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Curriculum Development

Submitted by: Ayesha Khalid

Assignment number 1
B.ED 1.5 year

Allama Iqbal Open University

8/7/2022
Q. 1 Critically analyze the process of educational planning in the implementation
of curriculum in Pakistan.

Curriculum plays a vital role in attaining the aims and objectives of education tend to.
It reflects the curricular and co-cun-icular trends in our institutions i.e. the courses of
study, the objectives of education, the methodology of teaching including teaching aids,
and evaluation methods.
Curriculum planning is the preliminary phase of curriculum development when the
curriculum workers make decisions and take action to establish the plan that teachers
and students carry out.

Characteristics of Curriculum Planning:

These may be stated as:
I. Curriculum planning is ultimately concerned with the experiences of the learners.
2. Curriculum planning involves decisions about both content and planning.
3. Curriculum planning involves decisions about a variety of issues.
4. Curriculum planning involves many groups.
5. Curriculum planning takes place at many levels.
6. Curriculum planning is a continuous process.

Process of Curriculum Development

The process of curriculum development begins with the following:
I. Formulation of objectives of education, which are based on the ultimate, aims of life,
and also on the political and social philosophy and development needs of a country.
2. Specification of objectives of education in respect of different stages of school
education and also in respect of different subjects and activities and experiences at
different stages of education.
3. Determination of the scheme of studies, syllabi, etc,
4. Preparation of instruction materials like textbooks, supplementary readers
workbooks, teacher guides, etc.
5. Implementation of the curriculum in the school.
6. Evaluation of curriculum to ensure quality control for effecting suitable
modifications in the curriculum.

Educational Planning in Pakistan Curriculum

Weeler (1974; p-30) has given five elements of curriculum as:

l. The selection of aims, goals and objectives.

2. The selection of learning experiences calculated to help in the attainment of these
aims, goals and objectives.
3. The selection of content (subject matter) through which certain types of experience
14 may be offered.
4. The organization alid integration of learning experiences and content with respect lo
the teaching learning process within school and classroom.
5. Evaluation of the effectiveness of all aspects of phases 2,3, and 4 in attaining the
goals detailed in phase I.

In the light of above mentioned elements and taking into consideration the' educational
system in Pakistan, curriculum must have the following important basic factors: (a)
Situational analysis (b) Setting the objectives. (c) Content (d) Learning experiences (e)
Evaluation
(a) Situational Analysis:

Geographical condition of the country, society, its religion and culture, all influence
the process of curriculum development, as one of the functions of the curriculum is
to preserve the cultural heritage of society and the school programs are responsible
to transmit this heritage to the coming generation.
The curriculum development process is also influenced by the geographical
Conditions especially when general decisions are made for school timings, duration
of work, summer and winter vacations, availability of natural sources, animals,
plants, etc.
In the same way, sociological conditions are also important to be kept in view.
According to Murray, Print (1993; p-39), "Curriculum developers serve like
function of translating traditional assumptions, knowledge and attitudes into
curriculum objectives, content, learning activities and evaluation of these elements
sociological sources have their greatest impact on education system of a country,
When curriculum is planned, the cultural background of the concerned society is
also considered.
The objectives, which are set, the content, which is selected, the methods, which
are followed, and the evaluation procedures, which are adopted, all can only be
effectively done if they are according to the cultural and religious background of
the country. Curriculum planners have to give due importance to the society, beliefs,
attitudes, values, likeness, dislikeness, etc. during the process of curriculum
development.

(b) Setting the Objectives:

The objectives play a pivot role in the curriculum design. They are the starting point.
Nothing can be done without having any target to be achieved.
Hughes (1967) indicated that there are normally four sources or inputs through
which curriculum developers go for objectives. These are society. knowledge,
learners and learning process. Curriculum planners use research findings and
opinions of philosophers, and educationists. Psychologists, subject specialists and
sociologists as inputs for their designs.
The selection of objectives is based on their collective value position, which is
supposed to be representative of society because the composition of the committee
is meant to reflect this and the opinion of the committee is focused on the main
targets or objectives to be achieved. Perhaps you tend to use the terms 'goals' 'aims'
and 'objectives interchangeable. But, in fact, these terms express different concepts.
Therefore, we should be clear about the main distinctions at this stage, although
they are treated in much more detail in coming units. Educational aims refer to the
overall purposes of education, which represent the needs, and aspirations of society
as manifested in its educational policy.
Goals are the general purposes of education that are normally prepared for a
particular stage or level of the education system; whereas objectives refer more
precisely to the changes in behavior, which we hope will result from studying
particular courses. While goals are less general than aims but less specific than
objectives.

(c) Subject Matter or Content:

This is the element. which has been emphasized mainly in the past. At the time of
subject matter selection, the following factors are to be considered:

 Type of society/culture
 Type of curriculum
 Number of diversified courses offered Scope of the subject itself
 Level age of the learners
 Number and qualifications of the teachers
 Available sources and resources
 Strength in the classrooms
 Demands of the society
 International needs Methods of content organization System, of
examination, etc.

(d) Methods of Teaching/Activities:

This is another important element of curriculum development. It includes the

method\ adopted by the teacher during instruction and the learning experiences or
activities performed by the students. This element has been ignored too often in the
past and even it is being ignored at present. It is not fair to ask teachers to achieve
certain goals without giving them guidelines how to go to the achievement of
desired goals. In Pakistan the curriculum development process is centralized.

(e) Evaluation:

Curriculum development is a dynamic process, which needs continuous research

and evaluation for its betterment.
In order to cope with society’s demands and bring about desirable changes,
evaluation is made by the curriculum planners/researchers and teachers.
Curriculum evaluation must not be misinterpreted as student evaluation. It is a broad
term used to make judgments about the set curriculum and to make decisions about
the worth or effectiveness of it on the basis of evaluation the experts can modify the
 curriculum by bringing about desirable changes. Keeping into account the process
of dynamic nature of curriculum development, evaluation becomes necessary for
decision-making at all stages in curriculum planning. Guba and Stufflebeam (1970)
identified four types of decisions, which are involved in-curriculum evaluation.
(a) Planning (objectives to be selected).
(b) Planning procedure (personnel, method and material to employ).
(c) Implementing procedures (whether to continue, modify or abandon a procedural
plant plan).
(d) Outcomes (extent of achievements of targets or objectives).

Q.2 Analyze various models of objectives and develop a model for Pakistan.

Various Models of Objective

Behavioral objectives go by several names _ specific objectives, performance

objectives and instructional objectives. Increasing interest has been shown in them
during the last two decades. The educational community is, however, divided with a
great many outstanding scholars like Bloom, Tyler, Gagne and Taba considering them
a virtual renaissance, while other prominent figures regard them as tool mechanistic
and dehumanizing. The debate continues but with current rethinking, some sort of
compromise may be reached in the near future.

The current interest in behavioral objectives has arisen from several sources. Among
these are the famous works of educational theorists like Tyler, Bloom, Mager and
krathwohl which lay heavy stress on the need for accurate assessment and measurement
of learners' knowledge in terms of observable and specific human behaviors.

Tyler’s Model

Tyler’s model for curriculum designing is based on the following questions:

• What educational purposes should the school seek to attain?

• What educational experiences can be provided that are likely to attain these purposes?

• How can these educational experiences be effectively organized?

• How can we determine whether these purposes are being attained?

The model is linear in nature, starting from objectives and ending with evaluation. In
this model, evaluation is terminal. It is important to note that:

• Objectives form the basis for the selection and organization of learning experiences.

• Objectives form the basis for assessing the curriculum.

• Objectives are derived from the learner, contemporary life and subject specialist.

To Tyler, evaluation is a process by which one matches the initial expectation with the
outcomes.

Wheeler’s Model

Wheeler’s model for curriculum design is an improvement upon Tyler’s model. Instead
of a linear model, Wheeler developed a cyclical model. Evaluation in Wheeler’s model
is not terminal. Findings from the evaluation are fed back into the objectives and the
goals, which influence other stages.
Wheeler contends that:

• Aims should be discussed as behaviours referring to the end product of learning which
yields the ultimate goals. One can think of these ultimate goals as outcomes.

• Aims are formulated from the general to the specific in curriculum planning. This
results in the formulation of objectives at both an enabling and a terminal level.

• Content is distinguished from the learning experiences which determine that content.

Kerr’s Model

Most of the features in Kerr’s model resemble those in Wheeler’s and Tyler’s models.
However, Kerr divided the domains into four areas
• objectives,
• knowledge,
• evaluation, and
• school learning experiences.
What you should note about the model is that:

• the four domains are interrelated directly or indirectly, and

• objectives are derived from school learning experiences and knowledge.

In Kerr’s model, objectives are divided into three groups:

• affective

• cognitive

• psychomotor.

The model further indicates that knowledge should be:

• organised,

• integrated,

• sequenced, and

• reinforced.

Evaluation in Kerr’s model is the collection of information for use in making decisions
about the curriculum. School learning experiences are influenced by societal
opportunities, the school community, pupil and teacher relationships, individual
differences, teaching methods, content and the maturity of the learners. These
experiences are evaluated through tests, interviews, assessments and other reasonable
methods.

In his model, Kerr asserts that everything influences everything else and that it is
possible to start an analysis at any point.

A Proposed Pakistani Model

The Pakistani model of curriculum objectives should be developed with reference to

our peculiar situation, keeping in view our ideological commitments, teachers'
capabilities, their daily teaching load, the nature and demands of different subjects,
humanistic considerations, aesthetic sensitivities and the socio-cultural context in
which the educational drama is being staged and acted. Due consideration should be
given to new trends and approaches in the professional field and some of these may be
assimilated into our model after through critical examination and scrutiny.

Since the Quran emphasizes purpose, clarity and effective communication, we

must have clear-cut aims to start with. The fundamental aims will be stable and
permanent while others will change with the march of time. These aims must embrace
the various aspects of human life including emotion and intellect, the behavioral and
non-behavioral, the material and spiritual, the process and the product. We should never
allow our vision to be blurred by transient intellectual idiosyncracies tempered with
emotion. Beliefs, values and ideals constitute the core of Islam, and we should not shy
away from our cultural core. A balanced and creative synthesis should be our goal.

As for the level of specificity of objectives, no hard and fast rules can be formulated.
Effective communication appears to be a useful working criterion. Also, the nature and
demands of a subject will further determine the position. In general, however, the over-
detailed specification should be avoided, with highly technical and complex fonts being
used only at critical points in planning, programming, and teaching. We should utilize
the principle of operationalism but with a sense of preparation and balance.

Islamic framework: The Pakistani model thus conceived would not be a prototype of
any existing, be it behavioral, humanistic, or any other. Rather it would transcend all
these approaches in a peculiar fashion, combining creatively the healthy points to the
Islamic framework as applied in the Pakistani situation.

Four cardinal principles: In brief, the Pakistani model must emerge from the
educational soil of Pakistan with reference to Islam and our typical educational situation.
Thus cultural relevance, comprehensiveness, balance and dynamism are the four
cardinal principles of this proposed Pakistani model.

In conclusion, we would like to quote of few verses from the poet of the east which are
relevant at this point.

Q.3 How does and to what extent a social and economic diversities affect
curriculum development? Discuss in detail.

The curriculum foundations may be defined as those basic forces that influence and
shape the minds of curriculum developers and enhance the content and structure of the
subsequent curriculum.

Curriculum costs money so economically that will influence the whole thing. Some
books cost more than others but all new textbooks are very expensive. Then you have
to pay the teachers who go over those books and come up with lesson plans, tests,
answer keys, etc. It takes a lot of time and planning to get a whole year's worth of
lessons for each subject they teach. It doesn't just come to them all set up.

According to sociologists, schools are social institutions especially set up for the
preservation of culture and transmission of culture by society. School seeks to discharge
this function through the curriculum. The curriculum, therefore, includes learning
experiences based on the ways of life, kinds of knowledge; attitudes and beliefs that are
considered important by society. Some kinds of selection are needed, as all the aspects
of culture cannot be included in the curriculum planning thus becomes a way for the
selection of various elements.

There are various sociological foundations like cultural, economic and political that
deeply influence the school curriculum, its conception, content and organization.
Among the most important sociological considerations that should guide those engaged
in the task of curriculum development, may be listed as below:

 Core values of society

 Changing values of the people
 Demands of modernization
 Criterion of a good family life
 New forms of cooperation
 Media explosion
 Population explosion
 Regional and national imbalances
 Economic efficiency
 Education for fellowship and leadership creative and purposeful activities

Curriculum for Modernizing the Society

The curriculum for modernizing the society stressed the following:

 Restructuring contents of the various subjects in the light of modern

development in science and technology.
 Adopting new methods of teaching.
 Encouraging activities for awakening cunosity and developmental interests,
attitudes and values and the building up of such essential skills as independent
study and capacity to think and judge for oneself.

Influences of Society and Culture on Curriculum

The social and cultural influences that affect curriculum developers are evident in both
conscious and unconscious ways and their impact is certainly profound. Education
manifests through the curriculum and reflects society and culture, that reflection is a
result of curriculum developers being an integral part "of that society and culture in
both of the above ways. In this way the curriculum more "reflects" society and than
society leads to change.

Indirectly society and culture influence curriculum developers simply because they are
members of a particular society, cultural values, attitudes and beliefs are acquired by
individuals unaware of that process, yet, once acquired, these cultural traits become
consolidated and affect our social behaviour. And when the process of curriculum
development takes place, the cultural traits within developers influence the very
selection of objectives, contents, methods and evaluations that constitute the curriculum
they are devising.

Take, for example, a group of primary school teachers, who decide to, enhance the
literacy component of an existing curriculum on completion one could analyze the
result to determine why they undertook the task, what objectives were formulated, what
content was unplayed, how it was taught and how it was evaluated. In many instances,
when probed deeply, the teachers would be unaware of the basis of their decisions, if
story reading were a component of the revised curriculum, what proportion would be
of oral reading? Why? And how would that be assessed? What stories were selected for
students? Why? These are typical of the questions that should be asked of curriculum
developers when they construct curricula, and which reveal indirect influences of
society and culture. Alternatively, curriculum developers may be well aware of social
and cultural influences and have the deliberate intention in mind (or not) of reproducing
aspects of that culture m the curriculum.

Q.4 What is the impact of instructional technology on the development of

curriculum in Pakistan?
Within this wide array of teaching methods, teachers are faced with the problem of
selecting the method or methods which are most suited to a curriculum plan. As it is
desirable to use a number of content organizing designs according to the objectives, so
it is in the selection of instructional methods. Some important guidelines for the
selection of instructional methods are given below:

Achievement of Objectives:

Achievement of the instructional objectives is the first consideration in planning for

teaching. The objectives postulated for a course, activi_ty, or unit of work should
therefore be the primary factor in planning instruction. A general objective may be
attained by a wide range of teaching methods, but specific objectives for instruction
once detennined narrow the choices considerably.

Principles of Learning

While selecting a method of instruction the teaching should know the theories and
principles of learning which underlie a certain method of instruction. This would help
him adapt the method to the individual needs and methods of learning of a larger
number of students.

Individual Learning Styles

Lee Cronbach and Richard Snow believe that most effective teaming takes place when
the interactive process (teaching) is one that is best suited to the individual student in
terms of his learning style. A learning environment that is "optimal for one person is
not optimal for another". The Rand Corporation study( 197 1 ) supports these findings
by asserting that "teacher, student, instructional method, and perhaps, other aspects of
the educational process interact with each other. Thus a teacher who works well (is
effective) with one type of student using one method might be ineffective when working
with another student having different characteristics, or when using another method.
The effectiveness of a teacher, or method, or whatever varies from one situation to
another".

Self-fulfilling Prophecies and Educational Stratification

Opinion of the teacher about a student's abilities or capabilities based on perfonnance

in the classroom, influence the ways in which the teacher will work with the student,
both with regard to interactive process (teaching) and the content of instruction.
Psychologists believe that children differ in their learning abilities and processes. On
the basis of these differences, educational processes should also be differentiated. But
Cronback and Snow are against this differentiation which is on the basis of contrived
tests, observation or past achievement of school programme and that which results in
educational stratification. As B.F. Skinner stated "we need to find practices which
pennit all teachers to teach well and under which all students learn as efficiently as their
talents pennit".

Facilities, Equipment and Resources

Instructional planning is often influenced by the available facilities that maybe used,
and the administrative organization and structure of the school. Whatever restrictive
influence the facilities, equipment and resources may, have on the instructional
planning a teacher should be as imaginative and resourceful as possihle in using
methods that involve student in a highly active role.

Accountability

Teacher, administrators and others employed to provide education have always been
held responsible for quality of their work in as much as curriculum plans related to
accountability The term accountability means that someone has to report, explain or
justify to someone else. Thus accountability is a master-servant, employee-employer
relationship, that is, some party answering to another party. It involves assessment,
appraisal and evaluation whichever is appropriate.
Helps in Research and Development

Technology plays vital role as it helps in research and development. Learn the
importance of technology in instructional design over here. When making plans for
higher education in order to seek career advancement or to achieve any other sets of
goals, it is important to look at the big picture.

Q.5 Critically review the existing schemes of studies at a secondary level of

education. How schemes of studies are developed and processed in our country
after the 18th constitutional amendment?

Scheme of Studies:

The scheme of studies means the courses/syllabi prescribed at different levels of

education. The scheme of studies is given as follows:

• Primary Level: The subjects at the primary level are regional languages, Urdu,
Counting, Simple Arithmetic, Nature Study and Islamiyat.

• Middle Level: The subjects at the middle level are regional languages, Urdu, English,
Algebra, Geometry, Science, Social Studies, and Islamiyat.

• Secondary Level: The subjects at the secondary level are Urdu, English, Islamiyat,
Pakistan studies – compulsory subjects for all groups. Humanities group students study
General Science and Mathematics as additional compulsory subjects and two optional
subjects of their choice.

18th Constitutional amendment

At present, the following schemes targeted at secondary stage (i.e. class IX to XII) are
being implemented in the form of Centrally Sponsored Schemes.

Rashtriya Madhyamik Shiksha Abhiyan Girls Hostel Scheme

National Scheme of Incentives to Girls for Secondary Education Inclusive Education
for Disabled at Secondary Stage.

Scheme of Vocational Education

National Merit-cum-Means Scholarship Scheme Scheme for construction and running

of Girls‟ Hostel for students of secondary and higher secondary schools Scholarship
schemes for Minority students National Scholarships HSC pass students can do B.Sc
(agriculture) and M.Sc (agriculture) or Agricultural Engineering in an agricultural
college or university. After doing MA, MS, MSC or M.com, students can get a Ph.D.
Degree in 4 years.

Scheme of Studies: The scheme of studies means the courses/syllabi prescribed at

different levels of education. The scheme of studies is given as follows:

• Primary Level: The subjects at the primary level are regional languages, Urdu,
Counting, Simple Arithmetic, Nature Study and Islamiyat.

• Middle Level: The subjects at the middle level are regional languages, Urdu, English,
Algebra, Geometry, Science, Social Studies, and Islamiyat.

• Secondary Level: The subjects at the secondary level are Urdu, English, Islamiyat,
Pakistan studies – compulsory subjects for all groups. Humanities group students study
General Science and Mathematics as additional compulsory subjects and two optional
subjects of their choice

The Eighteenth constitutional amendment has some drastic effects on overall Pakistani
legislative and administrative system. While Education sector has no exception, the
omission of concurrent list has opened a Pandora of issues, ranging from planning,
implementation, finances on one side and the curriculum, teacher training, syllabus, and
infrastructure on other side.
Before elaborating these issues, it is essential to understand the effects of 18th
amendment on educational sector and how it is different from pre 18th amendment
scenario bringing forth the plans which are not only aligned with the provincial
requirements but also unsusceptible to national integrity and cohesion.

One of the reasons of such lacking is the dearth of coherent, thoughtful and meaningful
dialogue between the educationist, planners, policy makers, implementers etc.
representing the grass root level and the officialdom level. Quite often the impressive
talks, presentations and conferences generate immense interest in various educational
issues but fail to bring any lasting imprint on educational discourse, educational policies
and practices. It is this important to conceive of dialogues that are concentrated,
evidence based, bringing forth concrete solutions and carry the message forward to
ensure impact on policies and practice.

In the light of above discussion, it is imperative to open the venues through which
people could engage in to meaningful discourse, however the modus operandi of such
discourse is still a question mark. Shall it be a policy dialogue, an interactive writing
contest, conference or some other out of box mechanism?

Number of questions need to be answer for e.g.

• How to engage education sector stakeholders to develop a consensus on educational

issues?

• How to prioritize the issues, i.e., which issues require addressing first?

• What are the mechanisms requiring that ensures provincial autonomy and at the same
time respond to national integrity demands?

Above and many other questions like above demands a movement from civil society
and government officials to come forward and engage in the process. Otherwise, the
fear is that the education system again falls in to the myriad of despair or mirage of joys
which solely exists in our mind but never transform in to meaningful practice.