Criminological Research

Objective
• Define Research
• Identify and describe the different types of
criminological research and the methodology
use.
• Explain the characteristics and classification of
researches.
 Research: Definition
• A careful consideration of study regarding a
particular concern or problem using scientific
methods.
• According to the American sociologist Earl Robert
Babbie, “Research is a systematic inquiry to describe,
explain, predict, and control the observed
phenomenon. Research involves inductive and
deductive methods.”
• Inductive research methods are used to analyze an
observed event. Deductive methods are used to verify
the observed event. Inductive approaches are
associated with qualitative research and deductive
methods are more commonly associated
with quantitative research.
 Different Kind of Research
I. Basic, Applied, and Empirical
II. Pure Research
 Basic Research
• Basic research definition is data collected to
enhance knowledge. The main motivation is
knowledge expansion. It is a non-commercial
research that doesn’t facilitate in creating or
inventing anything.
• For example: an experiment to determine a
simple fact.
 Basic Research
• Those that deals with the process of objects
and things, or information about different
topics with no concern for a direct pay-off.
• It involves studies on the relationships,
comparative analysis, trends and projections.
• Ex. Relationship between emotional quotient
and leadership skills
• Ex. Intrinsic and Extrinsic Motivation Factors
of students to enroll in BS Criminology
Courses.
 Applied research:
• Applied research focuses on analyzing and
solving real-life problems. This type refers to
the study that helps solve practical problems
using scientific methods. Studies play an
important role in solving issues that impact
the overall well-being of humans.
• For example: finding a specific cure for a
disease.
• Finding for solution on the problems of drug
addiction.
 Applied Research
• Those that are into the unknown using directly
the results to a current problem.
• Ex. Studies on the rice substitutes
• Ex. Development of Covid Vaccine
• Ex. Use of native plants as Fuel
 Problem oriented research: (Applied
Research
• As the name suggests, problem-oriented
research is conducted to understand the exact
nature of a problem to find out relevant
solutions. The term “problem” refers to multiple
choices or issues when analyzing a situation.
• For example, revenue of a car company has
decreased by 12% in the last year. The following
could be the probable causes: there is no
optimum production, poor quality of a product,
no advertising, or economic conditions.
• Traffic Congestion in Minglanilla
 Empirical Research
• These are more specific than the basic
researches, but imply their nature from the
use of data, whether qualitative or
quantitative.
Its Characteristics;
• Based on observation and experiences
• Derived from direct data
• Deal with population samples
• Use estimations and hypothesis
 Empirical Researches
• Ex. Problems that involve differences and
relationship of behavior or measurable
characteristics.
 II. Pure Research
• These are researches which do not use
empirical or direct data, but are researches
where the laboratory is the human mind and
are geared towards the resolution or
simplification of a problem or derivation of a
concept or a theory or even a formula.
• Ex. The use of tetra pack as a replacement for
plastics
 Characteristics of research
• A systematic approach must be followed for
accurate data. Rules and procedures are an
integral part of the process that set the
objective. Researchers need to practice ethics
and a code of conduct while making
observations or drawing conclusions.
• Research is based on logical reasoning and
involves both inductive and deductive
methods.
 Characteristics…
• The data or knowledge that is derived is in
real time from actual observations in natural
settings.
• There is an in-depth analysis of all data
collected so that there are NO anomalies
associated with it.
 Characteristics…
• Research creates a path for generating new
questions. Existing data helps create more
opportunities for research.
• Research is analytical in nature. It makes use
of all the available data so that there is no
ambiguity in inference.
 Characteristics
• Accuracy is one of the most important
aspects of research. The information that is
obtained should be accurate and true to its
nature. For example, laboratories provide a
controlled environment to collect data.
Accuracy is measured in the instruments used,
the calibrations of instruments or tools, and
the final result of the experiment.
 Qualitative research:
• Qualitative research is a process that is about
inquiry.
• It helps create in-depth understanding of
problems or issues in their natural settings.
This is a non-statistical method.
• Qualitative research is heavily dependent on
the experience of the researchers and the
questions used to probe the sample.
The sample size is usually restricted to 6-10
people. Open-ended questions are asked in a
manner that encourages answers that lead to
another question or group of questions.
• The purpose of asking open-ended questions
is to gather as much information as possible
from the sample.
 Qualitative Research
The following are the methods used for
qualitative research:
• One-to-one interview
• Focus groups
• Ethnographic research
• Content/Text Analysis
• Case study research
 Quantitative research:
• Quantitative research is a structured way of
collecting data and analyzing it to draw
conclusions. Unlike qualitative methods, this
method uses a computational and statistical
process to collect and analyze data.
Quantitative data is all about numbers.
• Quantitative research involves a larger
population — more people means more data.
With more data to analyze, you can obtain
more accurate results.
• This method uses close-ended
questions because the researchers are
typically looking to gather statistical data.
 Quantitative Research
• Online surveys, questionnaires, and polls are
preferable data collection tools used in
quantitative research.
• There are various methods of deploying
surveys or questionnaires.
What Is the Purpose of Research?
There are three purposes of research:
• Exploratory: As the name suggests,
exploratory research is conducted to explore
a group of questions.
• The answers and analytics may not offer a
final conclusion to the perceived problem.
• It is conducted to handle new problem areas
which haven’t been explored before. This
exploratory process lays the foundation for
more conclusive research and data collection.
Descriptive:
• Descriptive research focuses on expanding
knowledge on current issues through a process of
data collection.
• Descriptive studies are used to describe the
behavior of a sample population. In a descriptive
study, only one variable is required to conduct the
study.
• The three main purposes of descriptive research are
describing, explaining, and validating the findings.
• For example, a study conducted to know if top-level
management leaders in the 21st century possess the
moral right to receive a huge sum of money from the
company profit.
Explanatory:
• Explanatory research or causal research is
conducted to understand the impact of
certain changes in existing standard
procedures.
• Conducting experiments is the most popular
form of casual research.
• For example, a study conducted to understand
the effect of rebranding on customer loyalty.
 Exploratory Descriptive Explanatory
Research Research Research

Research
Unstructured Structured Highly structured
approach used

Research
Asking research Asking research By using research
conducted
questions questions hypotheses.
through

When is it Early stages of Later stages of Later stages of

conducted? decision making decision making decision making
 Research Methods
• Research method is defined as the tools or
instruments used to accomplish the goals and
attributes of a study.
• Methodology is a systematic process in which
the tools or instruments will be employed.
• There is no use of a tool if it is not being used
efficiently.
• A research begins by asking the right
questions and choosing an appropriate
method to investigate the problem.
• After collecting answers to your questions,
you can analyze the findings or observations
to draw appropriate conclusions.
 Qualitative Methods
• Qualitative research is a method that collects
data using conversational methods.
Participants are asked open-ended questions.
The responses collected are essentially non-
numerical.
• This method not only helps a researcher
understand what participants think but also
why they think in a particular way.
 Types of qualitative methods include:
• One-to-one Interview: This interview is
conducted with one participant at a given point in
time. One-to-one interviews need a researcher to
prepare questions in advance.
• The researcher asks only the most important
questions to the participant.
• This type of interview lasts anywhere between 20
minutes to half an hour. During this time the
researcher collects as many meaningful answers
as possible from the participants to draw
inferences.
• Focus Groups: Focus groups are small groups
comprising of around 6-10 participants who are
usually experts in the subject matter.
• A moderator is assigned to a focus group who
facilitates the discussion amongst the group
members. A moderator’s experience in
conducting the focus group plays an important
role.
• An experienced moderator can probe the
participants by asking the correct questions that
will help them collect a sizable amount of
information related to the research.
• Ethnographic Research: Ethnographic
research is an in-depth form of research
where people are observed in their natural
environment.
• This method is demanding due to the
necessity of a researcher entering a natural
environment of other people.
• Geographic locations can be a constraint as
well.
• Instead of conducting interviews, a researcher
experiences the normal setting and daily life
of a group of people.
• Text Analysis:
• Text analysis is a little different from other
qualitative methods as it is used to analyze
social constructs by decoding words through
any available form of documentation.
• The researcher studies and understands the
context in which the documents are written
and then tries to draw meaningful inferences
from it.
• Researchers today follow activities on a social
media platform to try and understand
patterns of thoughts.
• Case Study:
• Case study research is used to study an
organization or an entity.
• This method is one of the most valuable
options for modern This type of research is
used in fields like the education sector,
philosophical studies, and psychological
studies.
• This method involves a deep dive into ongoing
research and collecting data.
 Quantitative Research Methods
• Quantitative methods deal with numbers and
measurable forms.
• It uses a systematic way of investigating
events or data.
• It is used to answer questions in terms of
justifying relationships with measurable
variables to either explain, predict, or control
a phenomenon.
There are three methods that are often used by
researchers:
• Survey Research — The ultimate goal of survey
research is to learn about a large population by
deploying a survey.
• Today, online surveys are popular as they are
convenient and can be sent in an email or made
available on the internet. In this method, a
researcher designs a survey with the most
relevant survey questions and distributes the
survey.
• Once the researcher receives responses, they
summarize them to tabulate meaningful findings
and data.
• Descriptive Research — Descriptive research
is a method which identifies the
characteristics of an observed phenomenon
and collects more information.
• This method is designed to depict the
participants in a very systematic and accurate
manner.
• In simple words, descriptive research is all
about describing the phenomenon, observing
it, and drawing conclusions from it.
• Correlational Research— Correlational
research examines the relationship between
two or more variables. Consider a researcher
is studying a correlation between cancer and
married Married women have a negative
correlation with cancer.
• In this example, there are two variables:
cancer and married women. When we say
negative correlation, it means women who are
married are less likely to develop cancer.
However, it doesn’t mean that marriage
directly avoids cancer.
 Criminological Research
• Criminological research focuses on issues related
to the causes and consequences of crime,
delinquency, and victimization, as well as the
operation of the criminal justice system, with an
emphasis on police, courts, and corrections.
• In Criminology, experiments which involves the
programs, policies, or practices are an important
research design because, when implemented
with full integrity, they provide the most
convincing evidence about the impact of an
intervention.
 Identifying Research Methodology
• Set your goals
• Plan your research
• Collect and collate your results
• Analyze and understand your research
• Keep the findings ready
• Review and interpret the information to draw
conclusions
 Set your Goals
• Consider your objectives and define those that
identify with yours. Make sure that you
set SMART goals and objectives. Do not
presume the results of your surveys.
• SPECIFIC
• MEASURABLE
• ATTAINABLE
• REALISTIC
• TIME BOUNDED
 Plan your Research
• Good planning allows the use of creative and
logical approaches to select the methods that
gather the most accurate information.
• Your plan will be influenced by the type and
complexity of the information you need, the
skills of your market research team, and how
soon you need the information.
• Your budget also plays a large role in your
ability to collect data.
 Collect and collate your results
• Make a list of how you are going to carry out the
research process, the data you need to collect,
and collection methods. This will help you keep
track of your processes and make sense of your
findings. It will also allow you to verify that your
research accurately reflects the opinions of your
clients and your market.
Create a record table with:
• The respondents activity
• The necessary data
• The methods for data collection
• The steps to follow for data analysis.
• Remember, research is only valuable and useful when
it is valid, accurate, and reliable. Relying on imperfect
research is dangerous. Incorrect results can lead
to disaster.
Ensure that your data is:
• Valid – founded, logical, rigorous, and impartial.
• Accurate – free of errors and including required details.
• Reliable – that can be reproduced by other people who
investigate in the same way.
• Timely – current and collected within an appropriate
time frame.
• Complete – includes all the data you need to support
your business decisions.
 Analyze and understand your research

• Analysis of the data can vary from simple and

direct steps to technical and complex
processes.
• Adopt an approach, and choose the method
of data analysis based on the methods you
have carried out.
 Keep the findings ready
• Choose a spreadsheet that allows you to easily
enter your data.
• If you do not have a large amount of data, you
should be able to manage them with the use
of basic tools available in survey software.
• If you have collected more complete and
complex data, you may have to consider using
specific programs or tools that will help you
manage your data.
 Review and interpret the information to draw
conclusions
• Once the data have been gathered, you can scan your
information and interpret it to draw conclusions and make
informed decisions. You should review the data and then:
• Identify the main trends and issues, opportunities, and
problems you observe. Write a sentence describing each
one.
• Keep track of the frequency with which each of the main
findings appears.
• Make a list of your findings from the most common to the
least common.
• Evaluate a list of the strengths, weaknesses, opportunities,
and threats that have been identified in a SWOT analysis.
• Prepare conclusions and recommendations about your
research.
• S -Strenght
• W -Weaknesses
• O -Opportunities
• T - Threats
 Research Problem
Objectives
• Determine the characteristics of a good
research problems
• Identify the factors that influences the
selection of the research problem
• Make a Research Title
 Characteristics of a Good Problem
• The characteristics of a good problem are the following:
– Firstly, it should be of interest to the researcher himself; one
that can be eloquent on a subject matter which one knows and
is interested in.
– It should have practical value to the researcher, the school, and
the company.
– It is a current and novel issues.
– More importantly, it can be finished within the allotted time,
depending on the subject, which is a requirement.
– It should not carry moral or legal impediment, nor should it be
controversial.
– The data are available.
– The variables are clear, separable and updated.
– It shall incur expenses affordable to the researcher.
Effective titles in academic research papers have several characteristics.
• Indicate accurately the subject and scope of the
study.
• Avoid using abbreviations.
• Use words that create a positive impression and
stimulate reader interest.
• Use current nomenclature from the field of study.
• Identify key variables, both dependent and
independent.
• May reveal how the paper will be organized.
• Suggest a relationship between variables which
supports the major hypothesis.
• Is limited to 10 to 15 substantive words.
• Do not include "study of," "analysis of" or similar
constructions.
• Titles are usually in the form of a phrase, but can also
be in the form of a question.
• Use correct grammar and capitalization with all first
words and last words capitalized, including the first
word of a subtitle. All nouns, pronouns, verbs,
adjectives, and adverbs that appear between the first
and last words of the title are also capitalized.
• In academic papers, rarely is a title followed by an
exclamation mark. However, a title or subtitle can be in
the form of a question.
 The Factors that influence the selection of the
Problem
Constraints and factors that limit the successful
performance of the project.
• Availability of Data
• Funds
• Capability of the Writer
• Attitude and Interest of the Researcher
• Interest of the sponsor or the benefactor should be
considered
• Importance of the issues involved
• Regency of the issues. (contemporary and interest to
many)
• Cooperation of other people
• Facilities and Instrument are available.
 The title of the Research Report or Investigation
Among the different considerations for this action are
the following:
• It should be long and should not be more than 20
words.
• It should include the variables (independent and
dependent variable)
• It should give insight virtually on what the research is
all about.
• It should serve as a reference for the whole research
report which others can use.
• It should enable one to claim the paper as his
own, and help other researchers to refer to one’s
work as they survey some theories
• The following words should not be part of the
title since all the researches are studies, an
analysis of variable, and an investigation, like: “A
study of”, “ An Analysis of”, or “An Investigation
of”.
• It is not important to include the date and
location of the investigation as these can be
placed in the Scope and Delimitation of the Study.
 Prevalence v Incidence
• Prevalence measures how much of a situation
or condition there is in a population at a
particular point in time.
• Incidence measures the rate of occurrence of
situation or condition.
Research Methods
 Purpose: Research Methodology
• Research methodology simply refers to the
practical “how” of any given piece of research.
More specifically, it’s about how a
researcher systematically designs a study to
ensure valid and reliable results that address
the research aims and objectives.
For example, how did the researcher go
about deciding:
It contains:
• What data to collect (and what data to
ignore)
• Who to collect it from (in research, this is
called “sampling design”)
• How to collect it (this is called “data
collection methods/ data gathering
procedure”)
• How to analyse it (this is called “data analysis
methods/ statistical treatment method”)
Quantitative And Qualitative Method
• Qualitative research refers to research which
focuses on collecting and analysing words
(theme) (written or spoken) and textual data,
whereas. Qualitative analysis focus on “softer”
data points, such as body language or visual
elements. Theme: Analysis

• Quantitative research focuses on measurement

and testing using numerical data.
• Qualitative methodology to be used when the
research aims and objectives are exploratory in
nature.
– For example, a qualitative methodology might be used
to understand peoples’ perceptions about an event
that took place, or a candidate running for president.
• Quantitative methodology is typically used when
the research aims and objectives
are confirmatory in nature.
– For example, a quantitative methodology might be
used to measure the relationship between two
variables (e.g. personality type and likelihood to
commit a crime) or to test a set of hypotheses.
 Data Collection Methods
Different options in terms of how you go about
collecting data for your study.
• Interviews (which can be unstructured, semi-
structured or structured)
• Focus groups and group interviews
• Surveys (online or physical surveys)
• Observations
• Documents and records
• Case studies (individual or group)
 Data Analysis Methods
• Data analysis methods can be grouped according
to whether the research is qualitative or
quantitative.
Data analysis methods in qualitative
research include:
• Qualitative content analysis
• Discourse analysis
• Narrative analysis
• Grounded theory
• IPA (Interpretative phenomenological analysis)
Data analysis methods in quantitative
research include:
• Descriptive statistics (e.g. means, medians,
modes)
• Inferential statistics (e.g. correlation,
regression (prediction), structural equation
modelling)
 Research Design
• Research design is the framework
of research methods and techniques chosen
by a researcher. ...
• The design of a research topic explains the
type of research (experimental, survey,
correlational, semi-experimental, review) and
also its sub-type
(experimental design, research problem,
descriptive case-study).
 Quantitative : Descriptive Type
• Case Studies: (detailed and in-depth research of a small size over a
considerable period of time. (Twin Studies) (Juvenile Delinquent)
• Surveys: Gather data from a relatively large number of subjects.
(Stress and Coping Strategies of VAWC Police Officers)
– Descriptive survey:
• Developmental Studies (Longitudinal and Cross Sectional): Study a
group of people over a long period of time.(Assessment on the
Capability Enhancement of PDL Rehabilitation Programs in Cebu
Jails)
• Assessment of or Evaluation Studies: Assess the efficiency and
effectiveness of policies, instruments or variables.(Capability of
Police officers in Dealing with Work Stressors)
• Comparative Studies: Studies which have intervening variable , result in
differences in certain characteristics of the variable.(Effects of Marriages
on the Work Performance of Police Officers)
• Correlation Studies: Real relationship, correspondence, or association
studies. Determine how the variable go with the other. ( Management
Styles and Leadership Dimensions of Police Offices in CPPO)
• Trends and Projections Studies: Feasibility study to predict behavior of
economic variables and certain assumptions to be made. (Occupational
Trends for Criminology Graduates)
• Ex post facto Research: Deals with the past, known as systematic
empirical research data, where the researcher has no control over the
independent variables (Effects of Having no Textbook on Studies)
• Participatory Research: used to massively scale and large populations.
(Problems on the Militaristic Trainings in Policing System)
• Documentary Analysis: Involves gathering of information by analyzing
written records and documents to solve problems. (Analysis on the Police
Reporting Capibility: Basis for Capability Enhancement)
 Research Subjects
• A research subject are the
respondents/participants of the research
study. Information (or 'data') is collected from
or about the individual to help answer the
question under study.
• Sometimes research subjects are referred to
as human subjects, research participants or
study volunteers.
 Research Instrument
• A research instrument is a tool used to
obtain, measure, and analyze data from
subjects around the research topic.
• The instrument to be use is based on the type
of study you are conducting: quantitative,
qualitative, or mixed-method.
 Data Gathering Procedure
• The process or procedure adopted by the
researcher to serve as his guide.
 Statistical Treatment of Data
• The statistical tool/method used to a data set
to transform it from a group of meaningless
numbers into meaningful output.
• These distributions in statistical data
analysis help us to understand which data falls
under which distribution.
• For the decision rule in accepting and
rejecting the null hypothesis, alpha was set
at .05 level of significance. (95%)