Lecture: 03

Fourier Analysis of Continuous-time

Signals & Systems

By
Afrin Ahmed
 Signal Representations

Signals can be represented in a number of forms:

1) Time domain representation
2) S-domain representation (where s is a complex variable called Laplace operator and s
= σ + jω. Here σ is real part and jω is imaginary part of s).

3) Z-domain representation (where z is a complex variable expressed in polar form as

z=rejΩ (where r is the magnitude of z and Ω is the angle of z).

4) Frequency-domain representation

Instead of time domain representation, signals converted into s, z, and

f-domain are sometimes more convenient to analyze and process for many
purposes. In addition, greater insights into the nature and properties of many
signals and systems are provided by these transformations.

6.2
 Signal Transformation
A signal can be converted between the time and frequency domains with a
pair of mathematical operators called a transform.
❖ An example is the Fourier transform, which decomposes a function
into the sum of a number of sine wave frequency components. The
'spectrum' of frequency components is the frequency domain
representation of the signal.
The inverse Fourier transform converts the frequency domain function
back to a time function.

To convert continuous time-domain signals into complex s-domain,

- Laplace transform is used (which is also used for the solution of differential
equations and the analysis of filters).
To convert discrete time-domain signals into complex z-domain,
- z transform is used.
To convert time-domain signals into frequency domain,
- Fourier series and Fourier transform is used.

6.3
 Difference: Time Domain Vs. Frequency Domain
Time domain is the analysis of signal and system with respect to time, how the signal or system
changes over time. But frequency-domain analysis shows how the signal's energy is distributed
over a range of frequencies.
❖ A time-domain graph shows how a signal changes with time, whereas a frequency-domain graph
shows how much of the signal lies within each given frequency band over a range of frequencies.
❖ In the time domain, the signal’s value is known for all real numbers, for the case of continuous time, or
at various separate instants in the case of discrete time. An oscilloscope is a tool commonly used to
visualize real-world signals in the time domain.
❖ Frequency-domain analysis is widely used in such areas as communications, geology, remote sensing,
and image processing.

As an example, consider a typical electro cardiogram (ECG). If the doctor maps the heartbeat
with time say the recording is done for 20 minutes, we call it a time domain signal.

However, as in ECG, a number of peaks are there (of different types). Say in one heartbeat 4
types of peaks or variation in amplitude occurs. So in frequency domain, over the entire time
period of recording, how many times each peak comes is recorded. Frequency is nothing but the
number of times each event has occurred during total period of observation.

6.5
 Fourier Series
In mathematics, a Fourier series is a way to represent a continuous-time signal (or wave-like
function) as the sum of simple sine waves.

A Fourier series is an expansion of a periodic function f(x) in terms of an infinite sum of sines
and cosines.

A Fourier series is a summation of harmonically related sinusoidal functions, also known as

components or harmonics.

• It decomposes any periodic continuous-time signal into the sum of a

(possibly infinite) set of simple oscillating functions, namely sines and
cosines (or, equivalently, complex exponentials).

• The Discrete-time Fourier transform is a periodic function, often defined in

terms of a Fourier series.
•
• Figure shows the first four partial sums of the Fourier series for a square
wave.

6.6
 Fourier Series Representation of Signals

Fourier Series for Periodic Signals:

We know that signals that repeat over and over are said to be
periodic. A continuous-time signal x(t) is said to be periodic if it
satisfies the condition
x(t) = x(t + T) for all t
Where T is a positive constant called period of the signal.
The fundamental period T0 of x(t) is the smallest positive value of T for
which the above relation is satisfied, and f0= 1/T0 is referred to as the
fundamental frequency.
Two basic examples of periodic signals are:
- real sinusoidal signal

- complex exponential signal

where is called the fundamental angular frequency.

6.7
 Fourier Series Representation of Signals
Fourier Series for Periodic Signals:
The Fourier series representation of a complex exponential
periodic signal x(t) with fundamental period T0 is given by:

where ck are known as the complex Fourier coefficients and

are given by

where ∫T0 denotes the integral over any one period and 0 to T0
or –T0/2 to T0/2 is commonly used for the integration. Setting
k= 0 in Eq. (5.5), we have

which indicates that c0 equals the average value of x(t) over a

period.

6.8
 Conditions to be Fourier Series

It is known that a periodic signal x(t) has a Fourier series representation if

it satisfies the following Dirichlet conditions:
1. x(t) is absolutely integrable over any period, that is,

2. x(t) has a finite number of maxima and minima within any finite
interval of t.
3. x(t) has a finite number of discontinuities within any finite interval
of t, and each of these discontinuities is finite.

6.9
 Fourier Series Representation of Signals
Trigonometric Fourier Series:
The trigonometric Fourier series representation of a periodic
signal x(t) with fundamental period T0 is given by

where ak, and bk are the Fourier coefficients given by

The Fourier coefficients ak, bk and the complex Fourier

coefficients ck are related by

From Eq. (5.10) we obtain

6.11
 Fourier Series Representation of Signals
Fourier Series for Even and Odd Signals:
If a continuous-time periodic signal x(t) is even, then bk=0
and its Fourier series (5.8) contains only cosine terms:

If x(t) is odd, then ak=0 and its Fourier series contains only
sine terms:

6.12