

0.070
Lc =
2

= 0.035 m

Lc = 0.035 m

9.81 0.76  10 3  0.035  140  60 

3

(1) ==> Gr 
0.293 10  6 2

Gr = 0.297 109

Gr Pr = 0.297  109  1.740

Gr Pr = 0.518  109
Gr Pr value is in between 8  106 and 1011,

i.e., 8  106 < Gr Pr < 1011

so, for horizontal plate, upper surface heated,

57
 NUSSELT Number, Nu = 0.15 (Gr Pr) 0.333

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 135]

Nu = 0.15 [0.518 109]0.333

Nu = 119.66
We know that,

hL
Local Nusselt Number, Nu =
k

hu  0.035
119.66 
0.6804

Heat transfer coefficient for upper surface heated, hu = 2326.19 W/m2 K

For horizontal plate,

Lower surface heated,

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 136]

Nusselt Number, Nu = 0.27 [Gr Pr] 0.25

Nu – 0.27 [0.518  109]0.25

Nu = 40.73

We know that,

h1 L c
Nusselt Number, Nu =
k

hl  0.035c
40.73 
0.6804

Heat transfer coefficient for lower surface heated, hl = 791.79 W/m2 K

Total heat transfer, Q  hu  hl AT

58
  hu  hl   W  L  Tw  T 
 4.32  0.7 1.2  90  30

Q  2326.19  791.79 0.070  0.8 140  60




Q = 13,968.55 W

Result:

Total heat loss, Q = 13, 968.55 W.

14. A steam pipe 80 mm in diameter is covered with 30 mm thick layer of insulation which has
a surface emissivity of 0.94. The insulation surface temperature is 85˚C and the pipe is placed
in atmospheric air at 15˚C. If the heat is lost both by radiation and free convection, find the
following:

1. The heat loss from 5 m length of the pipe.

2. The overall heat transfer coefficient.

3. Heat transfer coefficient due to radiation.

Given:

Diameter of pipe = 80 mm

= 0.080 m

Insulation thickness = 30 mm = 0.030 m

Actual diameter of the pipe, D = 0.080 + 2  0.030

= 0.14 m

Emissivity,  = 0.94

Tube surface temperature, Tw = 85˚C

Air temperature, T  = 15˚C

59
To find:

1. Heat loss from 5 m length of the pipe, Q

2. Overall heat transfer coefficient, ht
3. Heat transfer coefficient due to radiation, hr

Solution:

T w  T 
Film temperature, Tf 

= 2

85  15
2

Tf = 50˚C

Properties of air at 50˚C:

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 33]

 1.093kg / m3

v = 17.95  10-6 m2/s

Pr = 0.698

K = 0.02826 W/mK

1
Coefficient of thermal expansion  , =
Tf inK

1
50  273

 = 3.095  10-3 K-1

We know that,

g    D3  T
Grashof number, Gr = v2

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 134]

60
 9.81 3.095 10   0.14  85  15
3 3

17.95 10 6 2

Gr = 18.10 106

Gr Pr = 18.10  106  0.698

Gr Pr = 1.263  107

For horizontal cylinder,

Nusselt Number, Nu = C [Gr Pr] m

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 137]

Gr Pr = 1.263  107

Corresponding C = 0.125, and m = 0.333

Nu = 0.125 [1.263 107]0.333

Nu = 28.952

We know that,

hD
Nu =
k
h  0.14
28.952 
0.02826

h = 5.84 W/m2 K

Convective heat transfer coefficient, hc = 5.84 W/m2 K

61
 Heat lost by convection,

Qconv  hAT 
 h  D  L  Tw  T 
 5.84   0.14  585  15


Qconv = 898.99 W


Heat lost by radiation,


Qrad = A T 4  T 4 
w 

Where,  = Emissivity
A = Area – m2

 = Stefen Boltzmann constant

= 5.67  10-8 W/m2 K4

Tw = Surface temperature, K

T  = Fluid temperature, K

Tw = 85 + 273 T  = 15 + 273

Tw = 358 K T  = 288

==> 
Qrad =       DL  T 4  T 4 
w 

 
 0.94  5.67  10 8    0.14  5  358 4  2888 4 
Qrad = 1118.90 W


Total heat transfer, Qt  Qconv  Qrad

 898.99 111.90

Qt = 2017.89 W

Total heat transfer, Qt = ht AT

62
  ht  DL  Tw  T 
2017.89  ht    0.14  5  85  15

==> ht = 13.108 W/m2 K

Overall heat transfer coefficient, ht = 13.108 W/m2 K

Radiative heat transfer coefficient,

hr  ht  hc
 13.108  5.84

hr = 7.268 W/m2 K

Result:

1. Heat loss from 5 m length of pipe

(i) By convection, Qc = 898.99 W

(ii) By radiation, Qr = 1118.90 W

2. Overall heat transfer coefficient, ht = 13.108 W/m2 K

3. Radiative heat transfer coefficient, hr = 7.268 W/m2K

15. A vertical plate of 40 cm long is maintained at 80˚C and is exposed to air at 22˚C.
Calculate the following:

1. Boundary layer thickness at the tailing edge of the plate.

2. The same plate is placed in a wind tunnel and air is blown over it at a velocity
of 5 m/s. Calculate boundary layer thickness.

3. Average heat transfer coefficient for natural and forced convection for the
above mentioned data.

63
Given:

Length, L = 40 cm = 0.40 m

Plate temperature, Tw = 80˚C

Fluid temperature, T∞ = 22˚C

To find: Case (i)

(i) Boundary layer thickness (Natural convection).

Case (ii)

(i) Boundary layer thickness at velocity U = 5 m/s (Forced convection).

(ii) Average heat transfer coefficient for forced convection,

Solution:

We know that,

T w  T 
Film temperature, Tf 

= 2

80  22
2

Tf = 51˚C

Properties of air at 51˚C:  50˚C:

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 33]

 1.093kg / m3

v = 17.95  10-6 m2/s

Pr = 0.698

K = 0.02826 W/mK

1
 =
Tf inK

64
 1
= 51  273

 = 3.086  10-3

Case (i): for free convection,

g    L3  T
Gr = v2

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 134]

9.81 3.086 10   0.14  80  22

3 3


17.95 10 
6 2

Gr = 3.48 108

Gr Pr = 3.48  108  0.698

Gr Pr = 2.43  106
Since Gr < 109, flow is laminar,

For free convection, laminar flow:


Boundary layer thickness,  x  3.93  Pr 
0.5
 0.952  Pr 
0.25
 Gr 
0.25
 x =
[From HMT data Book, Page No. 134]

==> 
 x  3.93  0.6980.5  0.952  0.6980.25  3.48 10 8 
0.25
 0.4
 x  L  0.40m
==>  x  0.0156m






Case (ii): For forced convection,

65
 UL
Reynolds number, Re =
v

5  0.40

17.95 106

…… (1)
Re = 1.11  105

Since Re < 5  105 flow is laminar.

For forced convection, laminar flow:

Boundary layer thickness  x or hx  5  x  Re5

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 134]

 x  5  0.40  1.1110 5 
5

 x  L  0.40m


 x6.003 103 m ……. (2)

From equation (1) and (2), we know that, boundary layer thickness in forced convection
is less than that in free convection.

Case (iii): Average heat transfer coefficient for natural convection, h:

For free convection, laminar flow, vertical plate:

[From HMT data Book, Page No. 135]

Nusselt number, Nu = 0.59(Gr Pr) 0.25

= 0.59 (2.43  106) 0.25

Nu = 23.29

We know that,
hL
Nu =
k
h  0.4
23.29 
0.02826

66
 h = 1.645 W/m2K
…….. (3)

Average heat transfer coefficient for forced convection, h:

For forced convection, laminar flow, flat plate:

Local Nusselt number,

hx L
Nu x =
k

hx 0.4
98.13 
0.02826

Local heat transfer coefficient h x= 6.932 W/m2 K

Average heat transfer coefficient h = 2  6.932

h = 13.86 W/m2K …… (4)

From equation (3) and (4) we know that heat transfer coefficient in forced convection is
much larger than that in free convection.

Result:

Case (i): 1.  x (Natural convection) = 0.0156 m

Case (ii): 1.  x (Forced convection) = 6.003 10-3 m

Case (iii): 1. h (Natural convection) = 1.645 W/m2K

2. h = (Forced convection) = 13.86 W/m2 K

67
 16. Water is to be boiled at atmospheric pressure in a polished copper pan by means of an
electric heater. The diameter of the pan is 0.38 m and is kept at 115˚C. Calculate the following

1. Power required to boil the water

2. Rate of evaporation
3. Critical heat flux.

Given:

Diameter, d = 0.38 m;

Surface temperature, Tw = 115˚C

To find:

1. Power required, (P)

2. Rate of evaporation,Q(m)
 
3. Critical heat flux, 


 A 







Solution:

We know that, saturation temperature of water is 100˚C.

i.e.
Tsat = 100˚C

68
 Density,  l = 961akg/m3

Kinematic viscosity, v = 0.293 10-6 m2/s

Prandtl Number, Pr = 1.740

Specific heat, Cpl = 4216 J/kg K

Dynamic viscosity, l  v = 961 0.293 10-6

= 281.57 10-6 Ns/m2

From Steam Table

At 100˚C

Enthalpy of evaporation, hfg = 2256.9 kJ/kg

hfg = 2256.9  103 J/kg

3
Specific volume of vapour, vg = 1.673 m /kg

1
Density of vapour, v = v
g

1

1.673

v = 0.597 kg/m 3

T  Excess temperature = Tw  Tsat = 115˚C – 100 = 15˚C

T  15˚C <50˚C. So, this is nucleate pool boiling process.

1. Power required to boil the water

For Nucleate pool boiling

 g   p  p 
3
 C  T 
0.5
Q
 
pl
Heat flux,  l  h fg  l v
…… (1)
A     s f
C  h n
 
fg Pr 

Where  = surface tension for liquid vapour interface

69
 At 100˚C

 = 0.0588 N/m

For water – copper ==> Csf = surface fluid constant = 0.013

n = 1 for water

Substitute

l , h fg , pl , pv, , C pl , T, Csf , h fg , n And Pr values in Equn (1)

 281.57 106  2256.9 103  9.81 961  0.597

Q 0.5
 
3
(1)   4216 15

1 





 0.013  2256.9 103  1.74 

A  0.0588


Q
Heat flux,  4.83 105 W / m2
A

==> Heat transfer, Q  4.83 10 5  A


 4.83 105  d2
4

 4.83 10  5
0.382
4
Q  54.7 10 W 3

Q  54.7 103  P

==> Power = 54.7  103 W


2. Rate of evaporation, (m) 
We know that,


Heat transferred, Q  m  h fg 

Q
 m 
h fg

70
 54.7 103

2256.9 103

m = 0.024 kg/s

3. Critical heat flux

For Nucleate pool boiling, critical heat flux,

Q   g  

0.25
 p 
A  0.18h fg  pv   l p 2 v 
 v 
0.0588  9.81 961  0.597
 0.18  2256.9 103  0.597 

 0.597  
Q
 1.52 106 W / m 2
A


Q
Critical Heat flux, q   1.52 106 W / m2
A


Result:

1. P = 54.7  103 W
2. M = 0.024 kg/s
Q
3.  q  1.52 106W / m 2 .
A

17. Water is boiling on a horizontal tube whose wall temperature is maintained at 15˚C above
the saturation temperature of water. Calculate the nucleate boiling heat transfer co-efficient.
Assume the water to be at a pressure of 10 atm. And also find the change in value of heat
transfer co-efficient when

1. The temperature difference is increased to 30˚C at a pressure of 10 atm.

2. The pressure is raised to 20 atm at T 15 C.

71
 Given:

Wall temperature is maintained at 15˚C above the saturation temperature.

Tw 115 C Tsat 100 C;Tw 100  15 115 C

 

P = 10 atm = 10 bar

Case (i):


T
= 30˚C; p = 10 atm = 10 bar

Case (ii):

P = 20 atm = 20 bar; T = 15˚C

Solution:

We know that, for horizontal surface, heat transfer co-efficient

h  5.56T 3
 h  5.56T w  T sat 
3

 5.56115  1003

h = 18765 W/m2K

Heat transfer co-efficient other than atmospheric pressure

h p hp 0.4
 18765  10
0.4

Heat transfer co-efficient, hp  47.1310 W / m K

3 2

Case (i)

p  10bar; T  30 C


h = 150 103 W/m2K

72
Heat transfer co-efficient other than atmospheric pressure

h p hp 0.4
 150 10 3 10
0.4

h p= 377  10 W/m
3
K2

Case (ii)

p  20bar; T 15 C

Heat transfer co-efficient, h= 5.56 T   5.5615

3 3

h = 18765 W/m2K
Heat transfer co-efficient other than atmospheric pressure

h p hp 0.4
 150  10
0.4

h p= 62.19  10 W/m
3
K2

Result:

Nucleate boiling heat transfer co-efficient

h p= 47.13  103 W/m2 K

Case (i)

h p= 377  103 W/m2 K

Case (ii)

h p= 62.19  103 W/m2 K

73
18. A vertical flat plate in the form of fin is 500 mm in height and is exposed to steam at
atmospheric pressure. If surface of the plate is maintained at 60˚C, calculate the following

 The film thickness at the trailing edge

 Overall heat transfer co-efficient
 Heat transfer rate
 The condensate mass flow rate.

Given:

Height (or) Length, L = 500 mm 0.5 m

Surface temperature, Tw = 60˚C

To find:

1.  x
2. h
3. Q
4. m

Solution:

We know that, saturation temperature of water is 100˚C

i.e., Tsat = 100˚C

hfg = 2256.9 kJ/kg

hfg = 2256.9  103 J/kg

We know that,

T w  T 
Film temperature, Tf 

= 2

60  100
2

Tf = 80˚C

Properties of air at 80˚C

74
   974kg / m3

v = 0.364  10-6 m2/s

k = 0.6687 W/mK

  p  v  974  0.364 106

  354.53106 Ns / m2

1. Film thickness  x 


We know for vertical plate,

 4kxT
Film thickness,   sat w  T 
0.25


 g  h fg  p 
x 2

Where 
x  L  0.5m

4  354.53 10   0.6687  0.5  100  60
6

 x 
9.81 2256.9 10 3  974



 x =1.73 10-4 m

2. Average heat transfer co-efficient, (h)

For vertical surface, Laminar flow

 k 3  p 2  g  h  0.25
h  0.943   fg 

  L  
T sat  T w 



The factor 0.943 may be replaced by 1.13 for more accurate result as suggested by Mc Adams

Since Gr < 109, flow is laminar,

 0.6687 3  9742  981 2256.9 10 3 

0.25

h  1.13 
 354.53 10 6  0.5  100  60 

75
 h = 6164.3 W/m2/K





3. Heat transfer rate, (Q)

Heat transfer, Q = hATsat  Tw 

 h  L W  Tsat  Tw 
 6164.3  0.5 1 100  60

Q = 1, 23,286 W


4. Condensate mass flow rate, (m)

We know that,

Q  m  h fg
Q
 m 
h fg
1,23,286
m
2256.9 103

m = 0.054 kg/s
Result:

1.  x = 1.73  10-4
2. h = 6164.3 W/m2K
3. Q = 123286 W
4. m = 0.054 kg/s

19. Steam at 0.080 bar is arranged to condense over a 50 cm square vertical plate. The surface
temperature is maintained at 20˚C. Calculate the following.

a. Film thickness at a distance of 25 cm from the top of the plate.

b. Local heat transfer co-efficient at a distance of 25 cm from the top of the plate.
c. Average heat transfer co-efficient
d. Total heat transfer
e. Total steam condensation rate

76
 f. What would be the heat transfer co-efficient if the plate is inclined at 30˚C with
horizontal plane.

Given:

Pressure, p = 0.080 bar

Area, A = 50 cm  0.50 = 0.25 m2

Surface temperature, Tw = 20˚C

Distance, x = 25 cm 0.25 m

To find:

a)  x
b) hx
c) h
d) Q
e) m
f) h at 30˚C

Solution:

Properties of steam at 0.080 bar

Tsat = 41.53˚C

hfg = 2403.2 kJ/kg = 2403.2  103 J/kg

We know that,

T w  T 
Film temperature, Tf 

= 2

20  41.53
2

Tf = 30.76˚C

Properties of air at 30.76˚C:  30˚C:

  997kg / m3

v = 0.83  10-6 m2/s

77
 k = 0.612 W/mK

  p  v  997  0.83 106

  827.57 10 6 Ns / m 2

a) Film thickness

We know, for vertical surfaces

 4kxT

0.25
 T 
 x    sat w  2
=  g  h fg  p 6
 4  827.5110  0.612  0.25  41.53  20
 x   
 9.81 2403.2 10 3  997 2 

 x = 1.46  10 m
-4


b) Local heat transfer co-efficient (h x )

k
hx  
 x

0.612
hx 
1.46 10 4

2
hx = 4.191 W/m K

c) Average heat transfer co-efficient (h)

 k 3  p 2  g  h fg  0.25
h  0.943 
    L Tsat  Tw  

 The factor 0.943 may be replaced by 1.13 for more accurate result as suggested by Mc
Adams

 3 2
0.25

 h  1.13 k p ghfg 
 

L Tsat  Tw 

78
 Where L = 50 cm 0.5 m

 0.6123  997 2  9.81 2403.2 10 3 

0.25

h  1.13 
 827.51106  541.53  20 

h = 5599.6 W/m2 K

d) Heat transfer (Q)

We know that,

Q  hATsat  Tw 
 h  A  Tsat  Tw 
 5599.6 0.25  41.53  20

Q = 30,139.8 W
e) Total steam condensation rate (m)

Heat transfer, Q  m  h fg 

Q
 m 
h fg
30,139.8
m
2403.2 103

m = 0.0125 kg/s

f) If the plate is inclined at

h inclined = hvertical (sin ) ¼

 hinclined = hvertical (sin 30) ¼

 hinclined = 5599.6 (1/2)1/4

hinclined = 4,708.6 W/m2 K

Let us check the assumption of laminar film condensation

We know that,

79
 4m
Reynolds Number, Re = 
W


Where

W = width of the plate = 50 cm = 0.50 m

4  0.0125
 Re 
0.50  827.51106

< 1800
Re = 120.8

So our assumption (laminar flow) is correct.

Result:

a)  =x 1.46  10-4
b) h =x 4191 W/m2 K
c) h = 5599.6 W/m2 K
d) Q = 30,139.8 W
e) m = .0125 kg/s
f) h inclined = 4708.6 W/m2K

20. Saturated steam at tsat = 100˚C condenses on the outer surface of a 1.4 m long, 2 m outer
diameter vertical tube maintained at a uniform temperature T w = 60˚C. Assuming film
condensation, find the following.

a) Local heat transfer co-efficient at the bottom of the tube.

b) Average heat transfer co-efficient over the entire length of the tube.

Given:

Saturation temperature, Tsat = 100˚C

Length, L = 1.4 m

Outer diameter, D = 2 m

Surface temperature, Tw = 60˚C

80
To find:

1. Local heat transfer co-efficient hx

2. Average heat transfer co-efficient, h

Solution:

Properties of steam at 100˚C

Enthalpy of evaporation,

hfg  2256.9kJ / kg
 2256.9 10 3 J / kg

We know that,

T w  T 
Film temperature, Tf 

= 2

60  100
2

Tf = 80˚C

Properties of air at 80˚C:

  974kg / m3

v = 0.364  10-6 m2/s

k = 0.6687 W/mK

  p  v  974  0.364 106

  354 106 Ns / m2

Assuming that the condensate film is laminar

For vertical surfaces, laminar flow,

 4kxT

0.25
 
Film thickness =   sat w  T
x
 g  h fg  p 
2

81
  4  354.53 106  0.6687 1.4100  60
0.25

 
9.81 2256.9 10 3  974
2
 

 x  L  1.4m


Local heat transfer co-efficient (h x )

k  x = 1.46  10-4 m
h
x


x

0.6687
hx 
2.24 104

2
hx = 2985.26 W/m K

Average heat transfer co-efficient (h)

 k 3  p 2  g  h  0.25
h  0.943 fg 

  L   sat w 
T  T 


The factor 0.943 may be replaced by 1.13 for more accurate result as suggested by Mc
Adams

 3 2
0.25

 h  1.13 k p ghfg 


L Tsat  Tw 




 0.6687 3  9742  9.81 2256.9 10 3 
0.25

h  1.13 
 354.53 10 6 1.4100  60 

h = 4765.58W/m2K



Let us check the assumption of laminar film condensation

82
 We know that, 

4m
Reynolds Number, Re =  
P ……. (1)

Q  hAT
Heat transfer

 h  DL  Tsat  Tw 
 4765.58    2 1.4  100  60




Q= 1.67  106


We know that, 

Q  mhfg 

1.67 106  m 2256.9 103  

m = 0.739 kg/s ….. (2)

Perimeter, P  D

 2

P = 6.283 m …… (3)

Substitute P, m,  values in equation (1)

4  0.739
(1)  Re 
6.283 354.53106

Re  1327.04

So our assumption (laminar flow) is correct

Result:

1. Local heat transfer co-efficient, h x= 2985.26 W/m2K

2. Average heat transfer co-efficient, h = 4765.58 W/m2K

83
 TWO MARK QUESTIONS AND ANSWERS

1. What is dimensional analysis?

Dimensional analysis is a mathematical method which makes use of the study of the
dimensions for solving several engineering problems. This method can be applied to all types of
fluid resistances, heat flow problems in fluid mechanics and thermodynamics.

2. State Buckingham  theorem.

Buckingham  theorem states as follows: “If there are n variables in a dimensionally

homogeneous equation and if these contain m fundamental dimensions, then the variables are
arranged into (n – m) dimensionless terms. These dimensionless terms are called  terms.

3. What are all the advantages of dimensional analysis?

 It expresses the functional relationship between the variables in dimensional terms.

 It enables getting up a theoretical solution in a simplified dimensionless form.
 The results of one series of tests can be applied to a large number of other similar
problems with the help of dimensional analysis.

4. What are all the limitations of dimensional analysis?

 The complete information is not provided by dimensional analysis. It only indicates that
there is some relationship between the parameters.
 No information is given about the internal mechanism of physical phenomenon.
 Dimensional analysis does not give any clue regarding the selection of variables.

5. Define Reynolds number (Re).

It is defined as the ratio of inertia force to viscous force.

Inertiaforce
Re 
Viscousforce

6. Define Prandtl number (Pr)

It is the ratio of the momentum diffusivity to the thermal diffusivity.

Momentumdiffusivity
Pr 
Thermaldiffusivity

84
7. Define Nusselt Number (Nu).

It is defined as the ratio of the heat flow by convection process under an unit temperature
gradient to the heat flow rate by conduction under an unit temperature gradient through a
stationary thickness (L) of metre.

qconv
Nusselt Number (Nu) 
qcond

8. Define Grashof number (Gr)

It is defined as the ratio of product of inertia force and buoyancy force to the square of
viscous force.

Inertiaforce  Buoancyforce
Gr 
Viscousforce 2
9. Define Stanton number (St).

It is the ratio of Nusselt number to the product of Reynolds number and Prandtl number.
Nu
St 
Re Pr

10. What is meant by laminar flow and turbulent flow?

Laminar flow: Laminar flow is sometimes called stream line flow. In this type of flow, the fluid
moves in layers and each fluid particle follows a smooth continuous path. The fluid particles in
each layer remain in an orderly sequence without mixing with each other.

Turbulent flow: In addition to the laminar type of flow, a distinct irregular flow is frequently
observed in nature. This type of flow is called turbulent flow. The path of any individual particle
is zig-zag and irregular. Fig. shows the instantaneous velocity in laminar and turbulent flow.

85
 11. Define convection.

Convection is a process of heat transfer that will occur between a solid surface and a fluid
medium when they are at different temperatures.

12. State Newton’s law of convection.

Heat transfer from the moving fluid to solid surface is given by the equation

Q  hATw  T 


This equation is referred to as Newton’s law of cooling.

Where

h - Local heat transfer coefficient in W/m2 K

A - Surface area in m2

Tw - Surface (or) Wall temperature in K

T - Temperature of fluid in K

13. What is meant by free or natural convection?

If the fluid motion is produced due to change in density resulting from temperature
gradients, the mode of heat transfer is said to be free or natural convection.

14. What is forced convection?

If the fluid motion is artificially created by means of an external forced like a blower or
fan, that type of heat transfer is known as forced convection.

15. What is the form of equation used to calculate heat transfer for flow through cylindrical
pipes?

Nu = 0.023 (Re) 0.8 (Pr) n

n = 0.4 for heating of fluids.

n = 0.3 for cooling of fluids.

16. What are the dimensionless parameters used in forced convection?

 Reynolds number (Re).

 Nusselt number (Nu).
 Prandtl number (Pr).

86
 17. Define boundary layer thickness.

The thickness of the boundary layer has been defined as the distance from the surface at
which the local velocity or temperature reaches 99% of the external velocity or temperature.

18. Indicate the concept or significance of boundary layer.

In the boundary layer concept the flow field over a body is divided into two regions;

 A thin region near the body called the boundary layer where the velocity and the
temperature gradients are large.
 The region outside the boundary layer where the velocity and the temperature gradients
are very nearly equal to their free stream values.

19. Write down the momentum equation for a steady, two dimensional flow of an
incompressible, constant property Newtonian fluid in the rectangular coordinate system and
mention the physical significance of each term.

Momentum equation,
 u u  P   2
2u
xu2  y
Pu  v   Fx  
2

 x y  x  

 u u 
Where, Pu  v  = Inertia forces.
 x y 

F x = Body force.

P
= Pressure force.
x
 2u  2u

= Viscous forces.
x 2 y 2

20. Sketch the boundary development of a flow.

87
21. Define displacement thickness.

The displacement thickness is the distance, measured perpendicular to the boundary, by

which the free stream is displaced on account of formation of formation of boundary layer.

22. Define momentum thickness.

The momentum thickness is defined as the distance through which the total loss of
momentum per second be equal to if it were passing a stationary plate.

23. Define energy thickness.

The energy thickness can be defined as the distance, measured perpendicular to the
boundary of the solid body, by which the boundary should be displaced to compensate for
the reduction in kinetic energy of the flowing fluid on account of boundary layer formation.

88