Integrated

Science

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for CSEC® 2nd edition
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Integrated
Science

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for CSEC® 2nd edition
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Lawrie Ryan
Denise L. J. Hernandez
Victor Joseph
Bermadee McKenzie-Briscoe
Marsha Russell
3
Great Clarendon Street, Oxford, OX2 6DP, United Kingdom
Oxford University Press is a department of the University of Oxford.
It furthers the University’s objective of excellence in research, scholarship,
and education by publishing worldwide. Oxford is a registered trade mark of
Oxford University Press in the UK and in certain other countries
Text © Lawrie Ryan 2017
Original illustrations © Oxford University Press 2017
The moral rights of the authors have been asserted
First published by Nelson Thornes Ltd in 2012
This edition published by Oxford University Press in 2015
All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced,
stored in a retrieval system, or transmitted, in any form or by any
means, without the prior permission in writing of Oxford University
Press, or as expressly permitted by law, by licence or under terms
agreed with the appropriate reprographics rights organization.

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Enquiries concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above
should be sent to the Rights Department, Oxford University Press, at
the address above.
You must not circulate this work in any other form and you must

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impose this same condition on any acquirer
British Library Cataloguing in Publication Data
Data available
978-0-19-841382-0
1 3 5 7 9 10 8 6 4 2
Printed in Great Britain by Ashford Print and Publishing Services, Gosport
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Contents Contents

Introduction 1 Unit 7 Sense organs and coordination

7.1 The eye 68
Section A: The organism and its
7.2 Light and colour 70
environment
7.3 The ear 72
Unit 1 Matter 7.4 The nervous system 74
1.1 States of matter 2 7.5 The endocrine system 76
1.2 Cell structure 4
Unit 8 Health and sanitation
1.3 Diffusion and osmosis 6
1.4 Active transport 8 8.1 Keeping clean 78
8.2 Pests and parasites 80
Unit 2 Reproduction and growth Practice exam questions 82
2.1 Reproduction 10

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2.2 Sexual reproduction 12
Section B: The home and workplace
2.3 Menstrual cycle, pregnancy and birth 14
2.4 Birth control methods 16 Unit 9 Temperature control and ventilation
2.5 Pre- and post-natal care 18 9.1 How is energy transferred? 84

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2.6 Sexually Transmitted Infections (STIs) 20 9.2 How is energy transferred in fluids? 86
2.7 Growth in plants, humans and 9.3 Thermostats and thermometers 88
population 22 9.4 Evaporation and cooling 90
9.5 Humidity and ventilation 92
Unit 3 Food and nutrition
3.1 Photochemical reactions 24 Unit 10 Conservation of energy
3.2 Crop production 26 10.1 Energy 94
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3.3 Food chains and food webs 28 10.2 Energy on the move and
3.4 Food groups and nutrition 30 momentum 96
3.5 The importance of a balanced diet 32
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3.6 Digestion 34 Unit 11 Electricity and lighting
3.7 Microorganisms and food 11.1 Electricity 98
preservation 36 11.2 Fuses and cables (flexes) 100
3.8 Teeth and digestion 38 11.3 Energy consumption 102
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Unit 4 Transport systems 11.4 Efficient lighting 104

11.5 Be prepared in an emergency 106
4.1 Transport systems in plants 40
11.6 Safety first 108
4.2 The human circulatory system 42
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4.3 Blood groups 44 Unit 12 Machines and movement

4.4 Immunity 46 12.1 Simple machines 110
4.5 High blood pressure and its effects 48 12.2 Using machines 112
4.6 Drugs 50
4.7 Skeleton, joints and muscles 52 Unit 13 Metals and non-metals
Unit 5 Respiration and air pollution 13.1 Metals and non-metals 114
5.1 Respiratory surfaces 54 13.2 Reactions of metals 116
5.2 Breathing and gaseous exchange 56 13.3 Alloys at work 120
5.3 Respiration 58 13.4 Taking care of iron or steel 122
5.4 Air pollution 60 Unit 14 Acids, bases and mixtures
5.5 Effects of smoke 62
14.1 Household chemicals 124
Unit 6 Excretion 14.2 Solutions, suspensions and
6.1 Excretion in humans 64 colloids 126
6.2 Excretion in plants 66 14.3 Hard and soft water 128
14.4 Household cleaning products 130
Practice exam questions 132

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Contents

Section C: Earth’s place in the Universe

Unit 15 The Universe and our Solar System
15.1 Our place in the Universe 134
15.2 The Solar System 136
15.3 The Earth, Moon and Sun 138

Unit 16 The terrestrial environment

16.1 Soils 140
16.2 The importance of soil 142
16.3 Natural cycles 144
16.4 Air masses 146
16.5 Air in motion 148

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16.6 Tides and tidal waves 150
16.7 Volcanoes and earthquakes 152

Unit 17 Water and the aquatic environment

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17.1 Water and life 156
17.2 Purifying water for drinking 158
17.3 Flotation 160
17.4 Water pollution 162
17.5 Fishing 164
17.6 Navigation and safety on the water 166
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Unit 18 Fossil fuels and alternative sources
of energy
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18.1 Fossil fuels 168
18.2 Alternative sources of energy 170
18.3 Solar energy 172
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Unit 19 Forces
19.1 Principles of forces 174
19.2 Gravity and stability 176
19.3 Turning forces 178
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19.4 Circular motion and satellites 180

Practice exam questions 182
Index 184

Access your support website for additional content and activities here:
www.oxfordsecondary.com/9780198413820

iv
Introduction

This Study Guide has been developed exclusively with the Caribbean
Examinations Council (CXC®) to be used as an additional resource
by candidates, both in and out of school, following the Caribbean
Secondary Education Certificate (CSEC®) programme.
It has been prepared by a team with expertise in the CSEC®
syllabus, teaching and examination. The contents are designed to
support learning by providing tools to help you achieve your best in
Integrated Science and the features included make it easier for you
to master the key concepts and requirements of the syllabus. Do
remember to refer to your syllabus for full guidance on the course
requirements and examination format!

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This Study Guide is supported by a website which includes electronic
activities to assist you in developing good examination techniques:
• On Your Marks activities provide sample examination-style short

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answer and essay type questions, with example candidate answers
and feedback from an examiner to show where answers could be
improved. These activities will build your understanding, skill level
and confidence in answering examination questions.
• Test Yourself activities are specifically designed to provide
experience of multiple-choice examination questions and helpful
feedback will refer you to sections inside the Study Guide so that
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you can revise problem areas.
This unique combination of focused syllabus content and interactive
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examination practice will provide you with invaluable support to help
you reach your full potential in CSEC® Integrated Science.
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1
Section A The organism and its environment
1 Matter
1.1 States of matter

Everything on Earth, including its atmosphere, is made up of matter.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
Matter is anything that has mass and volume. Look at the things
• List the states of matter. around you and the substances that they are made from. You will
• Describe the properties of find wood, metal, plastic, glass, water, air ... the list is almost endless.
solids, liquids and gases. There are millions of different substances catalogued by scientists. In
• Explain the properties of each general, they can be classified as solids, liquids or gases – known as
state of matter using particle the three states of matter.

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theory.
Properties of each state of matter
Solids all have a fixed shape and volume. They cannot be compressed.

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Liquids have a fixed volume, but they can flow and change their
shape. A substance in the liquid state will occupy slightly more space
than an equal mass in its solid state (but
water and ice are exceptions).
Gases have no fixed shape or volume.
They can be compressed easily.
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Particle theory
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Solid Liquid Gas To explain the properties of solids, liquids
Figure 1.1.1 The three states of matter – solid, liquid and gas
and gases, we use the particle theory (also
known as the kinetic theory of matter).
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It is based on the fact that all matter is made up of tiny particles and
describes:
• the movement of the particles, and
• the average distance between particles
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within each state of matter.

Look at the diagrams to the left that represent the three states of
matter.
General properties Average distance Arrangement of Movement of particles
between particles particles
Solid Fixed shape; Particles are Regular pattern Vibrate on the spot
incompressible touching
Liquid No fixed shape; can flow; Most particles are Irregular, random Slip and slide over and
very difficult to compress touching around each other
Gas No fixed shape; spreads Large distances Irregular, random Can move very quickly. In a
out to fill its container; random manner, between
easily compressed collisions
Each particle in a solid is touching its nearest neighbours and they
remain in this fixed arrangement. They cannot move around, but they
do vibrate constantly.

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The particles in a liquid are also very close together but they can
move past each other. This results in a constantly changing, random
arrangement of particles.
The particles in a gas have much more space, on average, between
them. They can move around at high speeds and in any direction.
This means the particles have a random arrangement. The hotter the
gas is, the faster the particles move.

Changing state
A solid turns into a liquid at its melting point. This is the same
temperature at which the liquid freezes or solidifies back into the
solid. The hotter a solid is, the faster its particles vibrate. Eventually,
the vibrations will be so strong that the particles begin to break
free from their neighbours. At this point the solid starts to melt and

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become a liquid.
A liquid turns into a gas at its boiling point. The gas condenses back
into the liquid at the same temperature. The hotter a liquid is, the

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faster its particles move around. As the temperature rises, more and
more particles gain enough energy to escape from the surface of the
liquid. Its rate of evaporation increases. Eventually, the liquid boils
and bubbles of gas rise and escape from within the liquid.
Each change of state is reversible. They are examples of physical
changes. No new substances are formed in changes of state.
Substances with higher melting points and boiling points have
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stronger forces of attraction between their particles.
Note that if a solid is heated and changes directly to a gas without
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melting, i.e. it does not pass through the liquid phase, the change Figure 1.1.2 Boiling water in a kettle
is an everyday ‘change of
of state is called sublimation. Also, some people classify a fourth
state’
state of matter called plasma. It can be thought of as clouds of ‘sub-
atomic’ particles, i.e. the stuff that makes up the particles in solids,
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liquids and gases. These are common in outer space.

SUMMARY QUESTIONS
KEY POINTS
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1 Name the following changes: 1 The three states of matter

a liquid → solid b gas → liquid c solid → liquid are solids, liquids and gases.
d liquid → gas e solid → gas (in a single step). 2 The particles in a solid are
2 Explain why substances have different melting points in terms packed closely together,
of their particles. fixed in their positions and
vibrate.
3 Describe the changes that occur to the particles as a gas is
cooled down to a temperature below its freezing point. 3 The particles in a liquid are
also close together, but
4 Evaporation is the change of state that occurs when a liquid can slip and slide over each
changes to a gas below its boiling point. You can investigate other in a random motion.
the factors that affect the rate of evaporation using a wet
paper towel on a high resolution electric balance. Plan an 4 The particles in a gas have,
investigation into one factor that might affect the rate of on average, lots of space
evaporation of water from the paper towel, writing a brief between them and zoom
method. around randomly.

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 1.2 Cell structure

All living things are made up of cells. Cells enable all the processes
LEARNING OUTCOMES
of life and so are essential for all living things on Earth. Cells are too
• List the parts that make up small to see with the naked eye.
an animal cell and those that You need a microscope to study the structure of cells.
make up a plant cell.
• Draw a labelled diagram of a
Animal cells
typical unspecialised animal
cell and plant cell. There are many different types of cells in the human body, but they
• Explain the functions of the have certain features in common.

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main parts of a cell. Look at the diagram of a typical unspecialised animal cell below.

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Figure 1.2.1 A simplified typical animal cell

Functions of the cell parts

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Each part of a cell has its own particular functions. The parts all
coordinate to ensure a cell works properly.
Nucleus – This is the ‘control centre’ of the cell. It controls all
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the activities in the cell and contains the genetic material that
controls how the cell develops.This genetic information is carried on
chromosomes, which contain DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid).
Cell membrane – This is the outer part of the cell. It forms a barrier
around the cell. It allows simple substances to pass in or out of the
cell.
Cytoplasm – This is the jelly-like liquid inside the cell. Most of the
chemical reactions we need to keep us alive happen in solution. For
example, our cells get the energy they need from respiration taking
place here (see Mitochondria below).
Mitochondria – These are found in the cytoplasm and are the sites
where respiration takes place.
Ribosomes – Proteins are made here.

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Plant cells 1XFOHXV &HOOXORVH
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Look at the diagram of a typical unspecialised plant cell opposite.
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Every plant cell has a cell wall. These surround the cell contents
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of cellulose. This gives the cell support and shape.
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Many plants cells also have:
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Chloroplasts – These are the green parts (or organelles) in plant cells
where photosynthesis takes place. A pigment called chlorophyll gives

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chloroplasts their green colour. This absorbs light energy when plants Figure 1.2.2 A simplified typical plant
make their own food during photosynthesis. cell

A vacuole – The large central part of the plant cell that is full of cell
sap (liquid). This helps to support the plant.

KEY POINTS

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1 A typical unspecialised animal cell contains a nucleus, cell
membrane, cytoplasm and mitochondria.
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chloroplasts and a vacuole in green parts of the plant.
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3 Each component of a cell has functions that are interlinked so %
the cells work properly.
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4 Chromosomes carry genetic information in the form of DNA.
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SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Draw a labelled diagram of a typical unspecialised animal cell

and plant cell.
2 What are the differences between a typical unspecialised plant Figure 1.2.3 Cheek cells
cell and animal cell?
3 What is the function of:
a the nucleus
b chloroplasts
c mitochondria
d the cell membrane
e chromosomes?
4 Look at Figures 1.2.3 and 1.2.4 and identify the labels.
Figure 1.2.4 Onion cells

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 1.3 Diffusion and osmosis

To function properly, cells need to move certain substances into and

LEARNING OUTCOMES
out of the cell. Examples of these substances are glucose, water and
• Explain the processes of oxygen. Diffusion and osmosis are two processes by which this
diffusion and osmosis. takes place.
• Illustrate the movement of
particles (molecules or ions)
Diffusion
in and out of cells. All substances are made of particles. In gases and liquids these
• State that the cell membrane particles move around randomly. Diffusion takes place when particles
is partially permeable in (molecules or charged particles called ions) are not distributed

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osmosis. evenly. The random motion of the particles means that eventually
the particles will be evenly spread. Overall, the particles move from
where they are in a high concentration to where they are in a low
concentration. Look at Figure 1.3.1 below.

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Figure 1.3.1 The process of diffusion

In the process of diffusion we say that the particles move down

a concentration gradient. They move from an area of high
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concentration to an area of low concentration. For example, dissolved

glucose molecules will move across cell membranes from your gut
(where there will be a high concentration of glucose in solution
after a meal) into your blood (where the concentration of glucose
is lower).
The bigger the difference in concentration between two regions, the
steeper the concentration gradient. We find that diffusion takes place
more quickly when there is a steeper concentration gradient.

Osmosis
Osmosis is a special case of diffusion. Osmosis involves the movement
of water through a partially permeable membrane, such as the cell
membrane. ‘Partially permeable’ means that only certain substances
can pass through the membrane. Small molecules, such as the
solvent water, can pass through, but large molecules cannot.

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But which way do the water molecules move in osmosis? The
direction is determined by the concentration of water on either
side of the partially permeable membrane. We can think of a
dilute solution as having a ‘high concentration of water’. Then,
we can think of water molecules moving from a region where
their concentration is high (in a dilute solution) to where their
concentration is low (to a more concentrated solution). Look at
Figure 1.3.2 below.

Partially permeable membrane KEY POINTS

1 Diffusion and osmosis

Concentrated Dilute glucose solution are vital processes in the
glucose solution transport of substances into
Pore in membrane
and out of cells.
Glucose molecule

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Water molecule 2 Diffusion and osmosis
involve the transfer
There are fewer water There are more water
of particles down a
molecules on this side molecules on this side
concentration gradient.

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of the membrane and of the membrane and
therefore fewer water therefore more water 3 Diffusion is the movement
molecules pass from molecules pass from
left to right right to left of particles from an area of
high concentration to an
Figure 1.3.2 Osmosis – the movement of water across a partially permeable area of low concentration.
membrane
4 Osmosis is the movement
of water molecules across
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We can study osmosis in experiments using partially permeable bags
as model cells. a partially permeable
membrane – from a dilute
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SUMMARY QUESTIONS
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and b osmosis.
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JOXFRVHVROXWLRQ JOXFRVHVROXWLRQ 2 Using the substances glucose
Figure 1.3.3 Osmosis experiment and water, explain the
difference between diffusion
In this experiment you start with a concentrated glucose solution and osmosis.
inside the sealed partially permeable bag. The bag is put in a 3 Draw a labelled diagram
beaker of water. If left, the bag will swell up. This happens because of an osmosis experiment,
water moves across the partially permeable membrane into the similar to the one shown
concentrated glucose solution. Remember that water moves from in Figure 1.3.3. Start with
a region where it is in high concentration (in this case pure water) pure water inside the
to where water is at a lower concentration (in the concentrated partially permeable bag
glucose solution). and concentrated glucose
solution in the beaker.

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 1.4 Active transport

LEARNING OUTCOMES What is active transport?

You have seen how substances can move into and out of cells
• Describe what happens in
and between cells, through partially permeable membranes. The
active transport in cells and
processes of diffusion and osmosis make this happen. Both take place
why it is necessary.
down a concentration gradient on either side of the membrane.
• Give examples of active In diffusion, particles of a dissolved substance move from an area
transport in organisms. of high concentration to an area of low concentration. In osmosis,
it is water particles (molecules) that move through the partially
permeable membrane from a high concentration of water (in a more

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dilute solution) to an area of low concentration of water (a more
concentrated solution).
However, there are times when it benefits an organism to move

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substances into, out of, or between cells against a concentration
gradient. In other words, they move substances from an area of low
concentration to an area of high concentration. They achieve this
by a process called active transport. Cells that move substances
by active transport have special molecules (called transport proteins
– see Figure 1.4.1 below) in their membranes. These help to move
particles of the dissolved substance against a concentration gradient
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through the cell membrane.
Active transport needs energy to take place, whereas the processes of
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diffusion and osmosis do not require energy. The cell uses respiration
to provide the energy needed. You can find out more about
respiration in 5.3 on page 58.
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Transport
protein
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Low concentration
High concentration

Energy

Cell membrane

Figure 1.4.1 Model of active transport

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Where is active transport needed?
Here are some examples of situations where an organism needs
to move particles against a concentration gradient. The particles are
either:
• molecules, such as glucose needed for respiration to release
energy, or
• ions, which are charged particles, such as the mineral ions.
The particles might move:
• into the root hair cells on the roots of a plant. The concentration of
mineral ions in soil is very much lower than in the root hair cells, so
the ions will not enter the cells by diffusion. To get the mineral ions
needed by plants for healthy growth, active transport has to take
place. The energy needed for the process comes from respiration in

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the root cells.
• into the bloodstream, out from cells in the kidneys – when blood
sugar levels are low a few hours after a meal, the excess glucose
absorbed from the blood passes back out of the cells in the kidney

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tubules by active transport (see 6.1 on page 64).
• into and out of cells to keep the balance of sodium ions and
potassium ions at the right levels.
• from a solution of digested food into the cells lining the small
intestine – glucose moves against a concentration gradient.
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KEY POINTS
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1 Substances can be moved against concentration gradients by
active transport.
2 The process needs energy from respiration to work.
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3 Active transport takes place in the intestines, kidneys and in

plants in the root hairs.
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SUMMARY QUESTIONS

1 Describe the process of active transport.

2 How is active transport different from the processes of
diffusion and osmosis in a cell?
3 Give three examples of active transport that takes place in the
human body.

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 2 Reproduction and growth
2.1 Reproduction

All living things produce offspring in a process called reproduction.

LEARNING OUTCOMES
There are two types of reproduction – asexual and sexual.
• Describe the process of simple
cell division. Asexual reproduction
• Describe the process of In asexual reproduction only one parent is needed. The parent
asexual reproduction in organism has cells that can divide in two, multiplying to give identical
plants. organisms called clones. See Figure 2.1.1 showing simple cell division.

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• Describe the process of
Single-celled organisms, such as bacteria, reproduce like this. However,
asexual reproduction in
more complex organisms can also generate their own offspring.
animals.
Yeast (a fungus) and hydra (a water animal) use a process called

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• Compare asexual and sexual
reproduction. budding. In this, a cell bulges from the side of the dividing cell in
the parent as it fills with cytoplasm. The nucleus of the original cell is
copied and is transferred into the newly forming cell. The new cell then
breaks off and forms a new organism which is a clone of the parent.
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Figure 2.1.2 Asexual reproduction in yeast cells is called budding. What type of
organism is yeast?

In plants, such as strawberries, reproduction takes place through

runners that grow from the parent plant. The runners grow out along
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the ground, and produce new roots which form shoots and grow
into a new plant. The runner then dies and the cloned plant becomes
independent of the parent plant.
Figure 2.1.1 Cell division Flowering plants can also grow storage organs (see Figure 2.1.4).
These can be:

0DLQSODQWERG\
6WUDZEHUU\ • bulbs – layered, swollen, underground stem, for example onions,
garlic, lilies
1HZSODQWOHW • corms – short, solid, enlarged stem bases, for example dasheen,
eddo, crocus, gladiolus
• rhizomes – swollen, horizontal-growing stems, for example iris, ginger
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• tubers – swollen root, for example sweet potato, yam.
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If the plant dies the storage organ can use its store of energy to grow
Figure 2.1.3 Some plants reproduce into a new plant.
asexually by growing
runners We can also take cuttings, which grow into clones of the original
plant. For example, we can cut a stem, then plant it in rooting
compost (a mixture containing the right nutrients for plant growth).
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Tissue culture is a more modern form of taking cuttings. It uses a few 7HUPLQDO 2XWHUGU\
plant cells in a special plant hormone mixture to grow a large mass EXGZKLFK OHDI
of cells. Then each cell is put in a growing mixture to produce huge SURGXFHV ,QQHUIOHVK\
numbers of identical plants. QHZSODQW OHDYHV
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trees. This makes a new tree by grafting a cutting from one tree into SURGXFHV
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they will grow into one new plant.
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animal with favourable characteristics to clone. What would be a RISUHYLRXV QHZUKL]RPH
favourable characteristic of a goat reared in a mountainous terrain? UKL]RPH 5RRW

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specimen. These are fertilised by sperm from a prize male. This part of QHZFRUP &RUP
the process is sexual reproduction as there are two parents, each Figure 2.1.4 Storage organs that can
one donating genetic information to their offspring. grow into new plants

The fertilised cell is allowed to grow into a ball of cells (either in the

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KEY POINTS
animal or in a science lab). Then the embryo formed has individual
cells removed. These are allowed to divide and grow into new identical 1 Asexual reproduction takes
embryos. This is asexual reproduction. These embryos are transplanted place when one parent
into other female animals to complete the pregnancy. The cloned has cells that divide to
animals will all be the same because the genetic information carried in form a new individual. The
their nuclei is identical. They will all have the desired characteristics. offspring are genetically
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identical. There is no
Comparing asexual and sexual reproduction variation from the parent.
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This table shows some of the advantages and disadvantages of each 2 Sexual reproduction, where
method of reproduction. two parents share genetic
information to produce
Type of Advantages Disadvantages
offspring, gives variety
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reproduction
in a species. This helps
Asexual No need to find a partner Lack of genetic variation them evolve and become
as only one parent is – so if a parent is better adapted to their
needed. susceptible to a disease environment over time.
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Many offspring produced all the clones will get

very quickly in the right the same disease, which
conditions. puts a species in danger SUMMARY QUESTIONS
Large numbers produced of extinction.
in one place mean they New offspring may 1 Name three ways in which
can compete for resources live very close to the an organism can reproduce
more effectively than parent, for example in asexually.
other species present in plants where bits break 2 Explain how farmers can
smaller numbers. off and grow into new clone their best cow.
plants, so conditions
might deteriorate. 3 Why does a cutting grow
into a plant that looks the
Sexual Variation will be ensured Two parents are needed same as the parent plant?
in a species. so time and energy is
Over time the spent finding a partner. 4 List two advantages and two
advantageous The process of disadvantages of asexual
characteristics will come reproduction from reproduction.
through in offspring as the fertilisation to birth is
species evolves to cope with much longer.
changes in its environment.
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 2.2 Sexual reproduction

Sexual reproduction needs male and female sex cells, called gametes,
LEARNING OUTCOMES
to meet and fuse together. This is called fertilisation. This type of
• Structure of flowers and reproduction takes place in most plants and animals.
pollination.
• Explain fertilisation. Sexual reproduction in plants
• Describe the human male and Flowering plants have male and female parts. The male organs
female reproductive systems. (stamens) make pollen, containing the male sex cells. The female parts
(carpels) make the ova (eggs) inside an ovule. Look at Figure 2.2.1.

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Figure 2.2.1 The structure of a flowering plant

Pollination
The pollen, usually from another plant of the same species, lands on
the sticky stigma. It can get there in two ways — transfer by insect
and by the wind. In plants with brightly coloured petals, the pollen is
likely to be transferred by insects. Insects, such as bees, are attracted
by the colours and feed on the sweet-smelling, sugary nectar inside
the centre of the flower. As they feed, pollen sticks to their legs and
is transferred to the stigma of a neighbouring flower when the bee
passes on to feed on more nectar.

Figure 2.2.2 This Maraval Lily from Other flowering plants, such as grasses, do not need insects for
Trinidad is an insect- pollination to take place. They grow long, feathery stamens with
pollinated plant lots of light pollen grains that can be blown to the stigmas of other
plants by the wind.

12
Fertilisation
Once the pollen has reached the stigma, the male sex cell, or gamete,
has to reach the female gamete inside the ovule. The pollen grain
grows a tube down the style into the ovary. The male gamete passes
down the tube and on into an ovule. There the male and female
gametes join as fertilisation takes place.
The fertilised cell starts the process of division to produce a seed and
the ovary turns into a fruit. Think of a tomato – you can see the seeds
bedded inside the fleshy fruit that was once the ovary in a tomato
plant.

Sexual reproduction in humans

Male and female humans have different sexual organs, as shown in

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Figure 2.2.4.

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Figure 2.2.3 Grasses have long, feathery
stamens

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Figure 2.2.4 The male and female reproductive systems
KEY POINTS
The male gametes (sperm) are produced in the testes and stored
1 Sexual reproduction in
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there. Then they are released down the sperm duct and out of the
penis during ejaculation. For fertilisation to take place the sperm have plants and animals involves
to meet the female gamete, the ovum (egg). This happens in sexual a male gamete and a female
intercourse where the penis becomes erect and is inserted into the gamete fusing together
when fertilisation takes
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woman’s vagina. Millions of sperm are in the ejaculated fluid. The

sperm have flagella (tails), which they use to move through the cervix place.
and into the uterus where one sperm meets the ovum. The sperm 2 In flowering plants, the male
penetrates the outer layer of the ovum and fertilisation takes place. part is called the stamen and
the female part is the carpel.
Pollen grains carry the male
gamete to the stigma.
SUMMARY QUESTIONS The male gamete joins the
female gamete inside the
1 Draw a flow diagram to explain sexual reproduction in a ovule through a pollen tube
flowering plant. which grows down the style.
2 What are the two ways in which pollination takes place in a 3 In humans the male gamete
flowering plant? is the sperm (made in the
3 How does sexual reproduction ensure that the offspring testes) and the female
produced are not all identical, and why does this benefit a gamete is the ovum
species? (made in the ovaries).

13
 2.3 Menstrual cycle,
pregnancy and birth

LEARNING OUTCOMES The menstrual cycle

Menstruation is the discharge of blood and tissue through the
• Describe the menstrual cycle
vagina. The discharge comes from the lining of the uterus and
and state the hormones
happens at approximately four-week intervals. Menstruation starts at
involved.
puberty and lasts until the menopause (see below).
• Explain the menopause and
its effects on the body. A woman’s menstrual cycle is controlled by the release of hormones.
• State and explain the process 1 FSH (follicle stimulating hormone) released by the pituitary gland
involved in pregnancy. starts the monthly cycle. As its name suggests, this hormone

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• Describe the stages of labour stimulates an egg to mature in a follicle within the ovary.
and birth. 2 Oestrogen is then released by the ovary. Its levels rise and cause
the lining of the uterus to thicken. This is in preparation for a

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fertilised egg to start a pregnancy.
3 LH (luteinising hormone) is produced by the pituitary gland as
the oestrogen levels fall. LH stimulates the release of the egg
from the ovary into the fallopian tube. This is called ovulation
and occurs at about day 14 of the cycle. The egg is ready to be
fertilised.
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4 Progesterone is then released about a week later. This causes
further thickening of the lining of the uterus. However, if a
fertilised egg does not implant itself there, progesterone levels fall
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and the lining breaks down. It is discharged through the vagina;
a process lasting between two and five days. This is menstruation,
known as a woman’s ‘period’. The falling levels of progesterone
stimulate FSH production and the cycle starts again.
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The menopause
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The menopause refers to the end of menstruation. Some time
For more information on sexual between the ages of 45 and 55, women stop having periods. Low
intercourse and fertilisation, see oestrogen levels cause the ovaries to cease functioning. This may
2.2 ‘Sexual reproduction’. cause short-term symptoms such as hot flushes, irritability, dry skin
and muscle aches.

14
Pregnancy
Pregnancy is the time between fertilisation and birth. This period of EXAM TIP
time is called the gestational period. It usually lasts for 39 weeks or
9 months in humans.
Doctors can sample the
amniotic fluid to check
During pregnancy, the fertilised egg travels down the fallopian tube and for genetic abnormaliti
implants itself into the lining of the uterus. The embryo grows in the es
in the foetus.
uterus, attached to the mother via the placenta and umbilical cord, and
develops into a foetus. The foetus is protected in the uterus by a bag of
amniotic fluid. The fluid cushions the foetus if the mother gets bumped.
The mother’s blood provides nutrients and removes waste products
from the blood of the embryo/foetus. That is why it is important that
a mother eats a good diet and avoids smoking, drugs and alcohol
during pregnancy. The baby of a drug addict is born addicted to the KEY POINTS
drug and experiences nasty withdrawal symptoms.

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1 The menstrual cycle is
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Menstruation occurs about
every four weeks. It ceases

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1 a What is menstruation?
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b Approximately how many
Figure 2.3.2 Stages of pregnancy
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days does the menstrual

cycle take to complete?
The stages of labour and birth c What happens to an egg
Labour occurs spontaneously at about 9 months and is usually during ovulation?
completed in 24 hours. d Draw a table to show the
hormones involved in the
• During the first stage of labour the muscles of the uterus start to
contract. This is caused by the hormone oxytocin, released by the menstrual cycle and their
pituitary gland. This may also cause the membrane, or amnion, effects.
around the baby to break releasing the amniotic fluid. The cervix 2 a How does the foetus
becomes thinner and widens (dilates). receive its nutrients
• The second stage of labour commences when the cervix is fully during pregnancy?
dilated and the baby’s head is delivered from the vagina. b How is the foetus
• The third stage involves the placenta separating from the wall of protected in the uterus?
the uterus and being delivered as the afterbirth. Once the placenta c What role does oxytocin
is delivered, the umbilical cord is clamped and cut, and the baby is play in pregnancy?
given to the mother.

15
 2.4 Birth control methods

LEARNING OUTCOMES Contraception

Birth control, or family planning, allows you to plan when to have
• Discuss natural methods of
children. You can also decide on the size of your family and the time
contraception.
interval between each child. Making an informed choice can avoid
• Discuss barrier methods, the risk of an unwanted pregnancy.
hormonal methods and
surgical methods.

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Natural methods
Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Withdrawal (coitus Penis withdrawn from No side-effects. Fluid secreted before

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interruptus) vagina before ejaculation. ejaculation may contain sperm.
No protection against sexually
transmitted infections (STIs).
Unreliable.
Rhythm methods More mucus is secreted at No side-effects. Not very reliable as ovulation
Mucus (the Billings time of ovulation. This is Method of may be difficult to predict –
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method) usually more viscous, so contraception some women have irregular
intercourse is avoided for a recommended by menstrual cycles.
few days on either side of Catholic church. Need to abstain from sexual
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this time. intercourse at fertile times,
Can be used to plan
Temperature Relies on monitoring the a pregnancy. or use a condom or other
menstrual cycle for a rise method.
No chemicals or
in temperature that is
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physical products It takes three or four menstrual

associated with ovulation. cycles to learn effectively.
used.
Intercourse needs to be
You have to keep daily records
avoided a few days before
of your temperature.
and after this time.
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Barrier methods
Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Male condom Made from very thin latex No medical Putting it on can interrupt
(rubber). It is put over side-effects. sexual intercourse.
the erect penis and stops Easy to obtain free May slip off or split if not used
sperm from entering the from some clinics properly.
vagina. and sold widely. May reduce the sensitivity of
Can help protect the penis.
both partners from
some STIs including
HIV.

16
Diaphragm/cap A flexible latex or silicone Can be put in at any Putting it in can interrupt
with spermicide dome shaped device, used time before sexual sexual intercourse.
with spermicide, is put into intercourse. More reliable if used with
the vagina to cover the No serious health spermicide, but some people
cervix. This stops sperm risks. can be sensitive to spermicide.
from entering the uterus
Offers some Correct size needs to be known
and meeting an egg.
protection against and it needs replacing if a
STIs. woman changes weight, i.e.
gain or loss of more than 3 kg.
May be damaged during use.
Hormonal methods
Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Contraceptive pill It contains oestrogen and/ Simple to take — No protection against STIs.

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(also available as or progesterone. one tablet a day; May have temporary side-effects,
patch, injection or It can thicken cervical patch changed such as headaches, mood
implant) mucus to prevent sperm weekly; injection swings or depression.
reaching the egg; lasts for 12 weeks.

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Increased risk of heart disease
It prevents implantation and high blood pressure.
and ovulation. Not reliable if vomiting and
diarrhoea occurs after taking or
if on a course of antibiotics.
Surgical methods
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Method Description Advantages Disadvantages
Female The fallopian tubes are cut, Sterilisation is Not reversible.
sterilisation (tubal sealed or blocked by an permanent with no
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occlusion) operation. This stops the long- or short-term
egg and sperm meeting. serious side-effects.
Once the operation
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is carried out there

is no need to think
about contraception.
Male sterilisation The tubes (ducts) that carry Permanent with no Usually irreversible (although
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(vasectomy) sperm from the testicles to side-effects. the tubes can be repaired in
the penis are cut, sealed or Once the operation rare cases).
blocked. is carried out there Some people think it might
is no need to think increase the risk of testicular
about contraception. cancer.

KEY POINT SUMMARY QUESTIONS

Natural methods of contraception 1 Describe two ways of permanently preventing

consist in avoiding having sex during conception (fertilisation) taking place.
ovulation; barrier methods do not let the
sperm meet the egg; hormone methods 2 Which method of contraception
can prevent implantation or ovulation; a depends on predicting monthly ovulation
surgical methods prevent eggs from b relies on tricking the female body with hormones
leaving the fallopian tubes or sperm c prevents sperm from entering the vagina and
from leaving the penis. protects against STIs?

17
 2.5 Pre- and post-natal care

LEARNING OUTCOMES Breastfeeding

The production of milk in a mother’s breasts is called lactation.
• Explain the effects of
Colostrum is the milk produced in the first three to four days of
nutrition, drugs, X-rays, the
lactation. It is a concentrated form of breast-milk. Colostrum contains
rhesus factor and disease on
all the nutrients and protective factors of breast-milk, but in higher
pre- and post-natal care.
concentrations. Babies receive protection against infection and help
• Describe the advantages for their immune system from their first feed of colostrum.
of breastfeeding and
immunisation. A woman’s body begins to make breast-milk after giving birth.

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Delivery of the placenta (afterbirth) causes a drop in hormones
and allows milk production. When the baby suckles at the breast a
hormone (oxytocin) is released into the bloodstream. This stimulates
the ‘let down’ or milk ejection reflex. Placing a baby close to its

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mother after its birth, especially skin to skin, is good practice. It will
increase the mother’s hormone levels and milk production, as well as
speeding up the bonding process.

Advantages of breastfeeding
Breast-milk:
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• is at the correct temperature for the baby
• contains antibodies to help the baby fight off any infections
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• contains the correct amount of proteins, carbohydrates, vitamins,
minerals and fats in a form that is easy to digest
• changes as the baby grows to give it the perfect nutrients for each
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stage of its development

• is sterile
• does not cost anything
• helps to form a bond between the mother and baby
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• reduces the risk of having diarrhoea and vomiting, chest and

ear infections, constipation, eczema, as well as being obese and
developing Type 2 diabetes
• reduces the risk of sudden infant death syndrome and childhood
Figure 2.5.1 Breastfeeding has many leukaemia
health benefits for both
mother and child
• reduces the risk of breast and ovarian cancer and of hip fractures in
the mother.
Sometimes mothers who do not breastfeed give their babies
powdered milk, or formula, from a bottle. The bottles and teats have
to be sterilised. The water used to mix with the powder should not
be contaminated and the mixture must be made up under sterile
conditions. In some places women are not able to do this and there
is a risk of babies getting infections from non-sterile formula milk or
bottles.

18
Pre-natal care LINK
Pre-natal (also called ante-natal) care monitors the woman’s health For more information on the
during pregnancy. It also deals with the health and development of rhesus factor in pregnancy, see
her baby. 4.3 ‘Blood groups’.
Smoking, alcohol and drugs
Smoking is one of the most damaging factors to the health of
the unborn baby. Carbon monoxide from tobacco smoke restricts
the amount of oxygen carried by the red blood cells. Risks include
miscarriage, stillbirth, low birth weight babies that fail to thrive and
higher risk of foetal abnormalities.
Alcohol is a poison that can damage both the sperm and the ovum
before conception, as well as the developing embryo. The alcohol can
be passed from the mother’s blood across the placenta to the baby.

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The main risks to the baby are mental retardation, retarded growth
and damage to the brain and nervous system. LINK
Both prescribed and recreational drugs can pass through the placenta For more information on

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to the baby’s bloodstream. Marijuana interferes with the normal immunisation (or vaccination),
production of male sperm and the effects take three to nine months see 4.4 ‘Immunity’.
to wear off. Hard drugs, such as cocaine, heroin and morphine,
can damage the chromosomes in the sperm and ovum leading to
abnormalities. KEY POINTS
Diet 1 Pre-natal care looks after
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It is important that the mother has a balanced diet during pregnancy the needs of mothers and
so the baby gets all the nutrients it needs for growth and development. their unborn babies during
pregnancy.
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Supplements of folic acid are recommended when trying to get
pregnant and for the first 12 weeks of pregnancy. This reduces the 2 Post-natal care monitors the
risk of having a baby with conditions such as spina bifida. mother and baby following
the birth in the baby’s first
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Diseases in pregnancy and immunisation of the baby year of life.

Pathogens, like viruses and bacteria, can pass from mother to baby.
• German measles (rubella) is caused by a virus that can cross the SUMMARY QUESTIONS
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placenta. It causes abnormalities such as deafness and heart defects.

• The HIV virus that causes AIDS may cross the placenta. Therefore, a 1 a Why is breast-milk
baby may be born HIV positive if the mother is infected. beneficial for the
development of the
• Listeriosis and salmonella are bacterial infections. They can be
picked up by eating certain foods. These include mould-ripened newborn baby?
cheeses, such as camembert and brie, as well as raw eggs. b Why do some mothers
choose to feed their
During the first year of life, babies are immunised against certain babies on formula milk
dangerous diseases. These diseases could cause death or lasting mixtures?
damage. Examples are measles, mumps and rubella (MMR),
whooping cough, diphtheria, tetanus and polio. 2 Make a list of diseases that
babies can be immunised
X-rays against.
X-rays are high-energy electromagnetic waves. They are dangerous 3 Besides diseases, make a
in high doses as they can interfere with body cells, causing cancers. list of other factors that can
They are harmful in any dose to the developing foetus. Therefore, harm the unborn baby.
we cannot use them to monitor development of the foetus. Instead
hospitals use ultrasound – a safer wave – for scanning.

19
 2.6 Sexually Transmitted
Infections (STIs)

Sexually transmitted infections (STIs) are passed from one person

LEARNING OUTCOMES
to another during sexual activity. An STI can be caused by viruses,
• State the major types of STIs bacteria or parasites, such as fungus.
(bacterial, viral and fungal). • Some infections are caused by bacteria such as chlamydia,
• List recommended methods gonorrhoea and syphilis. These are usually curable.
to prevent and control the • However, infections caused by viruses such as HPV, genital herpes,
spread of STIs. hepatitis B and HIV cannot be cured.
• Discuss the use of retrovirals
in treatments of HIV/AIDS.
Bacterial infections

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STI Symptoms of disease caused Treatment
Chlamydia Women often show no signs; Treated by

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perhaps a slight vaginal antibiotics;
Slime discharge; lower abdominal and if left untreated,
capsule
back pain; nausea; fever. it can cause
Cytoplasm Cell wall infertility.
Rings of DNA Gonorrhoea First symptoms appear between Treated with
called plasmids 2–7 days after infection in a antibiotics,
woman; most women show no although some
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Strands of genetic signs; some have thick cloudy strains are
material
Flagella or bloody vaginal discharge and resistant.
frequent urination.
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Figure 2.6.1 A bacterial cell
Men have thick yellow-green
discharge from penis; sores
develop on the penis and pain
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BACTERIA on urinating.
Bacteria are single-celled Syphilis Painless sores on the genitals Curable with
organisms, smaller than animal that can last 3–6 weeks then antibiotics;
or plant cells. You need a disappear; swollen glands; skin if left untreated,
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powerful microscope to see rashes. it can lead to

them. Some bacteria have slime blindness and
capsules and/or flagella. The paralysis.
flagella help bacteria to move
around.
EXAM TIP
Bacteria cause many
communicable diseases in A sexually transmitted
animals and plants, and can infection (STI) is the
pathogen that causes th
destroy food stores. However, e symptoms of a sexua
transmitted disease (S lly
some bacteria are very useful, TD).
for example in making cheese
or yogurt, treating sewage and
making medicines. Everyone
needs the ‘good bacteria’ found
in our guts to remain healthy.

20
Viral infections VIRUSES
STI Symptoms of disease Treatment
Viruses are even smaller than
caused
bacteria. They cause disease
Human Papilloma Mostly without symptoms. No cure, but in all living things, including
Virus (HPV) A few strains cause visible most infection plants. They get into cells, living
warts that occur on is cleared by and reproducing inside them.
vagina, penis, urethra or the body in 1–2 This damages and destroys the
cervix. years. infected cells. Unlike bacteria,
Genital herpes Small painful ulcers on the No cure, but they cannot be treated with
genitals. can be treated antibiotics.
with anti-viral
medicines to
alleviate
symptoms. FUNGI

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Hepatitis B Viral infection of the liver No cure, but Fungi can be single-celled or
with symptoms of jaundice can be treated multicellular organisms. They
– tiredness, nausea and with anti-viral include moulds, yeasts and
weight loss. medication.

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mushrooms. They cause many
AIDS (Acquired Early symptoms of AIDS No cure, but plant diseases, but are useful
Immune Deficiency are very much like flu, treatments in brewing and bread-making,
Syndrome) caused swollen glands, raised include anti-viral which uses yeast. Like candida
by HIV (Human temperature; later drugs, some of (see opposite), athlete’s foot is
Immunodeficiency symptoms might include which prevent the also a fungal infection. They are
Virus). weight loss, pneumonia, virus multiplying treated with anti-fungal creams.
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types of cancer and a inside the body’s
decrease in brain function. cells.
Not all people develop
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AIDS; some remain HIV
positive, but without
symptoms.
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Fungal infection
Candida (also known as thrush) is a fungal infection. It is present in
small amounts in healthy people, but may multiply in warm, dark and
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moist places, such as the vagina. It is not really a sexually transmitted SUMMARY QUESTIONS
infection, but it can be passed to another person during sex. Using a
condom or abstinence will protect against this. 1 Draw a table with three
Its symptoms are itching and soreness of the vagina and genitals, plus headings to show examples
a thick white or creamy vaginal discharge. It also causes discomfort or of bacterial and viral STIs.
pain during sex. It is treated using anti-fungal drugs. 2 What is candida, what are its
symptoms and how can it be
treated?
KEY POINTS
3 Why would somebody who
1 Sexually transmitted infections are passed between partners ignored their symptoms of
having unprotected sex. syphilis mistakenly think their
problem had been solved
2 Bacterial infections are treated with antibiotics, but there is no after a couple of months?
cure for viral infections yet. Why would this be a very
3 Abstinence or using a condom protects against STIs. serious mistake?

21
 2.7 Growth in plants,
humans and population

LEARNING OUTCOMES Germination and growth in plants

Germination is the process that occurs when a seed begins to
• Explain the process of
develop into a new plant. A seed is a food store, so that the new
germination and growth in
plant can grow and develop until it has produced its own leaves.
plants.
Then it can begin to photosynthesise.
• Describe the cycle of growth
in humans/understand the To germinate and grow into a plant, the seed needs:
difference between boys and • energy
girls.
• oxygen

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• State the consequences of
• warmth
exploding human population.
• water.
• Review methods in which

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population can be controlled. A radicle (root) begins to grow downwards into the soil. Then
a plumule (shoot) begins to grow upwards towards the light. It
produces green leaves, so it can begin the process of photosynthesis.
Oxygen is obtained from the air between particles of soil and is used
for respiration.
Temperature is important as if it is too high or too low germination
will not take place. Water in the soil helps the surface of the seed to
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soften and makes it easier for the radicle and plumule to grow out of
the seed.
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Figure 2.7.1 The germination and early growth of a plant. Which grows upwards
– a radicle or a plumule?
/RJRUH[SRQHQWLDO
SKDVH
The rate of plant growth can be seen by its growth curve shown in
Figure 2.7.2. It follows the same pattern as most organisms. The
plant cells begin dividing, but there are not many cells to start with.
Then, as the number of cells increases, the rate of growth increases.
There are more cells dividing so the number of cells multiplies quickly.
/DJSKDVH But growth then slows down, either because of genetic factors (the
plant has reached its maximum height) or environmental factors that
7LPH
limit growth. The growth ceases when the number of cells dividing
Figure 2.7.2 Growth curve of a plant equals the number of cells dying.

22
Growth in humans
80
From birth, babies grow and develop quickly and by the age of one
can usually sit up, feed themselves and some may be walking. By 70 Growth spurt
the age of two they will be starting to communicate by talking. This 60 in puberty
development continues steadily until puberty which occurs between

Mass (kg)
50
10 and 14.
40
Then there is another growth spurt and the sex organs become
30
active. The start of puberty can vary from person to person, but girls
usually develop earlier than boys. The changes that take place are 20
controlled by hormones. 10 Growth spurt in baby
As well as physical changes these hormones can also make
0 5 10 15 20 25
adolescents have mood changes and increased sexual urges.
Conception Time (years)
Following puberty, girls tend to finish growing at about 18 years of Figure 2.7.3 The human growth curve

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age, whereas boys can keep growing slowly until about 21 years of
age.

Human population growth

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LINK
The world’s human population is about 7 billion and is growing.
For more information on the
Feeding all these people is extremely difficult and some suffer the
effects of a shortage of
effects of famine.
nutrition in the diet, see 3.5
This number of people makes great demands on the Earth’s limited ‘The importance of a balanced
resources. Those in developed countries live in societies that use large diet’.
amounts of energy in their daily lives. Most of this comes from non-
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renewable fossil fuels. Crude oil, which provides most of our fuels,
will run out in a few decades. The Earth’s mineral resources, from
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which we obtain our metals, is also dwindling. The Earth’s natural
resources cannot support its growing population.
Educating people in developing countries to plan a family that is
sustainable is part of the solution. In developed countries there is
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a problem with too many unwanted teenage pregnancies – again SUMMARY QUESTIONS
education is needed to reduce the problem. Birth control is the
major way to keep our populations manageable. 1 Draw a flow chart to describe
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how a seed grows into a

young plant.
2 a Sketch the growth curve
KEY POINTS of a normal plant and
explain its shape.
1 Germinating seeds need energy, oxygen, warmth and water in
order to grow into a plant. b Do the same as part a,
but with a human,
2 The growth curve of a plant starts off slowly and gradually growth curve.
speeds up before it slows down again. Eventually the plant
grows new cells at the same rate as the old ones die. 3 a State two of the Earth’s
natural resources that will
3 The human growth curve has two spurts – at the start of a eventually run out.
baby’s life and at puberty.
b How can the accelerating
4 The world’s population is growing at a rate that cannot be growth of the Earth’s
sustained. Birth control will be a major part of reducing this population be slowed
population explosion. down?

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