INTRODUCTION

TO
TRANSISTORS

Compiled by
Anita Vishen
 A Transistor is a three terminal semiconductor device that regulates current or voltage flow and
acts as a switch or gate for signals.

Why Do We Need Transistors?

Amplification is needed wherever the signal strength has to be increased. This is done by a transistor.
A transistor also acts as a switch to choose between available options. It also regulates the
incoming current and voltage of the signals.

Constructional Details of a Transistor

The Transistor is a three terminal solid state device which is formed by connecting two diodes back to
back. Hence it has got two PN junctions. Three terminals are drawn out of the three semiconductor
materials present in it. This type of connection offers two types of transistors. They
are PNP and NPN which means an N-type material between two P-types and the other is a P-type
material between two N-types respectively.
The construction of transistors is as shown in the following figure which explains the idea discussed
above.
The three terminals drawn from the transistor indicate Emitter, Base and Collector terminals. They
have their functionality as discussed below.
Emitter
•The left hand side of the above shown structure can be understood as Emitter.
•This has a moderate size and is heavily doped as its main function is to supply a number
of majority carriers, i.e. either electrons or holes.
•As this emits electrons, it is called as an Emitter.
•This is simply indicated with the letter E.
Base
•The middle material in the above figure is the Base.
•This is thin and lightly doped.
•Its main function is to pass the majority carriers from the emitter to the collector.
•This is indicated by the letter B.
Collector
•The right side material in the above figure can be understood as a Collector.
•Its name implies its function of collecting the carriers.
•This is a bit larger in size than emitter and base. It is moderately doped.
•This is indicated by the letter C.

The symbols of PNP and NPN transistors are as shown below.

The arrow-head in the above figures indicated the emitter of a transistor. As the collector of a transistor
has to dissipate much greater power, it is made large. Due to the specific functions of emitter and
collector, they are not interchangeable. Hence the terminals are always to be kept in mind while using
a transistor.
In a Practical transistor, there is a notch present near the emitter lead for identification. The PNP and
NPN transistors can be differentiated using a Multimeter. The following figure shows how different
practical transistors look like.
 We have so far discussed the constructional details of a transistor, but to understand the operation of a
transistor, first we need to know about the biasing.

Transistor Biasing
As we know that a transistor is a three layer and two junctions device. One junction is between the emitter
and base, that is called as Emitter-Base junction and the other is Collector-Base junction.
Biasing is controlling the operation of the circuit by providing power supply. The function of both the PN
junctions is controlled by providing bias to the circuit through some dc supply. The figure below shows how
a transistor is biased. The input is forward biased and the output is reverse biased.
For P-N-P: For N-P-N:
IE +ive IE -ive
IB - ive IB +ive
IC -ive
IC +ive
 By having a look at the above figure, it is understood that
•The N-type material is provided negative supply and P-type material is given positive supply to
make the circuit Forward bias.
•The N-type material is provided positive supply and P-type material is given negative supply to
make the circuit Reverse bias.
By applying the power, the emitter base junction is always forward biased as the emitter
resistance is very small. The collector base junction is reverse biased and its resistance is a bit
higher. A small forward bias is sufficient at the emitter junction whereas a high reverse bias has to be
applied at the collector junction.
The direction of current indicated in the circuits above, also called as the Conventional Current, is
the movement of hole current which is opposite to the electron current.
Operation of PNP Transistor
The operation of a PNP transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in which
emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.
The voltage VEE provides a positive potential at the emitter which repels the holes in the P-type material
and these holes cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There a very low percent of
holes recombine with free electrons of N-region. This provides very low current which constitutes the
base current IB. The remaining holes cross the collector-base junction, to constitute collector current IC,
which is the hole current.
  Hence we can understand that −
• The conduction in a PNP transistor takes place through holes.
• The collector current is slightly less than the emitter current.
• The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.

Operation of NPN Transistor

The operation of an NPN transistor can be explained by having a look at the following figure, in
which emitter-base junction is forward biased and collector-base junction is reverse biased.
 The voltage VEE provides a negative potential at the emitter which repels the electrons in the N-
type material and these electrons cross the emitter-base junction, to reach the base region. There
a very low percent of electrons which recombine with free holes of P-region. This provides very
low current which constitutes the base current IB. The remaining electrons cross the collector-
base junction, to constitute the collector current IC.
 Hence we can understand that −
• The conduction in a NPN transistor takes place through electrons.
• The emitter current is higher than the collector current.
• The increase or decrease in the emitter current affects the collector current.
Different Configurations of Transistors
We know that the transistor has three terminals – emitter (E), base (B) and collector. But in
the circuit connections we need four terminals, two terminals for input and another two
terminals for output. To overcome these problems we use one terminal as common for
both input and output actions.
Using this property we construct the circuits and these structures are called transistor
configurations. Generally there are three different configurations of transistors and they are
common base (CB) configuration, common collector (CC) configuration and common
emitter (CE) configuration.
We discuss these three different configurations of transistors with their input and output
characteristics.
Common Base Configuration
IE
VEB VCB
 As the name suggests in this configuration base terminal is the common terminal
between input and the output circuit connections. Here the input is applied between the
base and emitter terminals and the corresponding output signal is taken between the
base and collector terminals with the base terminal grounded. The input parameters are
VEB and IE and the output parameters are VCB and IC. The input current flowing into the
emitter terminal must be higher than the base current and collector current to operate the
transistor, therefore the output collector current is less than the input emitter current.
 The current gain is generally equal to or less than unity for this type of configuration.
The input and output signals are in-phase in this configuration.

Static characteristics of a Transistor:

There are two sets of characteristic curves.
1. Input characteristics
2. Output Characteristics

Input Characteristics
Input characteristics are obtained between input current and input voltage with constant
output voltage. First keep the output voltage VCB constant and vary the input voltage
VEB for different points then at each point record the input current IE value. Repeat the
same process at different output voltage levels. Now with these values we need to plot
the graph between IE and VEB parameters. The figure below shows the input
characteristics of common base configuration.
 VEB

Common Base Input Characteristics

Output Characteristics
The output characteristics of common base configuration are obtained between output current and
output voltage with constant input current. First keep the emitter current constant and vary the
VCB value for different points, now record the IC values at each point. Repeat the same process at
different IE values. Finally we need to draw the plot between VCB and IC at constant IE. The figure
given below shows the output characteristics of common base configuration. The graph is plotted
between the output voltage and the output current, keeping the input value of the input current
constant giving the output characteristics for this configuration.
 0
0

Common Base Output Characteristics

Ideally for IE =0, the collector current should be zero. But IC = ICO -the reverse saturation
current Which is in microamperes in Ge and nA in Si. This current is due to the minority
carriers generated because of thermal generation or imperfections in the surface etc.
 From the Characteristics given above we identify three regions, Active region,
Saturation region and Cutoff region. Let us have a look at the following table

EMITTER COLLECTOR REGION OF OPERATION

JUNCTION JUNCTION

Forward biased Forward biased Saturation region

Forward biased Reverse biased Active region

Reverse biased Reverse biased Cut-off region

Active region
This is the region in which transistors have many applications. This is also called
the linear region. A transistor in this region is used as an Amplifier.
This region lies between saturation and cutoff. The transistor operates in active region
when the emitter junction is forward biased and collector junction is reverse biased.
Saturation region
This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as a closed switch. The transistor
has the effect of its collector and Emitter being shorted. The collector and Emitter
currents are maximum in this mode of operation.
The transistor operates in saturation region when both the emitter and collector junctions are
forward biased. This region lies above the characteristic for IE=0. As it is understood that, in
the saturation region the transistor tends to behave as a closed switch. The forward biasing
of collector base junction causes the collector current to change exponentially with the
collector base forward voltage, as in a p n diode. The large change in IC with a small change
in VCB is thus accounted for. A forward bias implies that the collector p material is at a
positive potential w.r.t the base n material. A hole current thus flows from collector to the
base i.e., opposite to the original hole current due to the transistor action. When the forward
bias is sufficiently large, the hole flow from collector to base predominates forcing IC to be
positive as shown

Cutoff region
This is the region in which transistor tends to behave as an open switch. The transistor has
the effect of its collector and base being opened. The collector, emitter and base currents
are all zero in this mode of operation.

The transistor operates in cutoff region when both the emitter and collector junctions are
reverse biased. As in cutoff region, the collector current, emitter current and base
currents are nil.
Common Emitter Configuration
In this configuration we use emitter as common terminal for both input and output. This
common emitter configuration is an inverting amplifier circuit. Here the input is applied
between base-emitter region and the output is taken between collector and emitter
terminals. In this configuration the input parameters are VBE and IB and the output
parameters are VCE and IC.
This type of configuration is mostly used in the applications of transistor based amplifiers.
In this configuration the emitter current is equal to the sum of small base current and the
large collector current. i.e. IE = IC + IB. We know that the ratio between collector current and
emitter current gives current gain alpha in Common Base configuration similarly the ratio
between collector current and base current gives the current gain beta in common emitter
configuration.

VBE

Common Emitter Configuration

Input Characteristics
The input characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between input
current IB and input voltage VBE with constant output voltage VCE. Keep the output
voltage VCE constant and vary the input voltage VBE for different points, now record the
values of input current at each point. Now using these values we need to draw a graph
between the values of IB and VBE at constant VCE.

Common Emitter Input Characteristics

 Output Characteristics
 The output characteristics of common emitter configuration are obtained between the
output current IC and output voltage VCE with constant input current IB. Keep the base
current IB constant and vary the value of output voltage VCE for different points, now note
down the value of collector IC for each point. Plot the graph between the parameters IC and
VCE in order to get the output characteristics of common emitter configuration.

VCE(V)
Common Emitter Output Characteristics
 Common Collector Configuration

 In this configuration we use collector terminal as common for both input and output
signals. This configuration is also known as emitter follower configuration because
the emitter voltage follows the base voltage. This configuration is mostly used as a
buffer. These configurations are widely used in impedance matching applications
because of their high input impedance.
 In this configuration the input signal is applied between the base-collector region
and the output is taken from the emitter-collector region. The common collector
configuration has high input impedance and low output impedance. The input and
output signals are in phase. Here also the emitter current is equal to the sum of
collector current and the base current.
 CURRENT GAINS:
RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN α & β
The current gain, alpha ( α ) is the current gain for the CB configuration
For DC IC /IE =αdc
For AC IC / IE =αac
Note: that the value of Alpha will always be less than unity.
The current gain of the common emitter transistor configuration is quite large as it is the
ratio of IC /IB and is denoted by the Greek symbol of Beta, ( β ).
Typically, Beta has a value between 20 and 300 for most general purpose transistors.
By combining the expressions for both Alpha, α and Beta, β the mathematical
relationship between these parameters and therefore the current gain of the transistor
can be given as:
  IE = IC /α

 or IC /α= IC+ IB

 or IC= α (IC+ IB)

 or (1- α) IC = α IB

 or IC/ IB= α/ (1- α)

 β = α/ (1- α)

EARLY EFFECT
If we hold VBE constant and plot collector current vs. VCE in active mode, the result for a simplified BJT
would be a straight and flat line, indicating that the collector voltage has no effect on the gain.
As the reverse bias increases, it causes the junction’s depletion region to become wider, which in turn
decreases the effective width of the base.( “effective” because the physical width of the base region
doesn’t change). As a result, the concentration gradient of injected carriers in the base increases
resulting in more diffusion current. Also the probability of recombination in base decreases. These two
effects cause IC to increase with VCE. This is called “Early effect,” after James Early though we could also
call it “effective-base-width modulation”
IDEAL CHARACTERISTICS

PRACTICAL CHARACTERISTICS
 Transistor Configuration Comparison Table

S.NO. CHARACTERISTIC CE CB CC

1 INPUT IMPEDANCE I KΩ 20Ω (Low) Very high 750

(Medium) KΩ

2 OUTPUT IMPEDANCE 10 KΩ 1MΩ Very Low

(Medium) 450 Ω

3 VOLTAGE GAIN 150 (Medium) 500 (High) ≤ 1 (Low)

4 CURRENT GAIN Medium 1(Low) High

5 POWER GAIN Best Worst Moderate

6 APPLICATIONS Audio Current Buffer

Amplifier Source
  The table gives the main characteristics of a transistor in the three configurations . The
BJT transistors have mainly three types of configurations. They are common-emitter,
common-base and common-collector configurations. Among all these three
configurations common-emitter configuration is mostly used type.

Load Line analysis of a transistor.

Lets consider a npn transistor in its common emitter configuration, as shown in the following
diagram.
 The output circuit has a supply voltage VCC, load resistance RC and a current IC . We
apply Kirchhoff’s voltage law to this circuit.

-IC RC + VCC –VCE =0

-IC RC = VCE –VCC

or IC RC = -VCE + VCC

IC = -VCE / RC + VCC / RC

This represents a straight line ( of the form y=mx+c) when plotted

between IC and VCE with slope m= - 1/RC. This is known as dc load line. To draw this
load line we need two end points of the straight line. These points can be located as under:

•(a) for IC = 0, VCE is a maximum= VCC this gives the first point A (VCC,0 )

•(b) for VCE = 0, IC = VCC/RC ,the collector current is maximum. This gives the second
point B(0, VCC/RC ).
•By joining these points dc load line may be drawn on the output characteristics of a
Transistor circuit which gives the value of IC , VCE corresponding to zero signal.
B
4

1
A