CHAPTER 8. REFRIGERANT CONTAINMENT, RECOVERY, RECYCLING, AN...

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CHAPTER 8

REFRIGERANT CONTAINMENT, RECOVERY, RECYCLING, AND RECLAMATION

CONTAINMENT of refrigerant is an important consideration during service and maintenance of refrigeration systems. The potential
environmental effect of chlorofluorocarbon (CFC) and hydrochlorofluorocarbon (HCFC) refrigerants on ozone depletion, and of these and
hydrofluorocarbon (HFC) refrigerants on global warming, make it imperative that refrigerants are confined to closed systems and
recovered during service and at the end of life. Containment must be considered in all phases of a system’s life, including (1) design
and construction of leaktight and easily serviced systems, (2) leak detection and repair, (3) recovery during service, and (4) recovery
system disposal. Additional reference can be found in ASHRAE Standard 147-2002.

EMISSIONS TYPES
Refrigerant emissions to the atmosphere are often generically called losses, without distinguishing the causes. However, emission
types are very different, and their causes must be identified before they can be controlled. Clodic (1997) identified six types:

Sources of fugitive emissions cannot be precisely located.

Tightness degradation is caused by temperature variations, pressure cycling, and vibrations that can lead to unexpected
and significant increases of refrigerant emission rates.

Component failures mostly originate from poor construction or faulty assembly.

Losses during refrigerant handling occur mainly when charging the system, and opening the system without previously
recovering the refrigerant.

Accidental losses are unpredictable and are caused by fires, explosions, sabotage, theft, etc.

Losses at equipment disposal are caused by intentionally venting, rather than recovering, refrigerant at the end of system
life.

DESIGN
The potential for leakage is first affected by system design. Every attempt must be made to design systems that are leaktight for the
length of their useful service lives, and reliable, to minimize the need for service. Selection of materials, joining techniques, and design
for easy installation and service access are critical factors in designing leaktight systems.
For example, leaktight service valves should be installed to allow removal of replaceable components from the cooling system, and
located for efficient liquid refrigerant recovery.
Design should minimize charge, to reduce the amount of released refrigerant in case of catastrophic loss. There are many
opportunities for refrigerant charge reduction in initial design. Heat exchangers, piping, and components should be selected to reduce
the amount of refrigerant in the system (but not at the expense of energy efficiency).

INSTALLATION
Proper installation is critical to proper operation and containment during the useful life of refrigerating systems. Tight joints and
proper piping materials are required. Later service requirements are minimized by proper cleaning of joints before brazing, purging the
system with an inert gas (e.g., nitrogen) during brazing, and evacuation to remove noncondensables. Use an inert gas purge to prevent
oxides, which can contaminate the system. Proper charging and careful system performance and leak checks should be performed. At
installation, systems should be carefully charged per design specifications to prevent overcharging, which can potentially lead to a
serious release of excess refrigerant, and make it impossible to transfer the entire charge into the receiver for service. The installer also
has the opportunity to find manufacturing defects before the system begins operation.

SERVICING AND DECOMMISSIONING

Proper service is critical in reducing emissions. Refrigerating systems must be monitored to ensure that they are well sealed, properly
charged, and operating properly. The service technician must study service records to determine any history of leakage or malfunction.
The equipment should be checked to detect leaks before significant charge is lost. During system maintenance, refrigerant should not
be released; instead, it should be isolated in the system or recovered by equipment capable of handling the specific refrigerant.
A maintenance document allows the user to monitor additions and removals of refrigerant, and whether recharging operations are
actually associated with repairs of leaks. Maintenance documents are mandatory in a number of countries, because they enable
authorities to check the actual consumption of refrigerants. In a retrofit, the new refrigerant must be noted in the service record and
clearly marked on equipment. Technicians must follow manufacturers’ retrofit procedures, because some system components may be
incompatible with different refrigerants. Failure to perform proper retrofits may result in system failure and subsequent loss of
refrigerant.
When a system is decommissioned, recover the refrigerant for recycling, reuse, or disposal (usually by incineration). Special care is
required to properly clean or reclaim used refrigerants to industry-recognized standards (see ARI Standard 700).

TRAINING
Technician training is essential for proper handling and containment of refrigerants. Training must provide a basic understanding of
the environmental effects of refrigerants; recovery, recycling, and reclamation of refrigerants; leak checks and repairs; and introduction

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to new refrigerants. The service operator requires continuous training to understand new designs, new refrigerants and their
compatibility with lubricants, new low-emission purge units, retrofitting requirements, and service practices.
Some countries have mandatory training and certification for refrigerant technicians. In other countries, private groups provide
voluntary certification and training programs for service technicians.

LEAK DETECTION
Leak detection is a basic element for manufacturing, installing, and servicing systems, because it makes it possible to measure and
improve containment of refrigerant. Leak detection must be performed as the final step after the system is completed in the factory or
in the field. It is good practice (and mandatory in some countries) to regularly leak test the equipment.
There are three general types of leak detection: global, local, and automated performance monitoring.

Global Detection

These methods indicate whether a leak exists, but do not identify its location. They are useful at the end of construction, and when
the system is opened for repair or retrofit.
System Checking. These approaches are applicable to a system that has been emptied of its charge.

Pressurize the system with a tracer gas and isolate it. A pressure drop within a specified time indicates leakage.

Evacuate the system and measure the vacuum level over a specified time. A pressure rise indicates leakage.

Place the system in a chamber and charge with a tracer gas. Then evacuate the chamber and monitor it for leaks with a
mass spectrometer or residual gas analyzer.

Evacuate the system and place it in an atmosphere with a tracer gas. Monitor for leaks with a mass spectrometer or residual
gas analyzer.

Many of these tests use a tracer gas, often nitrogen or helium. It is not good practice to use a refrigerant as the tracer gas.
Continuous Monitoring During Operation. Electronic leak detectors in machinery rooms may be efficient if (1) they are sensitive
enough to refrigerant dilution in the air, and (2) air is circulated properly in the room.

Local Detection

These methods pinpoint locations of leaks, and are usually used during servicing. Sensitivity varies widely; it is usually stated as
ppm/volume but, for clarity, mass flow rates (oz/year) are often used.

Visual checks locate large leaks (≥2 oz/year) by seeking telltale traces of oil at joints.

Soapy water detection (bubble testing) is simple and inexpensive; a trained operator can pinpoint leaks of 1 oz/year or
more.

Tracer color added to the oil/refrigerant mixture shows the leak’s location. The tracer must be compatible with the various
materials used in the refrigeration circuit.

Electronic detectors of different techniques can detect leaks as low as 0.25 to 2 oz/year, according to their sensitivity. They
must be used with proper care and training.

Ultrasonic detectors register noise generated by the flow of gas exiting through the leak, and are less sensitive than
electronic detectors; they are easily disturbed by air circulation.

Helium and HFC mass spectrometers with probes or hoods can detect leaks at very low levels (less than 0.1 oz/year).

Automated Performance Monitoring Systems

Monitoring parameters such as temperatures and pressures helps identify any change in the equipment. It also provides data useful
for performing diagnostics on the condition of heat exchanger surfaces, proper refrigerant pumping, and shortage of refrigerant charge.
Automated diagnostic programs are now being developed to produce pre-alarm messages as soon as a drift is observed. These
developments are in their early stages, but their general adoption would give better control over refrigerant leaks. Equipment room
monitors are currently used. On low-pressure systems, it is also possible to monitor equipment tightness by monitoring purge unit run
time, which can indicate leaks.

RECOVERY, RECYCLING, AND RECLAMATION

The procedures involved in removing contaminants when recycling refrigerants are similar to those discussed in Chapter 6. Service
techniques, proper handling and storage, and possible mixing or cross contamination of refrigerants are of concern. Building owners,
equipment manufacturers, and contractors are concerned about reintroducing refrigerants with unacceptable levels of contaminants into
refrigeration equipment. Contaminated refrigerant can negatively affect system performance, and may lead to equipment failure and
release of refrigerant into the atmosphere.

Installation and Service Practices

Proper installation and service procedures, including proper evacuation and leak checking, are essential to minimize major repairs.
Service lines should be made of low-permeability hose material and should include shutoff valves. Larger systems should include

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isolation valves and pumpdown receivers. ASHRAE Standard 147 describes equipment, installation, and service requirements.
Recovering refrigerant to an external storage container and then returning the refrigerant for cleanup inside the refrigeration system
is similar to the procedure described in Chapter 6. Some additional air and moisture contamination may be introduced in the service
procedure. In general, because contaminants are distributed throughout the system, the refrigeration system must be cleaned
regardless of whether the refrigerant is isolated in the receiver, recovered into a storage container, recycled, reclaimed, or replaced
with new refrigerant. The advantage of new, reclaimed, or recycled refrigerant is that a properly cleaned system is not recontaminated
by impure refrigerant.

Contaminants

Contaminants found in recovered refrigerants are discussed in detail in Chapter 6. The main contaminants are moisture, acid,
noncondensables, particulates, high-boiling residue (lubricant and sludge), and other condensable gases (Manz 1995).
Moisture is normally dissolved in the refrigerant or lubricant, but sometimes free water is present. Moisture is removed by passing
the refrigerant through a filter-drier. Some moisture is also removed by lubricant separation.
Acid consists of organic and inorganic types. Organic acids are normally contained in the lubricant and are removed in the oil
separator and in the filter-drier. Inorganic acids, such as hydrochloric acid, are removed by noncondensable purging, reaction with
metal surfaces, and the filter-drier.
Noncondensable gases consist primarily of air. These gases can come from refrigeration equipment or can be introduced during
servicing. Control consists of minimizing infiltration through proper equipment construction and installation (ASHRAE Standard 147).
Proper service equipment construction, connection techniques, and maintenance procedures (e.g., during filter-drier change) also reduce
air contamination. Typically, a vapor purge is used to remove air.
Suction filters, oil separators, and filter-driers remove particulates.
High-boiling residues consist primarily of refrigerant lubricant and sludge. Because different refrigeration systems use different
lubricants and because it is a collection point for other contaminants, the lubricant is considered a contaminant. High-boiling residues
are removed by separators designed to extract lubricant from vapor-phase refrigerant, or by distillation.
Other condensable gases consist mainly of other refrigerants. They can be generated in small quantities by high-temperature
operation or during a burnout. In rare cases, refrigerants may be mixed intentionally for performance or to top off with substitutes. To
maintain purity of the used refrigerant supply as well as the performance and durability of the particular system, refrigerants should not
be mixed. In general, separation of other condensable gases, if possible, can only be done at a fully equipped reclamation center.
Mixed refrigerants are a special case of other condensable gases in that the refrigerant would not meet product specifications even if
all moisture, acids, particulates, lubricant, and noncondensables were removed. Inadvertent mixing may occur because of a failure to

Dedicate and clearly mark containers for specific refrigerants

Clear hoses or recovery equipment before switching to a different refrigerant

Test suspect refrigerant before consolidating it into large batches

Use proper retrofit procedures

Recovery

To recover means to remove refrigerant in any condition from a system and to store it in an external container. Recovery reduces
refrigerant emissions to the atmosphere and is a necessary first or concurrent step to either recycling or reclamation. The largest
potential for service-related emissions of refrigerant occurs during recovery. These emissions consist of refrigerant left in the system
(recovery efficiency) and losses through service connections (Manz 1995).
The key to reducing emissions is proper recovery equipment and techniques. The recovery equipment manufacturer and technician
must share this responsibility to minimize refrigerant loss to the atmosphere. Training in handling halocarbon refrigerants is required to
learn the proper techniques (RSES 1991).
Important: Recover refrigerants into an approved container and keep containers for different refrigerants separate. Do not fill
containers over 80% of capacity, because liquid expansion with rising temperature could cause loss of refrigerant through the pressure-
relief valve, or even rupture of the container.
Medium- and high-pressure refrigerants are commonly recovered using a compressor-based recovery unit to pump the refrigerant
directly into a storage container (Manz 1995). Such a system is shown in Figure 1. Minimum functions include evaporation,
compression, condensation, storage, and control. Where possible, the recovery unit should be connected to both the high- and low-side
ports to hasten the process. Removal of the refrigerant as a liquid, especially where the refrigerant is to be reclaimed, greatly speeds
the process (Clodic and Sauer 1994). As a variation, a refrigeration unit may be used to cool the storage container to transfer the
refrigerant directly. For low-pressure refrigerants (e.g., R-11), a compressor or vacuum pump may be used to lower pressure in the
storage container and raise pressure in the vapor space of the refrigeration system so that the liquid refrigerant will flow without
evaporation. An alternative is to use a liquid pump to transfer the refrigerant (Manz 1995). A pumpdown unit (e.g., a condensing unit)
is required to remove vaporized refrigerant remaining after liquid removal is complete. Recovery systems for use at a factory for
charging or leak-testing operations are likely to be larger and of specialized construction to meet the manufacturer’s specific needs
(Parker 1988).

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Figure 1. Recovery Functions

Components, such as an accumulator, in which liquid could be trapped may need to be gently heated with a thermostatically
controlled heating blanket or a warm-air gun to remove all the refrigerant. Good practice requires watching for a pressure rise after
recovery is completed to determine whether the recovery unit needs to be restarted to remove all refrigerant. Where visual inspection
is possible, these components can be identified by frosting or condensation on external surfaces to the level of the liquid refrigerant
inside.
For fast refrigerant transfer, the entire liquid phase must be recovered without evaporating it, or evaporating only a very small
fraction. Depending on the particular refrigeration circuit, special methods needs to be developed, access may have to be created, and
components may need to be modified; these modifications must be simple and fast (Clodic and Sauer 1994). Lubricant separation is
essential in systems where used refrigerant is to be introduced without reclaiming. It may take longer to pump out vapor and separate
lubricant, but clean recovery units, storage containers, and refrigeration systems are usually worth the extra time (Manz 1995).

Recycling

To recycle means to reduce contaminants in used refrigerants by separating lubricant, removing noncondensables, and using devices
such as filter-driers to reduce moisture, acidity, and particulate matter. The term usually applies to procedures implemented at the field
job site or at a local service shop. Industry guidelines (ARI 1994) and federal regulations (EPA 1996) specify maximum contaminant
levels in recycled refrigerant for certified recycling equipment under ARI Standard 740.

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Figure 2. Single-Pass Recycling

Figure 3. Multiple-Pass Recycling

Recycling conserves limited supplies of regulated refrigerants (e.g., R-12). A single-pass recycling schematic is shown in Figure 2
(Manz 1995). In the single-pass recycling unit, refrigerant is processed by oil separation and filter-drying in the recovery path. Typically,
air and noncondensables are not removed during recovery, and are handled at a later time.
In a multiple-pass recycling unit (Figure 3) the refrigerant is typically processed through an oil separator during recovery. The filter-
drier may be placed in the compressor suction line, a bypass recycling loop, or both. During a continuous recycling loop, refrigerant is
withdrawn from the storage tank, processed through filter-driers, and returned to the storage container. Noncondensable purge is
accomplished during this recycling loop.
The primary function of the filter-drier is to remove moisture, and its the secondary function is to remove acid, particulate, and

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sludge (Manz 1995). The ability of the filter-drier to remove moisture and acid from used refrigerants is improved if the lubricant is
separated before passing through the filter-drier (Kauffman 1992). Moisture indicators are typically used to indicate when a filter-drier
change is required. For some refrigerants, these devices cannot indicate a moisture level as low as the purity level required by ARI
Standard 700. Devices such as an in-situ mass flow meter can be used to accurately determine when to change the filter-drier and still
meet purity requirements (Manz 1995).
Important: The service technician must change recovery/recycling unit filter-driers frequently, as directed by the indicators and
manufacturer’s instructions.
The primary advantage of recycling is that this operation can be performed at the job site or at a local service shop, thus avoiding
transportation costs. The chance of mixing refrigerants is reduced if recycling is done at the service shop instead of consolidating
refrigerant batches for shipment to a reclamation facility. Recycling equipment cannot separate mixed refrigerants to bring them back
to product specifications.
A preliminary investigation of recycling refrigerants R-404A, R-410A, and R-507 showed that the refrigerant blend compositions
changed less than 1% after 23 repetitions (Manz 1996). The study showed similar moisture removal capabilities as for R-22 under the
test conditions. The most difficult contaminants to remove were noncondensable gases (air).
Industry Guidelines. ARI’s (1994) Industry Recycling Guide 2 (IRG-2), Handling and Reuse of Refrigerants in the United States,
includes a flowchart that outlines the following options:
Option 1: Return refrigerant to the system without recycling.
Option 2: Recycle refrigerant and return it to the original system or one with the same owner.
Option 3: Recycle the refrigerant and test to verify conformance to ARI Standard 700 before reuse in a different owner’s
equipment, provided that the refrigerant remains constantly in the contractor’s custody and control from recovery through
recycling to reuse.
Option 4: Send refrigerant to a certified reclaimer.
IRG-2 states, “Used refrigerants shall not be sold, or used in a different owner’s equipment, unless the refrigerant has been analyzed
and found to meet requirements of ARI Standard 700.”
IRG-2 provides maximum contaminant levels of recycled refrigerants in the same owner’s equipment, and lists the following reasons
for concern over mixed refrigerant:

Effect on performance and operating characteristics that may affect equipment capacity and efficiency

Effect on materials compatibility, lubrication, equipment life, and warranty costs

Increased service and repair requirements and higher operating costs

High cost or inability to separate refrigerants

High cost of disposal and loss of refrigerant for future service

Equipment Standards

Recovery and recycling equipment comes in various sizes, shapes, and functions. ARI Standard 740 establishes methods of testing for
rating performance by type of equipment, designated refrigerants, liquid or vapor recovery rate, final recovery vacuum, recycle rate,
and trapped refrigerant. The Standard requires that refrigerant emissions caused by lubricant draining, noncondensable purging, and
clearing between refrigerant types not exceed 3% by mass.
In the test method, recycled refrigerant (sometimes called “dirty cocktail”) is processed to determine its level of contamination.
Measurements include moisture content, chloride ions, acidity, high-boiling residue, particulates/solids, and noncondensables. Each
refrigerant is sampled when the first filter-drier is changed, when levels are expected to be highest. U.S. regulations (EPA 1996) require
that recycling equipment meet the maximum contaminant levels in IRG-2 for recycled refrigerant (Option 2).
The basic distinction between recycling and reclamation is best illustrated by associating recycling equipment with certification (ARI
Standard 740) and reclamation with analysis (ARI Standard 700). ARI Standard 740 covers certification testing of recycling equipment
using a “standard contaminated refrigerant sample” in lieu of chemical analysis of each batch. It allows comparison of equipment
performance under controlled conditions. In contrast, ARI Standard 700 is based on chemical analysis of a refrigerant sample from each
batch after contaminant removal. ARI Standard 700 allows refrigerant analysis and comparison of contaminant levels to product
specifications.
ARI Standard 740 applies to single-refrigerant systems and their normal contaminants. It does not apply to refrigerant systems or
storage containers with mixed refrigerants, and does not attempt to rate equipment’s ability to remove different refrigerants and other
condensable gases from recovered refrigerant. Responsibility is placed on the equipment operator to identify those situations and to
treat them accordingly. One uncertainty associated with recycled refrigerants is describing purity levels when offering the refrigerant for
resale; appropriate field measurement techniques do not exist for all contaminants listed in ARI Standard 700. IRG-2 discusses possible
options.
The Society of Automotive Engineers (SAE) has Standards for refrigerant recovery equipment used to service motor vehicle air-
conditioners.

Special Considerations and Equipment for Handling Multiple Refrigerants

Different refrigerants must be kept separate. Storage containers should meet applicable standards for transportation and use with that
refrigerant, as specified in ARI Guideline K. Disposable cylinders are not recommended (RSES 1991); if they are used, the remaining
refrigerant heels should be recovered before cylinder disposal.
Containers should be filled per ARI Guideline K and marked with the refrigerant type. Container colors for recovered refrigerants and
for new and reclaimed refrigerants are specified in ARI Guidelines K and N, respectively.
Recovery/recycling (R/R) equipment capable of handling more than one refrigerant is readily available and often preferred. Equipment

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should only be used for labeled refrigerants. When switching refrigerants, a significant amount of the previous refrigerant remains in
the R/R equipment, particularly in the condenser section (Manz 1991), and must be removed, preferably by connecting the condenser
section to the compressor suction with isolation/bypass valves and connecting the compressor discharge directly to the storage
container (Manz 1995). After the bulk of the refrigerant has been removed, the system should be evacuated before changing to the
appropriate storage container for the new refrigerant. This procedure should also include all lines and connecting hoses and may
include replacement of the filter-driers.
The need for purging noncondensables is determined by comparing the refrigerant pressure to the saturation pressure of pure
refrigerant at the same temperature. Circulation to achieve thermal equilibrium may be required to eliminate the effect of the
temperature difference on pressures. A sealed bulb is often used to determine the saturation pressure for a single-refrigerant system.
When purging air from multiple-refrigerant R/R equipment, the difference in saturation pressures between refrigerants far exceeds any
allowable partial pressure caused by noncondensables. Special equipment and/or techniques are required (Manz 1991, 1995).
Refrigerant to be recovered may be vapor or liquid. To optimize recovery, R/R equipment must be able to handle each of these
states. For some equipment, this may involve one hookup or piece of R/R equipment for liquid and a separate one for vapor. In
general, a single hookup is desired. When handling multiple refrigerants, traditional liquid-flow-control devices such as capillary tubes or
expansion valves either compromise performance or simply do not work. Possible solutions include (1) the operator watching a sight
glass for liquid flow and switching a valve; (2) multiple flow-control devices with a refrigerant selection switch; and (3) a two-bulb
expansion valve, which controls temperature differential across the evaporator (Manz 1991).

Reclamation

To reclaim means to process used refrigerant to new product specifications. It usually implies use of processes or procedures
available only at a reprocessing or manufacturing facility. Chemical analysis is required to determine that appropriate product
specifications have been met. U.S. regulations (EPA 1996) require that refrigerants must meet ARI Standard 700 contaminant levels in
order to be sold, using option 4 discussed in IRG-2 (ARI 1994) (see Industry Guidelines in the section on Refrigerant Recycling). The
EPA (1996) requires use of certified reclaimers for option 4 (reclamation), based on ARI Standard 700.
Some equipment warranties, especially those for smaller consumer appliances, may not allow use of refrigerants reclaimed to purity
levels specified in ARI Standard 700. For small appliances (e.g., refrigerators and freezers), consult the manufacturer’s literature before
charging with reclaimed refrigerants.
Reclamation has traditionally been used for systems containing more than 100 lb refrigerant (O’Meara 1988). The reclaimer often
provides help in furnishing shipping containers and labeling instructions. Many reclaimers use air-conditioning and refrigeration
wholesalers as collection points for refrigerant. Refrigerant mixing at the consolidation points is possible. If the refrigerant is
contaminated beyond limits, the price paid for the refrigerant may be reduced or the shipment may be refused. One advantage of
reclaimed refrigerants is in the availability of purity level data when offering the refrigerant for resale; this information is generally not
available for recycled refrigerant.

Purity Standards

ARI Standard 700 discusses halocarbon refrigerants, regardless of source, and defines acceptable levels of contaminants, which are
the same as the Federal Specifications for Fluorocarbon Refrigerants BB-F-1421B. It specifies laboratory analysis methods for each
contaminant. Only fully equipped laboratories with trained personnel are presently capable of performing the analysis.
Because ARI Standard 700 is based on chemical analysis of a sample from each batch after removal, it is not concerned with the
level of contaminants before removal (Manz 1995). This difference from the “standard contaminated refrigerant sample” required in ARI
Standard 740 is the basic distinction between analysis/reclamation and certification/recycling.
SAE Standards J1991 and J2099 list recycled refrigerant purity levels for mobile air-conditioning systems using R-12 and R-134a,
respectively.

REFERENCES
ARI. 1994. Handling and reuse of refrigerants in the United States. Industry Recycling Guide 2 (IRG-2). Air-Conditioning and
Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA.
ARI. 2004. Specifications for fluorocarbon refrigerants. Standard 700. Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA.
ARI. 1998. Refrigerant recovery/recycling equipment. Standard 740. Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA.
ARI. 2004. Containers for recovered non-flammable fluorocarbon refrigerants. Guideline K. Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute,
Arlington, VA.
Byrne, J.J., M. Shows, and M.W. Abel. 1996. Investigation of flushing and clean-out methods for refrigeration equipment to ensure
system compatibility. Report 23810-73. U.S. Department of Energy, Washington, D.C.
Clodic, D. 1997. Zero leaks. ASHRAE.
Clodic, D. and F. Sauer. 1994. The refrigerant recovery book. ASHRAE.
EPA. 1996. Regulations governing sale of refrigerant. 61FR68505. U.S. Federal Register, U.S. Government Printing Office, Washington,
D.C.
Kauffman, R.E. 1992. Chemical analysis and recycling of used refrigerant from field systems. ASHRAE Transactions 98(1).
Manz. K.W. 1988. Recovery of CFC refrigerants during service and recycling by the filtration method. ASHRAE Transactions 94(2).
Manz, K.W. 1991. How to handle multiple refrigerants in recovery and recycling equipment. ASHRAE Journal 33(4).
Manz, K.W. 1995. The challenge of recycling refrigerants. Business News Publishing, Troy, MI.
Manz, K.W. 1996. Recycling alternate refrigerants R-404A, R-410A, and R-507. Proceedings of the International Conference on Ozone
Protection Technologies, Frederick, MD, pp. 411-419.

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O’Meara, D.R. 1988. Operating experiences of a refrigerant recovery services company. ASHRAE Transactions 94(2).
Parker, R.W. 1988. Reclaiming refrigerant in OEM plants. ASHRAE Transactions 94(2).
RSES. 1991. Refrigerant service for the 90’s, 1st edition. Refrigeration Service Engineers Society, Des Plaines, IL.

BIBLIOGRAPHY
ARI. 2002. Assignment of refrigerant color containers. Guideline N. Air-Conditioning and Refrigeration Institute, Arlington, VA.
ASHRAE. 2002. Reducing the release of halogenated refrigerants from refrigerating and air-conditioning equipment and systems.
ANSI/ ASHRAE Standard 147-2002.
Kauffman, R.E. 1992. Sealed tube tests of refrigerants from field systems before and after recycling. ASHRAE Transactions 99(2).
McCain, C.A. 1991. Refrigerant reclamation protects HVAC equipment investment. ASHRAE Journal 33(4).
SAE. 1999. Standard of purity for use in mobile air-conditioning systems. Standard J1991. Society of Automotive Engineers,
Warrendale, PA.
SAE. 1999. Standard of purity for recycled HFC-134a (R-134a) for use in mobile air-conditioning systems. Standard J2099. Society of
Automotive Engineers, Warrendale, PA.

The preparation of this chapter is assigned to TC 3.8, Refrigerant Containment.

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