8605

Education Leadership
and Management

Submitted by: Ayesha Khalid

Assignment number 1
B.Ed 1.5 years

Allama Iqbal Open University

8/7/2022
Q.1 Discuss the role of administration in improving our educational system.

Russel T. Gregg defines, “Educational administration is the process of utilizing

appropriate materials in such a way as to promote effectively the development of human
qualities. It is concerned not only with the development of children and youth but also
with the growth of adults and particularly with the growth of school personnel.

a) Importance of Educational Administration

The purpose of educational administration is to enable an organization or an institution

to carry out its functions with maximum efficiency. It also enables the right pupils to
receive the right education and from the right teachers at a cost which should be within
the means of state, and which will enable the pupils to profit from their learning. The
basic purpose is to bring students and teachers together under such conditions which
will successfully promote the end of the education. The major purposes are:

i) To frame well-defined policies and programmes so that teaching, learning

situation results in the growth and development of human beings.
ii) To make use of appropriate materials to bring about the effective development of
human qualities.
iii) To execute the programmes and activities of the organization so that its objectives
may be achieved.
iv) To assure the growth of children and adults and all the people involved in the
management.
The other important purposes are:
1. Achievement of Goals: Educational Administration is not a goal in itself rather it
is the means to achieve goals. It must serve the aims of education. If education is a
tool for social transformation, it must inculcate and generate a sense of identification
and a sense of one’s fellow beings. Educational Administration is concerned with
human and material resources. The human elements are pupils, parents, teachers and
other employees in general at different levels. On the material side, there are money
buildings, equipments and instructional supplies. Beyond these two elements are ideas,
curricula, courses of study, methods, principles, laws and regulations, community
needs, and so on. The integration of these parts as a whole is a challenge for the
Administrator; rather these should be effectively used to achieve the goals of education.
2. Economy: The administrative setup should check that human material resource
should be economically used to achieve maximum benefits. Wastage of any, resource
should be avoided. Education in the developing countries is consistently administered
poorly. It involves extraordinarily high monetary cost and lacks in planning and
coordination. For the most efficient mobilization of a country resource, it is very
important that the plans for the development of economy and for developing human
resources should be coordinated.
3. Conservation of Resources: From the standpoint of economic development three
factors are of basic importance i.e. natural resources, physical capital and human
resources. Natural resources are not only determining factor in economic development.
Investment is directly related to economic development but varies greatly in its
effectiveness. The problem is not only to bring about an increase in the share of natural
produce, but also to bring about a more desirable allocation of investment. To make
full use of capital investment, a qualified managerial, engineering and labour force is
essential for selection, operation and maintenance of such investments. Therefore, to
bring about development using education, it is desirable to conserve the three types of
resources.
4. Optimum use of Resources: These resources should be used in such a way that
one should get the maximum benefit out of them for good and efficient administration.

b) Scope of Educational Administration

Fayol considered administration as a way to plan, to organize, to command, to

coordinate and to control education. Planning is an intellectual activity, which is
performed on the basis of facts and principles. It plans its activities in such a way that
the objectives for which it has come into existence can be achieved. To organize the
means of arrangements, by which interrelationship along with order for people,
materials, procedure, knowledge and the work can be done.

Fayol’s idea was further developed by Gulick and Urwick. The formula of the
functions of administration was referred to as POSDCORB, involving.
Planning: The establishment of the formal structure of authority through which work
subdivisions are arranged, defined and coordinated for defined objectives.
Organizing: The establishment of the formal structure of authority through which
work subdivisions are arranged, defined and coordinated for defined objectives.
Staffing: The personnel function of brining in and training the staff and maintaining
favourable conditions for work.
Directing: It is a continuous task of making decisions and also deciding on specific
and general orders and instructions and serving as the teacher of enterprise.
Coordinating: It is the important aspect of inter-relating the various parts of the work.
Reporting: Keeping the those records of who are answerable to executive and also to
inform him about what is going on, and keeping himself and his subordinate informed
through records research and inspection.
Budgeting: It is the financial planning, accounting and control.
Planning: It involves the identification and classification of objectives and scope of
operation. It also investigates to reveal the condition which is affecting the
achievement of objectives.
Organizing: Organization means taking those steps by which, the people who are
involved in administration remain in cooperative manner with each other and are
prepared to contribute their best to the joint activity of their talents and their energies
are optimally utilized.
Decision Making: It is the art of executive decision to be take on pertinent questions
which are not pre-mature and which can be effective and can be put into action.
Stimulating: A successful administrator makes all efforts to provide stimulation to the
member of the organization in order to get their cooperation spontaneously to achieve
 the goals. He avoids the exercise of authority. He does not give specific direction but
helps them to attain the highest level of creativity.
Coordinating: It s the brining up of appropriate relationships between people and the
thing which are necessary for the organization to achieve the objectives and involves
the allotment of duties and responsibilities also help the organization of all activities
of the individuals.
Communicating: It is process by which direct-information, ideas, explanations and
questions are transmitted from person to person or from group to group. There are
three channels of communication process:
1. Upward Communication is from teachers to the principals to district officials and to
directorate etc.
2. Horizontal Communication, which runs along the same level of workers and enables
the colleagues to be conversant with activities of the organization. There is no situation
of subordination or superiority.
3. Downward Communication, where the flow of communication ideas, suggestions
and commands, are from senior officers towards juniors.
Evaluating: In this process whatever activities are performed, are put to test in order
to find out the extent by which they provided success in the accomplishment of set
goals. It is done to find out the weak spots and to make improvement in future by
overcoming the deficiencies. Evaluation is done through cooperative studies, surveys,
testing programmes, opinion polls, etc.

Q.2 Explain the responsibilities of school heads to maintain the discipline.

Hiring new teachers and other staff: The staffing needs of a school are diverse but
head teachers tend to have all the information needed for this. They will decide which
areas of the school need new personnel and move forward to hiring (Cranston, 2012).
This may be additional teachers or non-teaching staff. The head teacher will take the
responsibility of finding and hiring suitable people for various duties in a school.

Setting The School Schedule: Although schools run based on a universal schedule set
by the ministry of education or other concerned authorities, there are other smaller
school activities that need to be planned internally. Lesson scheduling, meal times, and
sports time are all within the purview of the school administration. The head teacher
will, therefore, create a schedule for his or her school that allocates enough time for all
important activities within the calendar year given by the ministry of education or other
concerned authorities.

Delegating Roles: A school is an institution that has various departments and a number
of staff members. In order for it to function correctly, people need to play very specific
roles based on their expertise and skills.

Provide Conducive Learning Environment: Head teachers also have a responsibility

of ensuring that there is a conducive learning environment. Effective head teachers
allow both the teachers and students to put learning at the center of the daily routine. A
good school environment is characterized by basic factors such as orderliness and safety.
Additionally, less tangible factors such as good attitude, supportive and responsive are
also important. The climate in a school goes hand in hand with good performance.

A Teacher Evaluator: The head teacher is also responsible for evaluating the overall
performance of the teachers. The evaluation is done based on set guidelines given by
the ministry of concerned authorities. For a school to be effective, the teachers must
also be effective. An evaluation system is therefore put in place in order for teachers
are as effective as possible.

Developing, Implementing and Evaluating Programs: The head teachers will also
be greatly involved in any school development Head teachers are always looking to
improve the student and the teacher experience in their schools. These developments
are implemented in partnership with other stakeholders. The head teachers will be in
charge of implementing these developments and evaluating their success.

Reviewing and Developing Policies: Every school has a set of rules and regulations.
These rules act as student‘s guidebooks. They are meant to guide the conduct and
behavior of students and teachers within the school environment. It is the job of head
teachers to develop these rules. Head teachers may also review and rewrite the rules in
order to offer the best possible student or teaching experience.

Dealing with professional/accreditation issues affecting the discipline.

Headteachers and teachers have a responsibility of ensuring that learners get the best
out of their studies. Considering this, there is extensive research trying to understand
the role of head teachers and teachers in a school institution. The head teacher is in
charge of the whole school and therefore supervises the entire school program and is
fully responsible for the effectiveness and proficiency of all activities in the school.

Promote performance: Head teachers have a responsibility of promoting academic

performance in a school institution. The quality of education in many countries is
evaluated based on the number of students who pass in their national examination. In
light of this, it is important for head teachers to put the necessary measures in place in
order to ensure the school institution is well organized and managed.

Chairing meetings of the discipline: Proposing to the Director of Teaching and

Learning (Undergraduate) the distribution of teaching for staff in the discipline.

Contributing to policy formation and strategic planning: Determining, with

disciplinary colleagues, content and curriculum of major courses, e.g. Moderatorships
or half-Moderatorships; liaising with course directors of interdisciplinary courses or
taught postgraduate courses.

Head of Discipline - Role and Responsibilities: The responsibilities of Heads of

Discipline will include: Providing academic leadership in the discipline, including
advising junior colleagues in the context of promotion and promoting
colleagues‘ research opportunities. Having responsibility for the oversight of standards
pertaining to the discipline, and (with Head of School) the preservation of disciplinary
integrity. Briefing the Head of School on any matters relating to the welfare of the
discipline in College. Participating on nominating committees and advising the Head
of School on recruitment of part-time staff in the discipline, as appropriate. Being a
member of Executive Committee of the School and (where one exists) the Research
Committee.

Maintaining Parent And Community Relations: The head teacher is the liaison
between the parents and the school. He is also the representative of the school and will
pursue collaboration with the community and parents on behalf of the school. The head
teacher is also responsible for fostering better relations between the school
administration and staff with the parents and the community around.

Enforcing Discipline: A head teacher has a responsibility of enforcing discipline in a

school organization. This refers to the discipline of teachers, students, and other
working staffs.

Budgeting and Planning: Headteachers work with the governing body in the school
to develop a strategic view of the school in its community and plan for its future needs
and further development. The principal develops the plan in consultation with school
executives including the preparation of a staffing and resource plan.

Chain Of Command Role: The head teacher is the center of both the teaching and the
administration process. This means that he or she is the middleman between the staff
and the school board. He is the liaison between the board management and the rest of
the staff. He or she communicates board decisions to the staff and communications staff
and student needs to the board.

Q.3 Discuss the role of supervisor and different techniques of supervision.

Role of Supervisor:
The supervisors give orders and instructions which are material, as to the performance
of the tasks. These orders and instructions play an important role in initiating,
modifying and terminating the activities. Therefore, it is the supervision which inducts
the work, as well as follows it up, in a number of steps, until it is done.
The supervisor's function is to "release and co-operate rather to contro1 the creative
abilities of teachers. Therefore role of supervisor may be divided into two categories.
1. Administrative Roles
Following administrative roles are to be followed by supervisor:
i. Selection and appointment of class four or supporting staff
ii. Sanction and payment of school grants
iii. Providing facilities to school
iv. Supervising the developmental tasks of school
v. Recognition and gradation of school
vi. Holding the scholarship examination and awarding scholarships
vii. Approval of the resolution of management committee
viii. Checking the accounts and records of the school
ix. Checking the safety and security of the school plant
x. Maintaining proper service conditions for teachers
xi. Checking proper distribution of work load
xii. Reporting to higher authority about the teacher promotion on the basis of
their performance
xiii. Welfare of the teachers
2. Academic Roles
i. Supervision of teaching learning activities
ii. Exchanging and maintaining the educational standard
iii. Evaluating and improving the teaching learning process
iv. Orientation of teachers through in-service teaching courses

Different Techniques of Supervision

Supervision implies one to one and prompt guidance provided to the employees, along
with instructing, monitoring and controlling them when they carry out any task or job
to check if they are working according to the organization‘s plans and policies, in a
timely manner. Besides this, supervision also involves resolving the issues and work-
related problems of the employees.
Chandrasekaran (1994 pp. 139-140) augmented about these techniques:
 Preventive
 Corrective
 Constructive
 Creative
a) Preventive: A supervisor, should be the preventive supervisor like the headmaster
or an external supervisor like the inspector, who can be sure that certain difficulties will
confront every new teacher in school he/she can anticipate the teacher's difficulties as
far as possible and prevent them. This type helps the teacher to correct his fault in
himself and encourages his professional ambition.
b) Corrective: The supervisor who goes into the classroom with the intention of finding
what is wrong will invariable be successful in doing that. It makes him dissatisfied and
the teacher unhappy. It must not be thought corrective supervision is unimportant It is
the kind most teachers want; the supervisor should be on the lookout primarily for faults
but lie should make continuous efforts to see each fault in its true place in the hole
process of education some faults can be over looked as trival and identical. While
some require immediate attention otherwise they may permanently invalidate teacher's
effectiveness.
c) Constructive: Supervision should be constructive and at times, concerned with the
correction of poor practice, minor or major, but it should not stop there. The healthiest
procedure is to induce growth rather than to remove defects. Constructive supervision
seeks a steady growth in the power to perform better the activities already well
performed. Teachers become happier and stronger by healthy development than they
are while suffering from pedagogic amputations. The wise supervisor will always
attempt to share teacher with his vision of what good teaching really should be and in
this way he will stimulate, encourage, and direct them to grow in competence to make
it real.
d) Creative: Creative supervision implies that the supervision should encourage variety,
originality and independent experimentation. Creative supervision differs from
constructive super on the attempt to free teachers for the largest possible contribution
that they can make by their ingenuity. Which is a device for more effectively achieving
the aim of education.
Q.4 Discuss the educational planning and its approaches. How for these are too
be followed in Pakistan?

“Educational Planning is a continuous process of obtaining and analyzing facts and,

from empirical base, of providing information to decision makers on how well the
education system is accomplishing its goals in particular, on how the cost effectiveness
of education programmes and specific projects can be improved.”

Approaches of Educational Planning:

Educational planning till recently has been undertaken as a separate exercise having no
substantial links with planning in other socio-economic sectors. The first indication of
a link between education and economy was a result of attempts to match training
facilities to the forecasts of manpower requirement of various sectors of economy. Later,
more comprehensive approaches were evolved to adopt education to general
development. Education plans were thought out and prepared in conjunction with other
planning activities. Some of the most familiar approaches are briefly described.
Planners have developed formal methodologies for planning. The three most common
methodologies are (i) The Social Demand Approach: (ii) The Manpower Requirements
Approach; and (iii) The Rate of Returns Approach.

i) The Social Demand Methodology: This aims at planning education to

meet the demands of the society for education. It views education as
something good in itself and required by every individual. If this
methodology is adopted, education institutions and facilities will be located
wherever they are needed. Societies where this approach is used are mostly;
those which aim at social equality or culture or the spread of an ideology;
and those (especially political leaders) who have respect for public demands.
The Social Demand Approach requires a rational method of location and
 distribution of educational facilities so that they will respect the population
distribution (by numbers, age, sex, geographical densities, etc.). Thus this
methodology emphasizes equitable distribution mostly by universalization
of some levels of education. The problem with this methodology is that it
easily gives rise to over-expansion, poor facilities, irrelevant curricular and
consequently poor quality (falling standards).
ii) The Manpower Requirement Methodology: This approach focuses on the
objective of using education for producing the required manpower for
development. This approach adopts several methods to forecast or project
the numbers, types, levels and distribution of manpower so that educational
plans, content and programmes should focus on those identified manpower
needs. Some of the methods used include (a) The Employers’ Opinion
Method (by which employers furnish data on their manpower needs for the
future, as these figures are used to project the manpower requirements by
levels, skills, etc.)
(b) the Incremental Labour Output Ratio (ILOR) Method, by this method a
fixed relationship is assumed to exist between the increment of a certain
category of labour (e.g. High, or Middle Level) and the growth of output of
an economic sector or national income,
(c) The International Comparison Method: which involves using data or
equations based on other developed and developing countries to forecast the
manpower requirements in another country by processes of Analogy, or the
Harbison’s Rule of Thumb (e.g. that an increase of 1% in normal output
should be accompanied by an increase of 2% in the Senior, and 3% in the
International Manpower):
(d) the Density Ratio Method (an estimation of stable ratios between
different categories of manpower).
iii) The Rate of Returns Methodology: This method attempts to determine the
private and public costs of education of various types and various levels
with the projected benefits or returns (using cost-benefit analysis) to such
 education. This methodology takes the view that education is essentially an
investment, which like other investments should be capable of yielding
some profits over time, after discounting or adjusting for unemployment,
wastage ability variables, and labour force participation.
iv) Unit Costs: Average, total, unit costs, etc.
v) Equality and Disparity Issues: Access to Educational System by age, sex,
geographical distribution, spatial dispersal, etc.
vi) Organizational Structures: Communication flows along-with distribution
of power, authority and functions.
vii) Demographic Factors: Age, sex, geographical distribution, population
dynamics, migrations.
viii) Political Factors: Political commitments, policy and administrative support.
ix) External Efficiency: Relevance, responsiveness
x) Occupational Needs: Present and future which should be according to
various levels of education and different sectors of economy.

Educational Planning approaches in Pakistan:

At the time of independence, Pakistan inherited an educational system that was

launched by a foreign government before hundred years ago. This system was
established on economic, cultural, social, and political notions that were totally
dissimilar from the ideologies of independent nations. 85% of the population of
Pakistan was illiterate at the time of independence. Educational planning and
policymaking in Pakistan during the period were commenced which demonstrates the
fixing of goals and Educational Planning and Policy. From that time to nowadays,
Pakistan set and followed educational planning approaches with a proper curriculum.

Q.5 Discuss the criteria for student classification. Give suggestions for improving
the process of student’s classification in Pakistan.

Criteria and suggestions for student classification:

 i) History (Some Plans of Students Classification)

Since the purpose of school is to serve the needs of pupils, a major responsibility of the
administrator is to organize the school and classify pupils to facilitate the achievement
of this purpose. Even before schools were divided into grades, this adjustment problem
was present. Dividing schools into grades helped solve some problems related to
textbooks, facilities, materials, and methods, but at the same time, another problem was
crated. This new problem is the “lock step” system. The “lock step” system, including
what is known as “grade standard”, has made it very difficult to meet the needs of
individual pupils. Too often administrators have been content to make the individual
try to adjust to the school – that is, to the teachers, methods of instruction, courses,
grades and standards of a particular grade or subject-instead of adjusting the school to
the pupil. Individual differences of pupils within any age group, subject class, or grade,
make it necessary for the administration to provide some means for respecting those
differences. Many innovations in curriculum, teaching method, and organization have
been tried. A few of these will be discussed here.

Winnetka Plan: Around 1920, a plan of individual instruction for elementary school
children within a grade was inaugurated at Winnetka, Illionis. The curriculum for each
grade was divided into two parts – the common essentials and the group activities. The
common essentials – the knowledge and the skills considered necessary for all pupils –
were divided into units or “goals”. Assignment sheet, work sheets, diagnostic practice
tests, and final tests were provided for each unit. Each child worked at his own rate for
the mastery of each unit. When the individual had mastered the unit, he proceeded to
the next unit of work. Group activities were designed as part of the pupil’s work each
day.

Unit Plan: Another means of individualizing classroom work is the unit plan of
teaching. The units of work are organized around a comprehensive and significant
aspect of our environment of science, of art, or of conduct. The unit plan is a teaching
procedure and requires no changes in school organization. There have been many
adaptation of the unit method, such as the project, activity and problem assignments.
These methods are distinct departures from the traditional subject-matter recitation type
of teaching. The unit method of teaching has had great influences in the elementary and
secondary schools by focusing attention upon the organization of the subject matter for
the purpose of meeting the needs of individual pupils. The unit method has also had
influence upon the curriculum being offered in many schools. Effort has been made
continually to change the curriculum in the schools to meet the needs of all youth.

Techniques of Instruction: Adjustment of the instructional programme of meet the

needs of the individual are possible not only through a changed curriculum but also
through techniques of instruction. The following suggestions relate to instruction for
meeting individual needs:

1. Develop units on life problems rather than on abstract subject matter problems.
2. Teach to focus on the satisfaction of needs recognized by the learners.
3. Provide adequate counseling and guidance services.
4. Utilize more fully teaching resources such as films, radio, television, teaching
machines and the local community environment.
5. Use a wide variety of printed materials.

Summer School: Many school districts operate summer schools as a means of

adjusting the schools to the pupils. These schools, however, are operated primarily for
students who have failed or for those who wish to make additional credits in order to
complete high school in three years. Some elementary and high school pupils attend
summer school because they have not measured up to the standard of the particular
grade or subject.

Grouping: Grouping students by some means other than chronological age has been of
interest to many educational leaders for the past three decades. It is rather unusual to
find a professional book which does not have a treatise on homogeneous grouping. In
most cases, homogeneous grouping has meant grouping pupils according to mental
ability or achievement in subject matter. Arguments for homogeneous grouping usually
include the following:

1. Homogeneous groups are usually taught by the same methods as are heterogeneous
groups.
2. Grouping saves the teachers’ time and energy.
3. More subject matter is covered in the same period of time.
4. Poor students are not discouraged.
5. Specially trained teachers can be employed for poorer pupils.
6. A homogeneous group can be taught as an individual.
7. The Brighter pupils are encouraged.
8. Loafing on the part of superior pupils is reduced or eliminated. There certainly are
arguments against homogeneous grouping.

Among such arguments are the following:

1. No basis for grouping has been developed which is sufficiently objective.
2. Unwholesome competition may be engendered.
3. People are not strictly groped in their life occupations according to ability.
4. Status distinctions, characteristic of a class society, may be fostered.
5. Groups cannot be formed which are homogeneous in each curriculum area because
abilities of a single student vary from subject to subject.
6. No practical way has been found to group on the basis of special ability.
7. Grouping according to ability often causes jealousy and resentment on the part of the
pupils and parents.

Non-graded elementary School: the non-graded elementary school is a movement

which is slowly gaining supporters. This plan of classifying students is attributed to the
results of the child study movement, which revealed that children differ in many ways,
and to studies revealing the negative effects of non-promotion upon pupil achievement
and adjustment. The non-graded elementary school offers three major organizational
advantages in classifying students:
(1) A unit span of years that is adaptable to the lags and sports normally accompanying
the development of child;
(2) progress level that permit a child to pick up after an absence from school at the point
where he previously left off
(3) a time range that permits children of approximately the same chronological age to
remain together while progressing at different academic rates suited to individual
capacities.

ii) General Criteria for Student Classification

Grouping has been feature of schools in all countries. In earlier times, a typical small
community had about enough people of school age to fill one classroom. The teacher
handled all ages and all subjects as well as janitorial duties. When the student
population grew too large for one teacher a second was hired and the students were
divided between them. Age was the common selection factor. All students six through
twelve years of age were assigned to one teacher, all those from twelve up were
assigned to the other. As the population grew, so did the number of classroom groups.
Grouping on the basis of age usually made no signed to the first grade, seven year olds
to the second, and so on. If there was too many six years olds for one teacher, two first
grades were established.

iii) Common Patterns

Ungraded Grouping: Grade levels are abandoned. The early one-teacher schools were
ungraded because they contained students of all grade levels in one classroom.
Contemporary ungraded-grouping patterns usually distinguish between lower
elementary and upper elementary, ungraded primary and ungraded intermediate.
Students are assigned to an ungraded primary for at least their first three years of
schooling.
Intra-Classroom Ability Grouping: Within the classroom, students are grouped on
the basis of ability. The pattern is most common in reading where student are given a
reading achievement test and then assigned to one of three groups according to their
performance-a “high group,” a “middle group,” and a “low group”. This grouping
pattern has been used at all grade levels from kindergarten through high school.

Special Ability Grouping: Students are assigned for short periods and, on the basis of
their ability, to a special teacher. For half an hour each day a remedial reading teacher
might work with students below a certain reading level and an enrichment teacher might
work with students above a certain level. Remedial programs for disadvantaged
students may use a number of intellectual, academic and social factors in selection as
might enrichment programs for gifted students.

Intra-Classroom Individualized Grouping: Instruction in the classroom is provided

for one student at a time. Regarding programs called “individualized reading” (Veatch
1966) follow this pattern. The pattern has become more popular in the last ten years
because of the availability of published, self-instructional materials. The best use of a
continuous-progress selecting students into individual group varies widely and
sometimes none is used; students just work alone.

Inter-Classroom Subject Grouping: Students are grouped according to the subject

they are studying. During a two-hour period, teacher A has reading Class A for the first
hour and reading with Class B for the second hour. Teacher B follows the opposite
schedule for mathematics. The pattern is also followed when special teachers are hired
to teach all the music, art and physical education.

Inter-Classroom Ability Grouping: Students are assigned to classrooms according to

their performance on intelligence and achievement tests. For example, students might
he assigned to one of the two sixth-grade classrooms on the basis of their scores on a
general achievement test.
Split-Day Grouping: Students are assigned to a split-day schedule as a means of
reducing class size for critical subjects. It is commonly used for reading in the primary
grades.