Human Skeletal System

ANATOMY AND PHYSIOLOGY

10/13/2021
Skeletal System
• consists of bones and other structures that make up the joints
and skeletons
• the types of tissue present are bone tissue, cartilage, and
fibrous connective tissue, which forms the ligaments that
connect bone to bone
• bones are classified into four
• long bones, short bones, flat bones and irregular bones
Long Bones

• bones of the arms, legs,

hands and feet (but not
the wrists and ankles)
• the shaft of a long bone is
the diaphysis, and the
ends are called epiphysis
Diaphysis

• made of compact bone and

is hollow, forming a canal
within the shaft
• this marrow canal (or
medullary cavity) contains
yellow bone marrow, which
is mostly adipose tissue
Epiphysis
• made of spongy bone covered with
a thin layer of compact bone
• although red bone marrow is
present in the epiphyses of
children’s bones,
• it is largely replaced by yellow bone
marrow in adult bones
Short Bones
• the bones of the wrists and
ankles
• made of spongy bone covered
with a thin layer of compact
bone
Flat Bones
• the ribs, shoulder blades, hip
bones and cranial bones
• made of spongy bone
covered with a thin layer of
compact bone
Irregular Bones
• the vertebrae and facial bones
• made of spongy bone covered
with a thin layer of compact
bone
Skeleton
• provides framework that supports the body
• the muscles that are attached to bones move
the skeleton
• protects some internal organs from
mechanical injury
• contains and protects the red bone marrow
• the primary hemopoietic or blood-forming tissue
Skeleton
• provides a storage site for excess calcium
▪ calcium may be removed from bone to maintain a normal blood
calcium level, which is essential for blood clotting and proper
functioning of muscles and nerves
• the human skeleton has two divisions:
▪ the axial skeleton, which forms the axis of the body;
▪ and the appendicular skeleton, which supports the appendages of the
limbs
Axial Skeleton

• forms the axis of the body

• consists of the skull,
vertebral column and rib
cage
Skull

• consists of 8 cranial bones and

14 facial bones
• also in the head are three small
bones in each middle ear cavity
and the hyoid bone that
supports the base of the tongue
Cranial Bones
• form the braincase (line with meninges) that encloses and
protects the brain, eyes and ears
• Frontal bone
• Parietal bones (two)
• Temporal bones (two)
• Occipital bone
Sphenoid bone and Ethmoid bone
• parts of the floor of the braincase and the orbits (sockets) for
the eyes
Frontal Bone
• forms the forehead and the anterior part of the top of the skull
Parietal bone
• parietal means wall
• the two large parietal bones form
the posterior top and much of the
side walls of the skull
Temporal bone
• each temporal bone on the side
of the skull contains an external
auditory meatus (ear canal), a
middle ear cavity, and inner ear
labyrinth
Occipital Bone
• forms the lower, posterior part of
the braincase
• its foramen magnum is a large
opening for the spinal cord, and the
two condyles (rounded projections)
on either side articulate with the
atlas, the first cervical vertebra
Sphenoid bone
• is wedged between several other
bones in the front of the cranium
• it consists of a central part and two
wing-like structures that extend
sideways toward each side of the
skull
• this bone helps form the base of the
cranium, the sides of the skull, and
the floors and sides of the orbits
(eye sockets)
Sphenoid bone

10/13/2021
Ethmoid bone

• had a vertical projection called the

crista galli that anchors the cranial
meninges
• the rest of the ethmoid bone forms the
roof and upper walls of the nasal
cavities and the upper part of the nasal
septum
Sutures
• all the joints between cranial bones are immovable joints called
sutures
• in a suture, the serrated, or sawtooth, edges of adjacent bones
fit into each other
• these interlocking projections prevent sliding or shifting of the
bones if the skull is subjected to a blow or pressure
Sutures

10/13/2021
Mandible
• of the 14 facial bones, only
the mandible (lower jaw) is
movable
• it forms a condyloid joint
with each temporal bone
• the other joints between
facial bones are all sutures
Maxillae
• are the two upper jaw bones,
which also form the anterior
portion of the hard palate (roof
of the mouth)
• sockets for the roots of the
teeth are found in the maxillae
and the mandible
Nasal Bones
• the 2 nasal bones form the
bridge of the nose where
they articulate with the
frontal bone
• the rest of the nose is
supported by the cartilage
Lacrimal Bone
• there is a lacrimal bone at the
medial side of each orbit
• the lacrimal canal contains the
lacrimal sac, a passageway for
tears
Zygomatic Bones
• each of the two zygomatic bones
forms the point of a cheek, and
articulates with the maxilla,
frontal bone, and temporal bone
Palatine
• the two palatine bones are the posterior portion of the hard palate
Vomer

• the plow-shaped vomer forms

the lower part of the nasal
septum
• it articulates with the ethmoid
bone
Conchae
• on either side of the vomer are the
conchae, six scroll-like bones that
curl downward from the sides of the
nasal cavities
• they help increase the surface area
of the nasal mucosa
Paranasal Sinuses
• air cavities located in the
maxillae and frontal, sphenoid,
and ethmoid bones
• open into the nasal cavities
and are lined with ciliated
epithelium continuous with the
mucosa of the nasal cavities
Mastoid sinuses
• air cavities in the mastoid
process of each temporal bone
• they open into the middle ear
Auditory bones

• within the middle ear cavity

are three auditory bones:
• malleus, incus and stapes
• these bones transmit
vibrations from the eardrum
to the receptors in the inner
ear
Shoulder Girdles

• Attach the arms to the axial

skeleton
• Each consists of a scapula
(shoulder blade) and
clavicle (collarbone)
Scapula
• A large, flat bone with several
projections
• The spine of the scapula, the
coracoid process
• Anchor some of the muscles
that move up the upper and the
forearm
Clavicle
• Each clavicle articulates laterally with a scapula and medially
with the manubrium of the sternum
• In this position the clavicle act as braces for the scapulae and prevent
the shoulders from coming too far forward
• Although the shoulder joint is capable of a wide range of
movement, the shoulder itself must be relatively stable if these
movements are to be effective
Humerus
• The long bone of the upper
arm
• The triangular deltoid muscle
that caps the shoulder joint is
anchored in the deltoid
tubercle
Humerus
• Proximally, the humerus forms a ball-
and-socket joint with the scapula
• Distally, the humerus forms a hinge
joint with the ulna of the forearm
• This hinge joint, the elbow, permits
movement in one plane
• That is, back and forth with no lateral
movement
Radius and Ulna
• The forearm bones are the ulna on the
little finger side and the radius on the
thumb side
• The semilunar notch of the ulna is part
of the hinge joint of the elbow
• It articulates with the trochlea of the
humerus
Radius and Ulna
• The radius and ulna articulate
proximally to form a pivot joint
• This permits turning the hand palm up to
palm down
• The radius crosses over the ulna
• This permits the hand to perform a great
variety of movements without moving the
entire arm
Hand
• Eight small bones in the wrist
• Gliding joints between them permit a
sliding movement
• Also articulate with the distal ends of
the ulna and radius and with the
proximal ends of the metacarpals
• Metacarpals: Five bones of the palm
of the hand
Phalanges
• Bones of the fingers
• There are two phalanges in
each thumb and three in each
of the fingers
Hip bones
• The pelvic girdle or pelvic bone
consists of the two hip bones
(coxae or innominate bones)
• Articulate with the axial skeleton
at the sacrum
• Each hip bone has three major
parts:
• Ilium, ischium and pubis
Hip bones
• Ilium: The flared, upper portion
that forms the sacroiliac joint
• Ischium: lower, posterior part
that we sit on
• Pubis: lower most anterior part
Pubic bones
• The 2 pubic bones articulate
with one another at the pubic
symphysis, with a disc of
fibrous cartilage between them
Acetabulum
• The socket in the hip bone that
forms a ball-and-socket joint with
the femur
• This socket is deep because the hip is
a weight-bearing joint
• The depth of the acetabulum allows
the hip joint to not be dislocated
easily even by stressful activities
Femur
• The long bone of the thigh
• Forms a very movable ball-
and-socket joint with the
hip bone
Femur
• At the proximal end of the femur
are the greater and lesser
trochanters
• These are large projections that
are anchors for muscles
• At its distal end, the femur forms
a hinge joint, the knee with the
tibia of the lower leg
Patella
• Also called kneecap
• Is anterior to the knee joint, enclosed
in the tendon of the quadriceps
femoris, a large muscle group of the
thigh
Tibia
• Is the weight-bearing bone
lower legs
• A tibial tuberosity and an
anterior crest can be felt on the
front of the leg
Fibula
• Not a weight-bearing bone
but anchors leg muscles and
helps stabilize the ankle
Tarsals
• Seven bones in the ankle
• Larger and stronger than
carpals of the wrist
• Their gliding joints do not provide
nearly as much movement
Foot
• Calcaneus: heel bone
• Talus: transmits weight between the
calcaneus and the tibia
• Metatarsals: five long bones of each
foot
• Phalanges: bones of the toes
Phalanges
• There are two phalanges in the big toe
and three in each of the other toes
• Form hinge joints with each other
• Because there is no saddle joint in the
foot, the big toe is not as movable as the
thumb
Foot
• The foot has two major arches:
longitudinal and transverse
• Supported by ligaments
• These are adaptations for walking
completely upright
Vertebral Column

• Also called spinal column or

back bone
• Made of individual bones
called vertebrae
Vertebral Column
• The names of vertebrae indicate their location
along the length of the spinal column
• There are 7 cervical vertebrae
• 12 thoracic
• 5 lumbar
• 5 sacral fused into 1 sacrum
• 4 to 5 small coccygeal vertebrae fused into 1
coccyx
Cervical vertebrae

• The seven cervical vertebrae are those

within the neck
• The first vertebra is called the atlas
• This articulates with the occipital bone to
support the skull and forms a pivot joint
with the odontoid process of the axis, the
second cervical vertebra
Cervical vertebrae

• The pivot joint allows us to turn

our heads from side to side
• The remaining cervical vertebra
do not have individual names
Thoracic vertebrae
• Articulate with the ribs on the
posterior side of the trunk
Lumbar vertebrae
• Largest and strongest bones of
the spine
• Found in the small of the back
Sacrum
• Permits the articulation of two hipbones: the sacroiliac joints
Coccyx
• The remnant of tail vertebrae and some muscles of the perineum (pelvic
floor) are anchored to it
Vertebrae

• All of the vertebrae articulate with one

another in sequence, connected by
ligaments, to form flexible backbone
that supports the trunk and head
• They also form the vertebral canal
• A continuous tunnel (lined with meninges)
within the bones that contains the spinal
cord and protects it from mechanical injury
Vertebrae
• The spinous and transverse processes are
projections for the attachment of the
muscles that bend the vertebral column
• The facets of some vertebrae are small flat
surfaces for articulation with other bones
• Such as the ribs with the facets of the thoracic
vertebrae
Vertebrae
• The supporting part of a vertebra is its
body
• The bodies of adjacent vertebrae are
separated by discs of fibrous cartilage
• These discs cushion and absorb shock and
permit some movement between vertebrae
(symphysis joints)
• Since there are so many joints, the
backbone as a whole is quite flexible
Vertebrae
• The normal spine in anatomic position
has four natural curves
• Named after the vertebrae that form them
• Cervical and lumbar curve is forward
• Thoracic and sacral curve backward
• These curves center the skull over the
rest of the body
• Enables a person to more easily walk
upright
Rib Cage

• Consist of 12 pairs of ribs and

the sternum or breastbone
• The three parts of the sternum
are the:
• upper manubrium, the central
body and the lower xiphoid
process
Rib Cage
• All the ribs articulate posteriorly with the
thoracic vertebrae
• The first seven pairs of ribs are called
true ribs
• They articulate directly with the manubrium
and body of the sternum by means of costal
cartilages
• The next three ribs are called false ribs
• Their cartilages join the 7th rib catilage
Rib Cage

• The last two pairs are called

floating ribs
• They do not articulate with the
sternum at all
Rib Cage
• The ribs are pulled upward and
outward by the external intercostal
muscles
• This enlarges the chest cavity, which
expands the lungs and contributes to
inhalation
Rib Cage Functions

• Encloses and the protects the

heart and lungs
• Also protects the organs in the
upper abdominal cavity such as
the liver and spleen