Computer and its application in Pharmacy

Fundamentals of Computer

What Is Data Processing?

Data processing is the method of collecting raw data and translating it into usable
information. It is usually performed in a step-by-step process by a team of data scientists
and data engineers in an organization. The raw data is collected, filtered, sorted,
processed, analyzed, stored, and then presented in a readable format. Data processing is
essential for organizations to create better business strategies and increase their
competitive edge. By converting the data into readable formats like graphs, charts, and
documents, employees throughout the organization can understand and use the data.

Types of Data Processing

Type Uses

Data is collected and processed in batches. Used for

Batch Processing
large amounts of data. Eg: payroll system

Data is processed within seconds when the input is

Real-time
given. Used for small amounts of data. Eg: withdrawing
Processing
money from ATM

Data is automatically fed into the CPU as soon as it

Online Processing becomes available. Used for continuous processing of
data. Eg: barcode scanning

Data is broken down into frames and processed using

two or more CPUs within a single computer system.
Multiprocessing
Also known as parallel processing. Eg: weather
forecasting

Allocates computer resources and data in time slots to

Time-sharing
several users simultaneously.
History of Data Processing

We could say that data science was born from the idea of merging applied statistics with
computer science. The resulting field of study would use the extraordinary power of
modern computing. Scientists realized they could not only collect data and solve
statistical problems but also use that data to solve real-world problems and make reliable
fact-driven predictions.

1962: American mathematician John W. Tukey first articulated the data science dream. In
his now-famous article “The Future of Data Analysis,” he foresaw the inevitable emergence
of a new field nearly two decades before the first personal computers. While Tukey was
ahead of his time, he was not alone in his early appreciation of what would come to be
known as “data science.” Another early figure was Peter Naur, a Danish computer
engineer whose book Concise Survey of Computer Methods offers one of the very first
definitions of data science:
“The science of dealing with data, once they have been established, while the relation of
the data to what they represent is delegated to other fields and sciences.”

1977: The theories and predictions of “pre” data scientists like Tukey and Naur became
more concrete with the establishment of The International Association for Statistical
Computing (IASC), whose mission was “to link traditional statistical methodology, modern
computer technology, and the knowledge of domain experts in order to convert data into
information and knowledge.”

1980s and 1990s: Data science began taking more significant strides with the emergence
of the first Knowledge Discovery in Databases (KDD) workshop and the founding of the
International Federation of Classification Societies (IFCS). These two societies were among
the first to focus on educating and training professionals in the theory and methodology
of data science (though that term had not yet been formally adopted).
It was at this point that data science started to garner more attention from leading
professionals hoping to monetize big data and applied statistics.

1994: BusinessWeek published a story on the new phenomenon of “Database Marketing.”

It described the process by which businesses were collecting and leveraging enormous
amounts of data to learn more about their customers, competition, or advertising
techniques. The only problem at the time was that these companies were flooded with
more information than they could possibly manage. Massive amounts of data were
sparking the first wave of interest in establishing specific roles for data management. It
began to seem like businesses would need a new kind of worker to make the data work
in their favor.
1990s and early 2000s: We can clearly see that data science has emerged as a
recognized and specialized field. Several data science academic journals began to
circulate, and data science proponents like Jeff Wu and William S. Cleveland continued
to help develop and expound upon the necessity and potential of data science.
2000s: Technology made enormous leaps by providing nearly universal access to internet
connectivity, communication, and (of course) data collection.

2005: Big data enters the scene. With tech giants such as Google and Facebook
uncovering large amounts of data, new technologies capable of processing them
became necessary. Hadoop rose to the challenge, and later on Spark and Cassandra
made their debuts.

2014: Due to the increasing importance of data, and organizations’ interest in finding
patterns and making better business decisions, demand for data scientists began to see
dramatic growth in different parts of the world.

2015: Machine learning, deep learning, and Artificial Intelligence (AI) officially enter the
realm of data science. These technologies have driven innovations over the past decade
— from personalized shopping and entertainment to self-driven vehicles along with all
the insights to efficiently bring forth these real-life applications of AI into our daily lives.

2020s: We are seeing additional breakthroughs in AI, machine learning, and an ever-
more-increasing demand for qualified professionals in Big Data
Types of Computers

computers can classify based on:

(a) The data handling capabilities and the way they perform the signal processing, and

(b) Size, in terms of capacities and speed of operation.

1. Analogue Computer
Everything we hear and see is changing continuously. This variable continuous stream
of data is known as analogue data. Analog computer may be used in scientific and
industrial applications such as to measure the electric current, frequency and resistance
of the capacitor, etc..

Analogue computers directly accept the data in the measuring device without first
converting it into codes and numbers.

Cases of analogue computer are temperature, pressure, telephone lines, Speedometer,

immunity of capacitor, frequency of signal and voltage, etc..

2. Digital Computer
The digital computer is the most widely used and used to process data with numbers
using digits, usually utilizing the binary number system.
A digital computer intended to do calculations and logical operations at a high rate. It
takes the raw data as digits or amounts and procedures using applications stored in its
memory to make output. All modern computers such as laptops and desktops we use
at office or home are digital computers.
It works on data, such as magnitudes, letters, and symbols, which expressed in binary
code–i.e., with just the two digits 1 and 0. By counting, comparing, and manipulating those
digits or their mixtures by a pair of instructions stored in its memory, a digital computer
may perform such tasks to control industrial processes and also control the operations of
machinery; examine and organize vast amounts of company data; and mimic the
behaviour of dynamic systems (e.g., international climate patterns and chemical reactions)
in scientific study.
Digital computer supplies accurate result but they’re slow compared to an analogue
computer.

3. Hybrid Computer
A hybrid computer which combines the aspects of a digital computer and an analogue
computer. It’s quick like an analogue computer and contains memory and precision like
digital computers. It’s intended to incorporate a functioning analogue unit that’s effective
for calculations, nevertheless has a readily accessible digital memory. In large businesses
and companies, a hybrid computer may be employed to integrate logical operations in
addition to provide efficient processing of differential equations.
For instance, a gas pump includes a chip that converts the dimensions of fuel flow to
volume and cost.
A hybrid computer is used in hospitals to gauge the heartbeat of this individual.

Different kinds and sizes of computer

Since the coming of the very first computer, different kinds and sizes of machines are
providing various services. Computers are often as large as inhabiting a massive building
as little as a notebook or even a microcontroller in embedded or mobile systems.
Computers can be generally classified by kind or size and power as follows, although
there’s considerable overlap.

Supercomputer
A supercomputer is the fastest computer on earth that could process a considerable
number of information very quickly. The calculating Performance of a supercomputer
quantified in FLOPS (which is floating-point operations per minute) rather than MIPS.
These computers will be massive regarding the size. A most potent supercomputer could
occupy several feet to hundreds of feet. The supercomputer cost is exceptionally high,
and they can range from two lakh buck to over 100 million dollars.

What is the latest supercomputer?

Currently the latest TOP500 list is the 59th, published in June 2022. Since June 2022, USA's
Frontier is the world's most powerful supercomputer, reaching 1102 petaFlops (1.102 exaFlops)
on the LINPACK benchmarks

Mainframe computer
The mainframe denotes the sort of computer which runs a whole corporation. The
Mainframe computers can accommodate in large air-conditioned rooms because of its
dimensions in the current world, where all of the companies, trades, and
communications are real-time.

So to do all this endeavor, a highly effective computer need on the host side, which
processes the directions and supplies the output in moments. According to the use of
computers in the modern world, we could use classifications pc in Supercomputer,
Mainframe Computer, and Mini Computer and microcomputer types. A mainframe
computer is stronger than Mini and Microcomputer, but stronger than Supercomputer. A
mainframe computer used at large businesses.

The main distinction between a supercomputer and a mainframe is that a supercomputer

stations all its power to execute a program as quickly as possible. In contrast, a mainframe
uses its capability to run many applications simultaneously. In specific ways, mainframes
are more effective than supercomputers because they encourage more simultaneous
applications. However, supercomputers can do one program faster than a mainframe.
Minicomputer
A minicomputer also referred to as miniature. It’s a category of little computers which has
introduced to the world from the mid-1960s. Minicomputers used by small businesses. A
minicomputer is a computer that has all of the qualities of a considerable size pc, but its
size is significantly smaller compared to those. A minicomputer can also be known as a
mid-range pc. Minicomputers are primarily multi-users systems where more than one user
can operate concurrently.

Minicomputer can encourage multi-users at one time, or you’ll be able to state that
minicomputer is a multiprocessing system.
Additionally, the ability of processing of minicomputers isn’t more significant than the
energy of mainframe and supercomputers.

Different Types of Minicomputers

• Tablet PCs
• Smartphones
• Notebooks
• Touch Screen Pads
• High-End Music Plays
• Desktop Mini Computers
Backing Storage Devices

1. Hard Drive Disks

2. Floppy Disks
3. Tapes
4. Compact Discs (CDs)
5. DVD and Blu-ray Discs
6. USB Flash Drives
7. Secure Digital Cards (SD Card)s
8. Solid-State Drives (SSDs)
9. Cloud Storage
10. Punch Cards

1. Hard Disk Drives

A hard disk drive (also known as a hard drive, HD, or HDD) can be found installed in almost
every desktop and laptop computer. It stores files for the operating system and software
programs as well as user documents, such as photographs, text files, videos, and audio. The
hard drive uses magnetic storage to record and retrieve digital information to and from one
or more fast-spinning disks.

2. Floppy Disks
Also know as a diskette, floppy, or FD, the floppy disk is another type of storage medium
that uses magnetic storage technology to store information. Floppy disks were once a
common storage device for computers and were very common from the mid-1970s
through to the start of the 21st century.
The earliest floppies were 8 inches (203 mm) in size, but these were replaced first by 5.25-
inch (133 mm) disk drives and finally by ​3.5-inch (90 mm) versions.

3. Tapes
In the past, magnetic tape was often used for digital data storage because of its low cost
and ability to store large amounts of data. The technology essentially consisted of a thin,
magnetically coated piece of plastic wrapped around wheels. Its relative slowness and
unreliability compared to other data storage solutions have resulted in it now being largely
abandoned as a storage medium.

4. Compact Discs (CDs)

The compact disc, (or CD for short) is a form of optical storage, a technology that employs
lasers and lights to read and write data. Initially, compact discs were used purely for music,
but in the late 1980s, they began to be used for computer data storage.

Initially, the compact discs that were introduced were CD-ROMs (read-only), but these were
followed by CD-Rs (writable compact discs) and CD-RWs (rewritable compact discs).
5. DVD and Blu-ray Discs
The DVD (digital versatile disc) and Blu-ray disc (BD) are formats of digital optical disc data
storage which have superseded compact discs, mainly because of their much greater
storage capacity.

A Blu-ray disc, for example, can store 25 GB (gigabytes) of data on a single-layer disc and 50
GB on a dual-layer disc. In comparison, a standard CD is the same physical size, but only
holds 700 MB (megabytes) of digital data.

USB flash drives are often used by students and professionals to save work from one
computer and continue working on it on another.
Evan-Amos, Public Domain via Wikimedia Commons

6. USB Flash Drives

Also known as a thumb drive, pen drive, flash drive, memory stick, jump drive, and USB
stick, the USB flash drive is a flash-memory data-storage device that incorporates an
integrated USB interface. Flash memory is generally more efficient and reliable than optical
media, being smaller, faster, and possessing much greater storage capacity. Flash drives are
also more durable due to a lack of moving parts.
7. Secure Digital Cards (SD Cards)
SD cards are commonly used in multiple electronic devices, including digital cameras and
mobile phones. Although there are different sizes, classes, and capacities available, they all
use a rectangular design with one side "chipped off" to prevent the card from being
inserted into a camera or computer the wrong way.

8. Solid-State Drives (SSDs)

A solid-state drive uses flash memory to store data and is sometimes used in devices such
as netbooks, laptops, and desktop computers instead of a traditional hard disk drive.
The advantages of an SSD over an HDD include a faster read/write speed, noiseless
operation, greater reliability, and lower power consumption. The biggest downside is cost,
with an SSD offering lower capacity than an equivalently priced HDD.
9. Cloud Storage
With users increasingly operating multiple devices in multiple places, many are adopting
online cloud-computing solutions. Cloud computing basically involves accessing services
over a network via a collection of remote servers.
Although the idea of a "cloud of computers" may sound rather abstract to those unfamiliar
with this metaphorical concept, in practice, it can provide powerful storage solutions for
devices that are connected to the internet.

10. Punch Cards

Punch cards (or punched cards) were a common method of data storage used with early
computers. Basically, they consisted of a paper card with punched or perforated holes
created by hand or machine. The cards were entered into computers to enable the storage
and accessing of information.
Units of Memory
The storage capacity of the memory is expressed in various units of memory. These are as
follows:

Bit
A microprocessor uses binary digits 0 and 1 to decide the OFF and ON state respectively, of
various circuits. Furthermore, a bit is the smallest unit of representation in the binary
language.

Nibble
A nibble is a collection of 4 bits.

Byte
A byte is the representation of a group of 8 bits. Moreover, a byte is a unit that expresses any
word, symbol, or character in the computer language. Besides, computer memory is always
in terms of multiples of bytes.
Word
A computer word is similar to a byte, as it is also a group of bits. Moreover, a computer word
is fixed for each computer. At the same time it varies from computer to computer. Besides,
the length of a computer word is the word-size or word length. Therefore, a computer
stores information in the form of computer word.

Kilobyte
It is the most common unit of memory which is the smallest of all. But, it is greater than
the byte.
The abbreviation for kilobytes is ‘KB’.
It contains 1000 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to kibibytes which contain 1024 (2^10) bytes.
Megabytes usually measures the size of text documents, graphics of websites, individual
files, etc.

Megabyte
The abbreviation for megabyte is ‘MB’.
It contains 1000,000 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to mebibytes which contains 1048576
(2^20) bytes.
Kilobytes usually measure the size of large files. For example high-resolution images,
songs, storage of compact disks, etc.

Gigabyte
The abbreviation for the gigabyte is ‘GB’ or ‘gigs’.
It contains 1000,000,000 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to gibibytes which contain
1073741824 (2^30) bytes.
Kilobytes usually measure the capacity of storage devices.
Terabyte
The abbreviation for terabytes is ‘TB’.
It contains onetrillion bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to tebibytes which contains 2^40 bytes.
Kilobytes usually measure the capacity of large storage devices, for example, HDDs (Hard Disk
Drives).

Petabyte
The abbreviation for petabyte is ‘PB’.
It contains 10^15 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to pebibytes which contains 2^50 bytes.
Petabytes usually measure the total data storage in large networks or server farms. For
example, the data in Google or Facebook data servers is around more than 10 PBs.

Exabyte
The abbreviation for exabyte is ‘EB’.
It contains 10^18 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to exbibytes which contains 2^60 bytes.
The exabyte unit is so large that it does not even measure the storage of large cloud servers.
Rather, it can be used to measure the amount of data transfer over the internet for a certain
time limit.

Zettabyte
The abbreviation for zettabyte is ‘ZB’.
It contains 10^21 bytes. Besides, it is synonyms to zebibytes which contains 2^70 bytes.
It can measure a huge amount of data. In fact, the whole data in the world is just a few
zettabytes.

Yottabyte
The abbreviation for yottabyte is ‘YB’.
It contains 10^24 zettabytes. Besides, it is synonyms to yobibytes which contains 2^80 bytes.
It is a tremendously huge unit of measurement. Therefore, it has no practical use.
Virus and Anitvirus issues

A Virus is by definition a program that replicates itself and "infects" other computers. It
doesn't necessarily have to be harmful, but the term is most often used to refer to all
undesired software.

Malware (a contraction of "malicious software") is a term describing a program that

doesn't necessarily replicate itself, but is intended to cause problems on your machine.

Adware (a contraction of "advertisement software") refers to all software that supplies

unwanted advertisements to your computer in various forms, usually in the form of the
pop up windows in the your browser.

Spyware watches what you are doing on your computer and sends this data to potentially
malicious hackers. It is worth noting that this type of software can sometimes be used by
friendly services as well. One example is Google using something similar to spyware to
show you advertisements that might interest you based on your browsing habits.

A Trojan is a program that, just like the Trojan horse, is made to create an entrance for
hackers into your computer through the Internet.

A botnet is one of the more potentially dangerous threats on the Internet. It is a program
that, worst case scenario, allows a hacker to take full control of your computer. Such
software is seen as such a serious threat that many Internet providers have software that
actively searches for botnet activity among their users. Suspicious finds will lead to the
user being warned; NTNU is no exception to this.

Phishing is a term referring to malicious users sending emails in which they claim to be
from an administration or other authority. They generally ask for your log in information for
accounts you have access to, usually email. If you send them this information they will use
your account to spam other users.
What does security usually fail?
Email: Many users are infected by viruses when they open infected files that arrive as
attachments in emails. This can be files that the sender has attached himself, but that
have been infected by a harmful program on the senders computer. When one opens
the file on another compuer, an underlying script in the file will execute and install itself
on your computer, spreading the "disease".

It has become increasingly common to receive emails containing text and links. The text
is meant to spark your curiosity so that you will be tempted to click the link. By opening
the link, an invisible program is able to install on your machine, and will then continuing
spreading itself by sending emails to people in your address book.

MSN and other chat programs: It is increasingly normal to receive links in chat
programs such as MSN that may infect your computer in the same way as emails.

Fake anti-virus software: These enter your computer by first infecting your computer
with a tiny, very simple program. All this program does is open a facsimile Windows
notification bubble in the lower right corner of your start bar. This is designed to look like
a Windows notification and tells you that your computer may have a virus. It further
recommends that you download and install anti-virus software on your computer by
clicking a link. After you have done this it pretends to scan your computer and reports it
to be virus infested. The software offers to remove the "viruses" if you pay for the program.

Camouflaged software: On in the Internet, there are dozens of free, useful programs.
The problem is that it is not always easy to tell if the source can be trusted. It is important
not to blindly trust whatever you find.

Phishing: we often see emails where the sender claims to be from some company and
wants you to send them your username and password. Never give them this information
as they will use it to send spam. As a consequence, your email may be blacklisted by
different email servers such as Hotmail and Gmail.

Infected USB sticks: One less common phenomenon are USB sticks that have been
infected and then infect all computers they are inserted into. The problem here is that
USB sticks generally are capable of autostart upon being connected to a computer.

What preventative actions can I take?

There are a number of actions and general knowledge that one can acquire to hinder
the majority of safety threats. It is worth noting that not matter how careful you are, you
can always be unlucky and get a virus on your machine. It happens to the best of them.

Things your should do and things you should know:

Anti-virus: There is no doubt that anti-virus software one of the most important
measures you can take to protect your computer. NTNU offers Antivirus free to
employees. Note that if you install NTNUs Antivirus you should remove other antivirus
programs you may already have, as these can work against each other and render your
computer useless.

Update your software: This shares first priority with having antivirus software. Keeping
programs updated on your computer is very important. This means especially your
operating system and antivirus software, but in general all programs that can access the
Internet should be kept up-to-date.

The reason for this is that hackers around the world are constantly trying to find security
glitches in the various operative systems and programs that exist. Every time such a hole
is found, it can almost be guaranteed that someone will write a virus to use it. After a
certain amount of time, the developers of the software will find the security hole and
send out an update that fixes the issue. If you do not download these updates, the
security holes will not be patched and your computer will be at risk.

Email attachments: If you receive an attachment in an email your take some

precautions before you open the file. Run an antiviral scan on the file. If the file is a .exe
file that you have to needed to be sent you should not open it until the sender discloses
the purpose of sending it.

Fake antivirus software: Make sure to identify any software before you install it. This
type of virus can be tricky to get rid of. As discussed earlier, this virus appears first as a
notification bubble in the corner of your screen. Do not approve it. To remove the virus
that makes the notification appear, you should first Google the details in the notification
to identify which false antivirus it it. You may then find a guide to help you remove that
particular strain of virus.

Camouflaged software: The best way to make sure a program doesn't have malicious
intentions is to download it from somewhere else. An example of such a place is Cnet
USB sticks: It is imperative to be critical when using foreign USB sticks. If you don't trust
that the owner of a USB stick can protect himself, you should be skeptical to inserting
the stick into your computer. The reason for this is that the way USB sticks are opened
makes it possible to sneak install a program in your machine as soon as the stick is
inserted. There are programs to hinder such autostart scripts from running when you
connect the USB. An example of such a program is Panda USB Vaccine

Unknown web addresses: If you are sent a link by email, MSN or through another
website such as Facebook, be critical. Remember that the link is created to make you
curious, and the consequences of one click can be undesirable. Consider the following:

Is the person sending you the link likely to send you the type of content that the link
claims to contain?
Is the writing in the message typical of the sender? (Remember that everyone can use
Google translate to create messages in any language!)
Is the link address itself suspicious? (Is the website it links to called "YooTube"? It is a
common trick to create websites with names very similar to other websites, or with
names that could easily be typos if someone is actually write a different address). If you
are in doubt, you can always answer the mail and ask if the sender sent the link himself.
Phishing: There's not much to do in this case except be aware that such mails do exist,
and if you receive such a mail, just delete it. Rule of Thumb:// No serious services will ever
ask for your password. There is nothing they can't do without your password. Always
keep your password secret!